Iceland is a Nordic European island country situated at the confluence of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The country has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi), which makes it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding areas in the southwestern region of the country being home to two-thirds of the country's population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists mainly of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norse settler on the island.[8] Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the following centuries Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery, Norsemen settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls (slaves) of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1918 Iceland was part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. The country became independent in 1918 and a republic was declared in 1944. Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fishing and agriculture, and the country was one of the poorest and least developed in the world Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Industrialisation of the fisheries and aid from the Marshall Plan brought prosperity in the years after World War II, and by the 1990s Iceland was one of the world's wealthiest countries. In 1994, Iceland became party to the European Economic Area, which made it possible for the economy to diversify into economic and financial services Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. Iceland has a free market economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries,[9] while maintaining a Nordic welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. In recent years, Iceland has become one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. In 2011, it was ranked as the 14th most developed country in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index, and the fourth most productive country per capita. In 2008, the nation's entire banking system systemically failed, resulting in substantial political unrest. Iceland ranks high in economic and political stability, though it is still in the process of recovering from the crisis Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nation's Norse heritage. Most Icelanders are descendants of Norse and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is closely related to Faroese and some West Norwegian dialects. The country's cultural heritage includes traditional Icelandic cuisine, poetry, and the medieval Icelanders' sagas. Among NATO members, Iceland has the smallest population and is the only one with no standing army Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. History Main articles: History of Iceland and Timeline of Icelandic history Settlement and Commonwealth 874–1262 See also: Settlement of Iceland, Icelandic Commonwealth, and Christianisation of Iceland Ingólfr Arnarson (modern Icelandic: Ingólfur Arnarson), the first permanent Norse settler in Iceland According to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók, Celtic monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before the Norse settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula, and carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned somewhere between 770 and 880, suggesting that Iceland was populated well before 874. This archaeological find may also indicate that the monks left Iceland before the Norse arrived Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. The first known permanent Norse settler was Ingólfr Arnarson, who built his homestead in Reykjavík in the year 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish. By 930, most arable land had been claimed and the Althing, a legislative and judiciary parliament Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery, was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth. Christianity was peacefully adopted around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among some segments of the population for several years. The Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century, when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. Ósvör, a replica of an old fishing outpost outside of Bolungarvík Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H batteryThe Middle Ages A 19th-century depiction of the Alþingi of the Commonwealth in session at Þingvellir See also: Sturlung Era The internal struggles and civil strife of the Sturlung Era led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed to Denmark-Norway around 1380, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united in the Kalmar Union Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–04 and again in 1494–95. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50% Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. [edit]Reformation and the Early Modern period See also: Reformation in Iceland, Danish-Icelandic Trade Monopoly, and Mist Hardships Around the middle of the 16th century, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar, was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became fully Lutheran. Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion. In the 17th and 18th centuries Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland, while pirates from several countries raided its coasts. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. The years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), saw the death of over half of all livestock in the country, with ensuing famine in which around a quarter of the population died Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Independence movement 1814–1918 Jón Sigurðsson, leader of the Icelandic independence movement See also: Icelandic independence movement and Fjölnismenn In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel. Iceland, however, remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to worsen, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly Manitoba in Canada Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. About 15,000 people out of a total population of 70,000 left. However, a new national consciousness had arisen, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, riding on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule, which was expanded in 1904, with Hannes Hafstein serving as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet. Kingdom of Iceland 1918–1944 See also: Kingdom of Iceland, Invasion of Iceland, and Iceland during World War II HMS Berwick led the British invasion of Iceland. The Danish-Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state in a personal union with the King of Denmark Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark should handle Icelandic foreign policy. Danish embassies around the world would display two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland. During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing declared that the Icelandic Government should assume the Danish king's duties, taking control of foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark. A month later, British armed forces invaded and occupied the country, violating Icelandic neutrality. In 1941, the occupation of Iceland was taken over by the United States so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, an arrangement reluctantly agreed to by the Icelandic authorities. Independent republic 1944–present British and Icelandic vessels collide in the Atlantic Ocean during the Cod Wars See also: Founding of the Republic of Iceland, Iceland in the Cold War, and Cod Wars On 31 December 1943, the Danish-Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with the King of Denmark and establish a republic. The vote was 97% in favour of ending the union and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first President. In 1946, the Allied occupation force left Iceland, which formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland, as the Iceland Defence Force Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery, and remained throughout the Cold War; the US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006. Iceland had prospered during the war, and the immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialisation of the fishing industry and the Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received by far the most aid per capita of any European country (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109) Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars — several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits. The economy was greatly diversified and liberalised when Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994. Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavik in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. Only a few years later, Iceland would become the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy that was oriented toward humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. Rise and fall of Iceland as a financial centre See also: 2008–2012 Icelandic financial crisis and 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests In the years 2003–2007, following the privatization of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved from being a nation best known for its fishing industry toward having an economy based on financial services and investment banking. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world before getting hit hard by a major financial crisis.[28] The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009.[29] Iceland's economy has since stabilized under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and is expected to grow by 2.8% in 2012 Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. Geography General topographic map Main article: Geography of Iceland Iceland is located at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63° and 67° N, and longitudes 25° and 13° W Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. Although Iceland is closest to Greenland (North America), it is closer to continental Europe than mainland North America; thus, the island is generally included in Europe for historical, political, cultural, and practical reasons. Geologically the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest body of land is Greenland (290 km (180 mi)) Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery. The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (420 km (260 mi)), Jan Mayen Island (570 km (350 mi)), Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about 740 km (460 mi), and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about 750 km (470 mi). The mainland of Norway is about 970 km (600 mi) away Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. Iceland is the world's 18th largest island, and Europe's second largest island following Great Britain. The main island is 101,826 km2 (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km2 (39,768.5 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is tundra. There are thirty minor islands in Iceland, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated.[32] The largest lakes are Þórisvatn (Reservoir): 83–88 km2 (32.0–34.0 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn: 82 km2 (31.7 sq mi); other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn. Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft). Geologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new oceanic crust Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970 km long coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains and lava fields. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.[5] Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park. The country is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012 Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. Geology The erupting Geysir in Haukadalur valley, the oldest known geyser in the world Dettifoss, located in northeast Iceland. It is the largest waterfall in Europe in terms of volume discharge, with an average water flow of 200 m3/second. Eyjafjallajökull major eruption, photo taken May 10, 2010 Main article: Geology of Iceland See also: Iceland plume A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population;[38] the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterward SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. Iceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 5–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since then grown more quiet and does not erupt often SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. With the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating and electricity. The island itself is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes within approx. 30 volcanic systems active. Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island. SONY VAIO PCG-51112M batteryOn 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes. Further eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes. The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery. An iceberg near Jökulsárlón with Vatnajökull, Europe's largest glacier, in the background. Another large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011. This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull. Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes and this eruption was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. The eruption hurled ash and lava 20 km (12.43 mi) up into the atmosphere, creating a large cloud that for a while was thought to pose a danger to jet aircraft over a wide area of northern Europe. Climate Eyjafjallajökull glacier, one of the smallest glaciers of Iceland Main article: Climate of Iceland The climate of Iceland's coast is subpolar oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar climate include the Aleutian Islands Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.[45] There are some variations in the climate between different parts of the island. Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than the south. The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C (−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918 SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. Biodiversity See also: Whaling in Iceland and The Botany of Iceland An Icelandic horse There are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is a rather low number compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic Fox,[48] which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. Polar bears occasionally come over from Greenland, but they are just visitors, and no Icelandic populations exist.[49] There are no native or free living reptiles or amphibians on the island. An Icelandic sheep Phytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of Iceland belongs to the ecoregion of Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra. SONY VAIO PCG-7194M batteryApproximately three quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the Northern Birch (Betula pubescens), which formerly formed forest over much of Iceland along with Aspen (Populus tremula), Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) and other smaller trees SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. When the island was first settled, it was extensively forested. In the late 12th-century Íslendingabók, Ari the Wise described it as "forested from mountain to sea shore".[51] Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. SONY PCG-8113M battery Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age and overgrazing by sheep caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion. Today, many farms have been abandoned and three-quarters of Iceland's hundred thousand square kilometres are affected by soil erosion, eighteen thousand square kilometres so seriously as to be useless.[51] Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves SONY PCG-8112M battery. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species. The Arctic Fox was the only indigenous mammal in Iceland prior to the arrival of humans The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, chicken, goat, the sturdy Icelandic horse, and the Icelandic Sheepdog. Many varieties of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy SONY PCG-7134M battery , accounting for approximately half of the country's total exports. Wild mammals include the Arctic Fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling on icebergs from Greenland. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Birds, especially seabirds, are a very important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs SONY PCG-7131M battery. Commercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts.[56] Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997. In early 2010, Iceland's proposed quota in killing fin whales was much larger than the amount of whale meat the Japanese market could absorb. In negotiations with Marc Wall SONY PCG-7122M battery , Economic Minister-Counselor at the US embassy in Tokyo, Jun Yamashita of the Japanese Fisheries Agencies, however, rejected a proposal to suggest to Iceland to reduce the number of killed fin whales to a more reasonable number. Politics The political system of Iceland. Main article: Politics of Iceland Iceland has a left–right multi-party system. The biggest parties are the centre-left Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin), the centre-right Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn) and the Left-Green Movement (Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð) SONY PCG-7121M battery . Other political parties with seats in the Althing are the centrist Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn) and The Movement (Hreyfingin). Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which run only locally in a single municipality. Iceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women.[59] Known as the Women's List or Women's Alliance (Kvennalistinn) SONY PCG-7113M battery , it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. After participating in its first parliamentary elections, the Women's List helped increase the proportion of female parliamentarians by 15%.[60] Although it disbanded in 1999, it left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women, and nearly a third of the current members of parliament (as of 2009) is female SONY PCG-7112M battery, compared to a global average of 16%. As of 2011, Iceland was ranked 2nd in the strength of its democratic institutions[62] and 13th in government transparency. The country has a high level of civic participation, with 84% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. However, only 50% of Icelanders say they trust their political institutions SONY PCG-8Z3M battery , slightly less than the OECD average of 56% (and most probably a consequence of the political scandals in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis). Government See also: Government of Iceland The Althing, Iceland's national parliament, in Reykjavík Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799 SONY PCG-8Z2M battery . Consequently, "it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy."[65] It currently has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years.[66] The president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. The elections for president, the Althing and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years SONY PCG-8Z1M battery. Stjórnarráðið, the seat of the Cabinet of Iceland, the executive branch of the government The president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but can veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister (currently Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir) who, together with the cabinet SONY PCG-8Y3M battery , is responsible for executive government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing; however, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in the Althing SONY PCG-8Y2M battery. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves within a reasonable time span does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet personally. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 regent Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941, appointed a non-parliamentary government SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn would later become the country's first president in 1944. The governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. The extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars in Iceland SONY PCG-6W2M battery ; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister. SONY PCG-5J5M batteryAdministrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of Iceland Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, counties, and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.[5] Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies SONY PCG-5K2M battery : Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions); Southwest (four non-contiguous suburban areas around Reykjavík); Northwest and Northeast (northern half of Iceland, split); and, South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs). The redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists. SONY PCG-5K1M batteryIceland's 23 counties are, for the most part, historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up among 26 magistrates (sýslumenn, singular sýslumaður) who represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are tax collection, administering bankruptcy declarations, and performing civil marriages. After a police reorganisation in 2007, which combined police forces in multiple counties, about half of them are in charge of police forces. SONY PCG-5J4M batteryThere are 75 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning.[citation needed] These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one. SONY PCG-5J1M batteryForeign relations Nordic prime ministers in 2010, with Icelandic Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir in the centre Main articles: Foreign relations of Iceland and Accession of Iceland to the European Union Iceland maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the US, Canada, and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic and linguistic similarities SONY PCG-5G2M battery , Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental co-operation through the Nordic Council. Iceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It is not a member of EU, but in July 2009 the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of application for EU membership[69] and officially applied on July 17, 2009.[70]At that time, EU officials mentioned 2011 or 2012 as possible accession dates. Iceland is also a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA and OECD Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. [edit]Military Main article: Military of Iceland Iceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Keflavík base, until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006. Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission. Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq[74] which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009 Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. Icelanders remain especially proud of their role in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from 3 to 4 nmi Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery (5.6 to 7.4 km; 3.5 to 4.6 mi), 1958–61 following a further extension to 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi), 1972–73 with another extension to 50 nmi (92.6 km; 57.5 mi); and in 1975–76 another extension to 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi). According to the Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate, and high level of sociopolitical stability Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. Economy Akureyri is the largest town in Iceland outside of the Greater Reykjavík Area. Most rural towns are based on the fishing industry, which provides 40% of Iceland's exports. Main article: Economy of Iceland In 2007, Iceland was the seventh most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112). Except for its abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power, Iceland lacks natural resources Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery; historically its economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force.[5] The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006 Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. Until the 20th century, Iceland was among the poorest countries in Western Europe. Currently, it remains one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth had led Iceland to be ranked first in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2007/2008, although as of 2011 its HDI rating had fallen to 14th place as a result of the economic crisis Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. Nevertheless, according to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland has the 2nd highest quality of life in the world.[78] Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world,[79] and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking climbs to 5th place.[80] Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M batterywith 4.8% of the labor force being unemployed as of June 2012, compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010. Many political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries).[83] The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK). A poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery adopting the euro and 69% opposed.[84] Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum. Graphical depiction of Iceland's product exports in 28 color coded categories. Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%.[86] Despite the decision to resume commercial whale hunting in 2006, the tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 millions visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population.[87] Iceland's agriculture industry Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products. The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985 Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. Iceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world.[89] As of 2012, it ranks 30th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place higher than in 2011. According to INSEAD's Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 11th most innovative country in the world Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75%, and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.72%, not including the many deductions that are available. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world. There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006 Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management. Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. Despite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 had highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy.[94] The latest assessment by the OECD determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector
Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy in order to address inflation.[96] Iceland's public debt remains around 130%, the 6th highest in the world by proportion of national GDP. Economic contraction Main article: 2008–2012 Icelandic financial crisis The Reykjavík headquarters of Íslandsbanki. Iceland has been hit especially hard by the ongoing late-2000s recession, because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion). In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks. Icelandic officials Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established around the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks will be run into bankruptcy. On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18%, (as of August 2010, it was 7%) a move which was forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from the IMF Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with valuation at around 250 ISK per Euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. Iceland appealed to the Nordic countries for an additional €4 billion in aid to avert the crisis. Sony VAIO PCG-8161L batteryOn 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to the public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in law. Oddsson was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery. Thousands of Icelanders have moved from the country after the collapse, and many of those moved to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625.[103] In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament‘s Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis. By June of 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Transport The Ring Road of Iceland and some towns it passes through: 1. Reykjavík, 2. Borgarnes, 3. Blönduós, 4. Akureyri, 5. Egilsstaðir, 6. Höfn, 7. Selfoss. Main article: Transport in Iceland Iceland has a high level of car ownership per capita; with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants, it is the main form of transportation. Iceland has 13,034 km (8,099 mi) of administered roads, of which 4,617 km (2,869 mi) are paved and 8,338 km (5,181 mi) are not. A great number of roads remain unpaved to this day, mostly little-used rural roads Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. The road speed limits are 50 km/h (31 mph) in towns, 80 km/h (50 mph) on gravel country roads and 90 km/h (56 mph) on hard-surfaced roads.[108] Iceland currently has no railways. Route 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur), was completed in 1974, and is a main road that runs around Iceland and connects all the inhabited parts of the island, with the interior of the island being uninhabited. This paved road is 1,337 km Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery (831 mi) long with one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel (also the site of a toll) where it has more lanes. Many bridges on it, especially in the north and east, are single lane and made of timber and/or steel. The main hub for international transport is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. It is 48 km (30 mi) to the west of Reykjavík. Domestic flights, flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery, and business flights operate mostly out of Reykjavík Airport, which lies in the city centre. Most general aviation traffic is also in Reykjavík. There are 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas. The biggest airport in Iceland is Keflavík International Airport and the biggest airfield is Geitamelur, a four-runway field around 100 km (62 mi) east of Reykjavík Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery, dedicated exclusively to gliding. There are a number of international airlines that fly to and from Iceland regularly.[109] Energy The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station services the Greater Reykjavík Area's hot water and electricity needs. Virtually all of Iceland's electricity comes from renewable resources.[110] See also: Renewable energy in Iceland Renewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 80% of the nation's total energy, Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkavirkjun is the country's largest hydroelectric power station Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. Icelanders emit 6.29 tonnes of CO2 in 2009 equivalent of greenhouse gases per capita.[116] Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of a few countries currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at a reasonable cost, because of Iceland's plentiful renewable sources of energy Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. On January 22, 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area. As of 2012, the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a HVDC connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. Education and science Reykjavík Junior College (Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík), located in downtown Reykjavík, is the oldest gymnasium in Iceland. See also: Education in Iceland The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. Nursery school, or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. The main building of the University of Iceland Compulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education. Upper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University. An OECD assessment found 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25–34 year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%.[119] Nevertheless Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery, Iceland's education system is considered to be of excellent quality: the Programme for International Student Assessment currently ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average.[120] Students were particularly proficient in reading and math. According to a 2011 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 2.75% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), about 1% higher than the EU average, and the 4th highest of any European country Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (100 million US dollars or more), Iceland ranked 9th by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the UK, and Canada. [edit]Demographics The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Gaelic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin.[124] Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population. The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000–60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery According to Bryson (1974), there were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.[125] The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–84, the population reached a low of about 40,000.[126] Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008 Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years-old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table on the left). In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin (see table on the right for more details), and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Reyðarfjörður where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant. Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery The recent surge in immigration has been credited to a labour shortage due to the booming economy at the time, as well as to the lifting of restrictions on the movement of people from the Eastern European countries that joined the EU / European Economic Area in 2004. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.[131] The southwest corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. The largest towns outside the Greater Reykjavík area are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær, although the latter is relatively close to the capital Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red colonized Greenland among the existing paleo-Eskimo inhabitants in the late 10th century.[132] The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000 and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500.[133] From Greenland the Norsemen launched expeditions to settle in Vinland, Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery but these attempts to colonise North America were soon abandoned in the face of hostility from the indigenous peoples. Emigration to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. Today, Canada has over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, [134] while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Urbanisation Language Main articles: Languages of Iceland and Icelandic language See also: Icelandic name Iceland's de facto official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese. Icelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011 Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide. English and Danish are each widely understood and spoken as secondary languages; both languages are included in the compulsory school curriculum.[136] Other commonly spoken languages are Faroese, German, Norwegian and Swedish. Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery (i. e. Scandinavian) in Iceland.[137] Rather than using family names, as is the custom in all mainland European nations, the Icelanders use patronymics or matronymics. The patronymic and matronymic follows the person's given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir ("Elísabet, Jón's daughter") or Ólafur Katrínarson ("Ólafur, Katrín's son"). Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory is listed alphabetically by first name rather than by surname Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. Health Iceland has a universal health care system that is administered by The Ministry of Welfare (Icelandic: Velferðarráðuneytið)[138] and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most developed nations, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. A considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care,[139] and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP [140] and 14th in spending per capita.[141] Overall, the country’s health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization.[142] According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialized nations Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. As of 2009, Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4). Icelanders are among the world’s healthiest people, with 81% reporting to be in good health, according to an OECD survey.[144] Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries, infant mortality is one the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average. Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the 4th highest in the world.[146] Additionally, Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens.[147] According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic material in the atmosphere is far lower than any other industrialized country measured. Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L batteryReligion Icelanders enjoy freedom of religion under the constitution of Iceland, though the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church. The National Registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2005, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery: 80.7% members of the National Church of Iceland. 6.2% members of unregistered religious organisations or with no specified religious affiliation. 4.9% members of the Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður. 2.8% not members of any religious group. 2.5% members of the Roman Catholic Church, which has a Diocese of Reykjavík (see also Bishop of Reykjavík (Catholic)). The remaining 2.9% includes around 20–25 other Christian denominations while around 1% belong to non-Christian religious organisations Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. There is a small Muslim community of between 370 and 600, living mostly in Reykjavík, and about 30 – 50 Jews. The largest non-Christian denomination is Ásatrúarfélagið, a neopagan group.[150] Many Icelanders, regardless of faith, retain some Norse folk beliefs. A survey measuring attitudes towards the supernatural found that around 40% of the population claimed to have had some kind of contact with the dead. Sony VAIO PCG-394L batteryIceland is a very secular country: as with other Nordic nations, religious attendance is relatively low. [152][153] The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population of Iceland. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants are either atheist or agnostic. Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery A Gallup poll conducted in 2011 found that 60% of Icelanders considered religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, one of the highest rates of irreligion in the world.[155] Culture Main article: Culture of Iceland Icelandic culture has its roots in Norse traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse out of any other Scandinavian language except Faroese. In contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be "very important," Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25. [156] Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialized nation. According to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% of people in Iceland reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72% Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD.[158] A more recent 2012 survey found that around three quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%. Iceland is liberal with regard to gay rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment. On 11 June 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. The law took effect on 27 June 2010.[160] The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.[160] Icelanders are known for their deep sense of community: an OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery higher than in any other industrialized country. Similarly, only 6% reported "rarely" or "never" socializing with others.[161] This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. Egalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world. The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks. Everyone is addressed by their first name. As with other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high, Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery. [edit]Literature Main article: Icelandic literature An page of Njáls saga from Möðruvallabók. The sagas are a significant part of the Icelandic heritage. Iceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland) Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas. A translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential, National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation.[163] Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines,[167] and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. [edit]Art Main article: Icelandic art The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century. Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work. In the recent years artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large scale projects and exhibitions. The artist run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions and projects. Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavik Art Museum and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals. Music Main article: Music of Iceland Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock bands The Sugarcubes and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, singers Björk and Emilíana Torrini Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery, and post-rock band Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is Lofsöngur, written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson. Singer Björk, one of the best known Icelandic musicians Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland’s history Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The best known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of the organisation Iðunn. Icelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Bang Gang, Quarashi and Amiina to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas and Björgvin Halldórsson. Independent music is very strong in Iceland Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery, with bands such as múm, Sugarcubes, HAM, Of Monsters and Men, Sigur Rós (of which lead singer Jón Þór Birgisson also has prominent success with bands Jónsi and Jónsi & Alex), as well as solo artists Emilíana Torrini and Mugison. Some Icelandic jazz musicians and jazz bands have earned a reputation outside of Iceland. Perhaps best known is the jazz fusion band Mezzoforte and Los Angeles-based jazz vocalist Anna Mjöll
Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Many Icelandic artists and bands have enjoyed international success, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Hera, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, an annual event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones play in the clubs of Reykjavík for a week Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Electronic musicians include like Thor and GusGus. Media Icelandic director Baltasar Kormákur, best known for the films 101 Reykjavík, Jar City and Contraband See also: Media of Iceland and Cinema of Iceland Iceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2, SkjárEinn and ÍNN. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ID977 and Bylgjan. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið Sony VPCW21C7E battery. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is. Iceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television programme created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the UK, the Americas and Sweden. The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. In 1992 the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his film, Children of Nature. Actress Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in fabled Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's 1986 film, The Sacrifice Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery. Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's The Tudors, is also Icelandic. Briem starred in the 2008 film Journey to the Center of the Earth, which shot scenes in Iceland. The 2002 James Bond movie Die Another Day is set for a large-part in Iceland. A typical Þorramatur assortment On 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, a resolution proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistleblowers, the strongest journalist protection law in the world Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest ranked countries in press freedom. CCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, is headquartered in Reykjavik. CCP Games hosts the third most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game. Iceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country 3rd in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010 Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. Cuisine Main articles: Icelandic cuisine and Þorramatur Much of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no utilization of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables aren't generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery, and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr, hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding. Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling. Breakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smorgasbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery, such as slátur, which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes. Coffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery. Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world. Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is Brennivín, or "burning wine," which is similar to Scandinavian akavit. It is a type of vodka made from distilled potatoes and flavored with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði ("Black Death") Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery. Sports Main article: Sport in Iceland Eiður Smári Guðjohnsen, Iceland's best-known football player Sport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active.[180] The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times. Popular sports include association football, track and field, handball and basketball. Handball is often referred to as the national sport, and Iceland's team is ranked among the top 12 in the world. Icelandic women excel at football relative to the size of the country, with the national team ranked 16th by FIFA Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. Iceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the county's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless several courses throughout the island Sony VPCY11S1E battery, and Iceland regularly hosts an international tournament known as the Arctic Open.[183] Iceland has also won the most competitions for World's Strongest Man, with eight titles shared evenly between Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson. Swimming is another popular activity in Iceland, owing to the widespread use of geothermal heating, which has made outdoor pools common despite the climate Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. In fact, the national curriculum makes swimming courses mandatory for all students. Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, is now a major hobby among many Icelanders. The oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. To this day, it remains a significant pastime. Iceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavik during the height of the cold war. As of 2008, there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population. Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in a number of international tournaments Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery.
Venezuela, officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela [repuˈβlika βoliβaˈɾjana ðe βeneˈswela]), is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). Its northern coastline of roughly 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) includes numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea, and in the north east borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Bonaire, Aruba and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela's territory covers around 916,445 square kilometres (353,841 sq mi) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery) with an estimated population of 29,105,632. Venezuela is considered a state with extremely high biodiversity, with habitats ranging from the Andes mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery). Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 despite resistance from indigenous peoples. It became the first Spanish American colony to declare independence (in 1811), but did not securely establish independence until 1821 (initially as a department of the federal republic of Gran Colombia, gaining full independence in 1830). During the 19th century Venezuela suffered political turmoil and dictatorship( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery), and it was dominated by regional caudillos (military strongmen) well into the 20th century. The country first saw a democratic rule from 1945 to 1948, and, after a period of dictatorship has remained democratic since 1958, during which time most countries of Latin America suffered one or more military dictatorships. Economic shocks in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis causing up to 3,000 deaths in the Caracazo riots of 1989( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery), two attempted coups in 1992, and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez for embezzlement of public funds in 1993. A collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 election of former career officer Hugo Chávez, and the launch of the Bolivarian Revolution, beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery). Venezuela is a federal presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District (covering Caracas), and Federal Dependencies (covering Venezuela's offshore islands). Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[5][6] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital, Caracas, which is also the largest city( SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery). Venezuela is a founder member of the United Nations (1945), the Organization of American States (1948), the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (1960), the Group of 15 (1989), the World Trade Organization (1995), the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA) (2004) and the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) (2008). Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century, Venezuela has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil and has the largest oil reserves( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ER/S Battery). Previously an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic crisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996 and poverty rates rise to 66% in 1995[7] as (by 1998) per capita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a third from its 1978 peak. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery) The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending, although the fallout of the 2008 global financial crisis saw a renewed economic downturn. Etymology A palafito, a village or dwelling erected on bodies of water.[9] V YA In 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited the Venezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator Amerigo Vespucci of the city of Venice, so he named the region "Veneziola", which in contemporary Tuscan ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery) (Vespucci's native tongue) meant "little Venice". The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence,[10] where the suffix -uela is used as a diminutive term (e.g., plaza / plazuela, cazo / cazuela); thus, the term's original sense would have been that of a "little Venice".[11] The German term for the area, "Klein-Venedig", also means little Venice (lit. "small Venice")( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). Nonetheless, although the Vespucci story remains the most popular and accepted version of the origin of the country's name, a different reason for the name comes up in the account of Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew. In his work Summa de Geografía, he states that they found an indigenous population who called themselves the "Veneciuela," which suggests that the name "Venezuela" may have evolved from the native word( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery). History History of Venezuela Simón Bolívar, liberator of not only Venezuela, but also Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru. Human habitation of Venezuela could have commenced at least 15,000 years ago from which period leaf-shaped tools, together with chopping and plano-convex scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery)Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as "El Jobo"; according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC. It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish Conquest; it may have been around a million people,[15] and in addition to today's indigenous peoples included groups such as the Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche and Timoto-cuicas( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery). The number was reduced after the Conquest, mainly through the spread of new diseases from Europe. There were two main north-south axes of pre-Columbian population, producing maize in the west and manioc in the east. Large parts of the llanos plains were cultivated through a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled agriculture( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery). Colonization Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Colonial Venezuela In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta and then landed in the Gulf of Paria. Amazed, Columbus expressed in his moving letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he had reached the heaven on Earth (the paradise), and confused by the unusual saltiness of the water, he wrote( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery): Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery); and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.[16] His certainty of having attained Paradise made him name this region Land of Grace, a phrase that has become the country's nickname. Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522, establishing its first permanent South American settlement in the present-day city of Cumaná. The 16th century also saw an attempt at German colonization (Klein-Venedig, 1528-1546) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). Native caciques (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro (c. 1530–1568) and Tamanaco (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but the newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco was put to death by order of Caracas' founder Diego de Losada.[17] In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization, indigenous peoples such as many of the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Caribs converted to Roman Catholicism( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). Some of the resisting tribes or leaders are commemorated in place names, including Caracas, Chacao, and Los Teques. The early colonial settlements focused on the northern coast, but in the mid-18th century the Spanish pushed further inland along the Orinoco River. Here the Ye'kuana (then known as the Makiritare) organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery). Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1776( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guaira whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and a more fertile and healthy climate.[19] Independence Main article: Venezuelan War of Independence The signing of Venezuela's independence, by Martín Tovar y Tovar. The Battle of Carabobo, during the Venezuelan War of Independence. After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela—under the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the American Revolution and the French Revolution—declared independence on July 5, 1811( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery). This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. However, a devastating earthquake that struck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the first Venezuelan republic.[20] A second Venezuelan republic, proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months before being crushed as well( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery). Sovereignty was only attained after Simón Bolívar, aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821. José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta's victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo on 24 July 1823, helped seal Venezuelan independence. New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery). Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became the first president of the new republic. Between one- fourth and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery) (including perhaps one-half of the white population),[21] which by 1830 was estimated at about 800,000. The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue and red, in that order: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the blood shed by the heroes of independence( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery). 19th century José Antonio Páez. Much of Venezuela's 19th century history was characterized by political turmoil and dictatorial rule,[24] including Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the presidency three times and served a total of eleven years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much more than a million people( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery). In the latter half of the century Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another caudillo, served a total of thirteen years between 1870 and 1887, with three other presidents interspersed. In 1895 a longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britain claimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw as Venezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisis of 1895( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery). The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when Venezuela's lobbyist William L. Scruggs sought to argue that British behavior over the issue violated the United States' Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence in Washington, D.C. to pursue the matter. Then US President Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery) Britain ultimately accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms was able to persuade the US on much of the details. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[26] 20th century Main article: History of Venezuela#20th century Juan Vicente Gómez ruled Venezuela for 27 years (1908–1935). In 1899 Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vicente Gómez, seized power in Caracas, marching an army from his base in the Andean state of Táchira( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery). Castro defaulted on Venezuela's considerable foreign debts, and declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in Venezuela's civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months, before international arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague was agreed( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery). In 1908 another dispute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez. The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaibo during World War I would prove pivotal for Venezuela, and soon transformed the basis of its economy, from a heavy dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted an economic boom that would last into the 1980s( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery); by 1935, Venezuela's per capita gross domestic product was Latin America's highest.[27] Gómez benefited handsomely from this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped him centralize the Venezuelan state and develop its authority. He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935, although at times he ceded the Presidency to others( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). The gomecista dictatorship system largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, but from 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed, with the latter granting a range of reforms, including the legalization of all political parties. After World War II the globalization and heavy immigration from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain, Italy, Portugal and France) and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery). In 1945 a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in a three-year period of democratic rule under the mass membership Democratic Action, initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegos won the Venezuelan presidential election, 1947 (generally believed to be the first free and fair elections in Venezuela) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Gallegos governed until overthrown by a military junta led by Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Gallegos' Defense Minister Carlos Delgado Chalbaud in the 1948 Venezuelan coup d'état. Pérez Jiménez was the most powerful man in the junta (though Chalbaud was its titular President), and was suspected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud, who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). When the junta unexpectedly lost the election it held in 1952, it ignored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as President, where he remained until 1958. Rómulo Betancourt (President 1945-1948/1959-1964), one of the major democracy activists of Venezuela. The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23 January 1958.[28] In an effort to consolidate the young democracy, the major political parties (with the notable exception of the Communist Party of Venezuela) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery) signed the Punto Fijo Pact. Democratic Action and COPEI would dominate the political landscape for four decades. The 1960s saw substantial guerilla movements, including the Armed Forces of National Liberation and the Revolutionary Left Movement, which had split from Democratic Action in 1960. Most of these movements lay down their arms under Rafael Caldera's presidency (1969–74) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery); Caldera had won the 1968 election for COPEI, being the first time a party other than Democratic Action took the presidency through a democratic election. The election of Carlos Andrés Pérez in 1973 coincided with the 1973 oil crisis, which saw Venezuela's income explode as oil prices soared, while oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public spending( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery), but also increases in external debts, which continued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the government started to devalue the currency in February 1983 in order to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans' real standard of living fell dramatically. A number of failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery), worsening social indicators, and increased political instability.[29] Corruption remains a problem; Venezuela was ranked near the bottom of countries in the Corruptions Perceptions Index in 2009. Hugo Chávez, President since 1999. Economic crisis in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis which saw hundreds dead in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992,[31] and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) for corruption in 1993( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery). Coup leader Hugo Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president Rafael Caldera, with a clean slate and his political rights intact. A collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw Chávez elected President in 1998, and the subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery). In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following popular demonstrations by his opposers, but he was returned to power after two days as a result of popular demonstrations by his supporters and actions by the military. Chávez also remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted more than two months in December 2002 – February 2003( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery), including a strike/lockout in the state oil company PDVSA, and an August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for another term in December 2006. Geography Topographic map of Venezuela Main article: Geography of Venezuela Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geologically its mainland rests on the South American Plate. It has a total area of 916,445 square kilometres (353,841 sq mi) and a land area of 882,050 square kilometres (340,560 sq mi), making it the 33rd largest country. The territory it controls lies between latitudes 0° and 13°N, and longitudes 59° and 74°W( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery). Shaped roughly like an inverted triangle, the country has a 2,800 km (1,700 mi) coastline in the north, which includes numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea, and in the northeast borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observers describe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well-defined topographical regions( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery): the Maracaibo lowlands in the northwest, the northern mountains extending in a broad east-west arc from the Colombian border along the northern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela, and the Guiana highlands in the southeast. Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America's Andes mountain range reach. Pico Bolívar, the nation's highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery), lies in this region. To the south, the dissected Guiana Highlands contains the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall as well as tepuis, large table-like mountains. The country's center is characterized by the llanos, which are extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco, with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery); it originates in one of the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and the Apure are other major rivers. Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana (formerly United Kingdom), largely concerning the Essequibo area( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery), and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve the border dispute, from Venezuela, the dispute over the Essequibo River border flared up, it was submitted to a "neutral" commission (composed of United Kingdom, United States and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided mostly against Venezuela's claim. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery) Venezuela's most significant natural resources are petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, gold and other minerals. It also has large areas of arable land and water. Climate Climate of Venezuela Los Roques archipelago Snow in Mérida Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery), to glaciers and highlands (the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C (46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies between 430 mm (16.9 in) in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level is lower in the period from November to April and later in the year from August to October (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery). These periods are referred to as Hot-Humid and Cold-Dry seasons. Other charasteristic of the climate is this variation throughout the country by the existence of a mountain range called "Cordillera de la Costa" which crosses the country from east to west. The majority of the population lives in these mountains (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones based primarily on elevation, having Tropical, Dry, Temperate with Dry Winters, and Polar (Alpine tundra) climates, amongst others. In the tropical zone—below 800 meters / 2,625 feet—temperatures are hot, with yearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and 82.4 °F) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and 2,000 meters (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to 25 °C (53.6 to 77 °F); many of Venezuela's cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions with temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) are found in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 meters (6,562 and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery), where Pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) in the high mountain areas known as the páramos. Biodiversity Main articles: Fauna of Venezuela, Flora of Venezuela, National symbols of Venezuela, and List of birds of Venezuela The golden silk orb-weaver is among the more common of Venezuela's arthropods. Orinoco River Delta Venezuela lies within the Neotropic ecozone; large portions of the country were originally covered by moist broadleaf forests. One of seventeen megadiverse countries, (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery) Venezuela's habitats range from the Andes mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastal mangrove forests in the northeast. Its cloud forests and lowland rainforests are particularly rich (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery). Animals of Venezuela are diverse and include manatees, Amazon river dolphins, and Orinoco crocodiles, which have been reported to reach up to 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Venezuela hosts a total of 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic. Important birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers,[39] and the yellow-orange Venezuelan Troupial, the national bird. Notable mammals include the Giant Anteater, jaguar, and the capybara, the world's largest rodent (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery). More than half of Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in the Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco. For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis[42] which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database.[43] That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is higher (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery). The true total number of fungal species occurring in Venezuela, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha), Venezuela's national tree. Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of orchids are found in the country's cloud forests and lowland rainforests ecosystems (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ/B battery). These include the flor de mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower. Venezuela's national tree is the araguaney, whose characteristic lushness after the rainy season led novelist Rómulo Gallegos to name it [l]a primavera de oro de los araguaneyes (the golden spring of the araguaneyes) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery). Venezuela is among the top twenty countries in terms of endemism.[45] Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species are endemic. Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery). Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country. Environment In recent decades, logging, mining, shifting cultivation, development, and other human activities have posed a major threat to Venezuela's wildlife; between 1990 and 2000, 0.40% of forest cover was cleared annually.[45] In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery)The country has a biosphere reserve that is part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[47] In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks.[48] Venezuela's 43 national parks include Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park and Mochima National Park (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery). See also: Environmental issues in Venezuela Subdivisions Maracaibo Main articles: States of Venezuela and Regions of Venezuela Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), a capital district (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas, and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales, a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes (parroquias) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions (regiones administrativas), which were established in 1969 by presidential decree; in addition, Venezuela has historically claimed and continues to claim all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River; this 159,500 square kilometres (61,583 sq mi) tract was dubbed Guayana Esequiba or the Zona en Reclamación (the "zone to be reclaimed"). (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery)The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery). The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). Economy Economy of Venezuela The 20 Venezuelan bolívar fuerte banknote featuring a portrait of Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi. Graphical depiction of Venezuela's product exports in 28 color coded categories. Venezuela has a mixed economy dominated by the petroleum sector, which accounts for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery). It suffers high levels of corruption.[50] Per capita GDP for 2009 was US$13,000, ranking 85th in the world. About 30% of the population of the country live on less than US $2 per day.[52] Venezuela has the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is so heavily subsidized (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). More than 60% of Venezuela's international reserves is in gold, eight times more than the average for the region. Most of Venezuela's gold held abroad is located in London. In November 25, 2011 the first of US$11 billion of repatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chavez called the repatriation of gold a "sovereign" step that will help protect the country's foreign reserves from the turmoil in the U.S. and Europe (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery). Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006. Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry products such as steel, aluminium and cement, with production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, near the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and the provider of about three quarters of Venezuela's electricity (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). Other notable manufacturing includes electronics and automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs. Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least one-fourth of Venezuela's land area. Venezuela exports rice, corn, fish, tropical fruit, coffee, beef, and pork. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture; Venezuela imports about two-thirds of its food needs (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century, Venezuela has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic crisis Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996 and poverty rates rise to 66% in 1995[7] as (by 1998) per capita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a third from its 1978 peak.[8] The 1990s also saw Venezuela experience a major banking crisis in 1994. The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending, although the fallout of the 2008 global financial crisis saw a renewed economic downturn Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. Petroleum and other resources History of the Venezuelan oil industry and Energy policy of Venezuela The Venezuelan oil producer PDVSA wholly owns its United States-based subsidiary, Citgo and attributes a large percentage of its wealth to oil sales from the United States Venezuela has some of the largest oil and natural gas reserves in the world, and consistently ranks among the top ten world crude oil producers. Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crude oil reserves were proven in 2010 Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery, allowing Venezuela to surpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest reserves of this type. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and in the Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where the country's largest reserve is located. Besides the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery, Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil, bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil.[57] The electricity sector in Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily on hydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world. In the first half of the 20th century, US oil companies were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested only in purchasing concessions. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T batteryIn 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support the price of oil.[59] In 1973 Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976 Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery, with Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over a number of holding companies; in subsequent years, Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in the U.S. and Europe. In the 1990s PDVSA became more independent from the government and presided over an apertura (opening) in which it invited in foreign investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits on foreign investment Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery. The state oil company PDVSA played a key role in the December 2002 – February 2003 national strike which sought President Chávez' resignation. Managers and skilled highly paid technicians of PDVSA shut down the plants and left their posts, and by some reports sabotaged equipment, and petroleum production and refining by PDVSA almost ceased Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. Activities eventually were slowly restarted by returning and substitute oil workers. As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company's workforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed for "dereliction of duty" during the strike. Transport Main article: Transport in Venezuela Venezuela is connected to the world primarily via air (Venezuela's airports include the Simón Bolívar International Airport near Caracas and La Chinita International Airport near Maracaibo) and sea Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery(with major sea ports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest region has limited cross-border transport; in the west, there is a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375 mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is navigable by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi) inland, and connects the major industrial city of Ciudad Guayana to the Atlantic Ocean Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which has no active rail connections to other countries; the government of Hugo Chávez has invested substantially in expanding it.[citation needed] Several major cities have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia Metro were opened more recently Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. Venezuela has a road network of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi) in length, placing the country around 45th in the world;[63] around a third of roads are paved. Social development Main article: Economy of Venezuela With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions, Venezuela made progress in social development in 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, education, and poverty. Many of the social policy pursued by Chávez and his administration were jumpstarted by the Millennium Development Goals Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery, eight goals that Venezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in September 2000.[64] It is expected that Venezuela will meet all eight goals by the 2015 deadline.[65] Demographics The people of Venezuela come from a variety of heritages. It is estimated that the majority of the population is of mestizo, or mixed, ethnic heritage. Venezuela's racial structure can be classified as 68% mestizo, 21% White, and 10% African.[67] Indigenous people account for only 1% of the total population. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R batteryColonia Tovar Founded in 1843 with Catholic settlers from south of Germany. Its people maintain their culture and language, and speak a dialect called German coloniero. During the colonial period and until after the Second World War, much of European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands,[69] which had a significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customs of Venezuela. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T batteryHowever, with the start of oil exploitation in the early 20th century, companies from the United States began establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing with them U.S. citizens. Later, during and after the war, new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe, the Middle East, and China began; many were encouraged by government established immigration programs. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery Between 1900 and 1958 more than one million Europeans immigrated to Venezuela.[citation needed] In addition, Venezuela also experienced immigration from other Latin American countries (especially Colombia) in the mid-to-late 19th century.[citation needed] Stefanía Fernández is Miss Universe 2009 According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery, Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in 2007.[70] Between 500,000 and one million illegal immigrants are estimated to be living in the country.[71] Languages Main article: Languages of Venezuela Although the country is mostly monolingual Castilian, many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition to Spanish Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty indigenous languages, Wayuu, Warao, pemón and many others for the official use of the Amerindian peoples, mostly with few speakers, less than 1% of the total population. Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, they speak their own languages. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese and Syrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, Punto Fijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay and Caracas Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery. Portuguese is spoken, as well as the Portuguese community in Santa Elena de Uairén for much of the population due to its proximity to Brazil. The German community speaks their native language, while the Colonia Tovar speaks mostly Alemannic dialect of German called coloniero. English is the most widely used foreign language and demand, and is spoken by many professionals Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery, academics and part of the upper and middle classes as a result of oil exploration by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, for the Anglophone West Indian influence evident in folk songs and calypso Venezuelan and French with English voices. Italian instruction is guaranteed by the presence of a constant number of schools and private institutions Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery, because the Italian government considered mandatory language teaching at school level. Other languages spoken by large communities from drawing in the country are Chinese and Galician, among others. Indigenous population Main article: Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Yanomami women in Venezuela The total indigenous population of the country is estimated at about 500 thousand people (2.8% of the total), distributed among 40 indigenous peoples. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery The Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural and multilingual character of the country, and includes a chapter devoted to indigenous peoples' rights, which opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national and local level in 1999. Most indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela's borders with Brazil Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups are the Wayuu (west), the Warao (east), the Yanomami (south) and the Pemon (south-east). Religion Main article: Religion in Venezuela According to government estimates, 92% of the population is at least nominally Roman Catholic, and the remaining 8% are either irreligious, Protestant, or a member of another religion. The Venezuelan Evangelical Council estimates that Evangelical Protestants constitute 10% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R batteryEducation Main article: Education in Venezuela Library of the Simón Bolívar University The literacy rate for the adult population was already 91.1 by 1998.[74] In 2008, 95.2% of the adult population was literate.[75] Net primary school enrollment rate was at 91% in 2005.[75] Net secondary enrollment rate was at 63% in 2005.[75] Venezuela has a number of universities, of which the most prestigious is the Central University of Venezuela (UCV) Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery, founded in Caracas in 1721, and Simón Bolívar University (USB), founded in Miranda State in 1967. Health Main articles: Health care in Venezuela and Mission Barrio Adentro Venezuela has a national universal health care system that is free of charge. The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery. Infant mortality in Venezuela stood at 16 deaths per 1,000 births in 2004, lower than the South American average (by comparison, the U.S. stands at 5 deaths per 1,000 births in 2006). Child malnutrition (defined as stunting or wasting in children under age five) stands at 17%; Delta Amacuro and Amazonas have the nation's highest rates.[81] According to the United Nations Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery, 32% of Venezuelans lack adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas. Diseases ranging from typhoid, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D are present in the country. Venezuela has a total of 150 plants for sewage treatment. However still 13% of the population lack access to drinking water but this number has been dropping Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. Urbanization Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America; the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas which is also the largest city. About 93% of the population live in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[85] Though almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco, only 5% of Venezuelans live there Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery. The largest and most important city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana, which is the sixth most populous conurbation.[86] Other major cities include Maracaibo, Valencia, Maracay, Barquisimeto, Mérida, San Cristóbal and Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz. Crime Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards, and has been for much of the 20th century. The discovery of oil had worsened political corruption, Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery and by the late 1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo's description of oil as "the Devil's excrement" had become a common expression in Venezuela.[88] Venezuela has been ranked one of the most corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 ranking placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 ranked countries Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery. Venezuela is a significant route for drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaine and other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the United States and Europe. Venezuela ranks fourth in the world for cocaine seizures, behind Colombia, the United States, and Panama. In 2009, the homicide rate was approximately 57 per 100,000, one of the world’s highest, having trebled in the previous decade (according to The Economist). Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery The capital Caracas has the second greatest homicide rate of any large city in the world, with 92 homicides per 100,000 residents.[92] There have been 118,541 homicides in Venezuela between 1999 and 2010.[93] In 2008, polls indicated that crime was the number one concern of voters.[94] The government recently created a security force named the Bolivarian National Police Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery, which has lowered crime rates in the areas in which it is so far deployed and a new Experimental Security University.[95] Government Main article: Government of Venezuela National Assembly of Venezuela building Executive The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and is both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and (as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-elected an unlimited number of times. The president appoints the vice-president and decides the size and composition of the Cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections. The President may ask the National Assembly to pass an enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specified policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Since 1959 six Presidents have been granted such powers Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery. Legislative The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the Asamblea Nacional ("National Assembly"). The number of members is variable, each state and the Capital district elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the state population by 1.1% of the total population of the country.[96] Three seats are reserved for representatives of Venezuela's indigenous peoples. For the 2010–2015 period the number of seats is 165. All deputies serve five-year terms Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery. The voting age in Venezuela is 18 and older. Voting is not compulsory. Judicial Main article: Law enforcement in Venezuela The legal system of Venezuela belongs to the Continental Law tradition. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single twelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoral processes Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly. Supreme Court president Luisa Estela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuela had moved away from "a rigid division of powers" toward a system characterized by "intense coordination" between the branches of government. Morales clarified that each power must be independent adding that "one thing is separation of powers and another one is division" Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Venezuela President Hugo Chávez with Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2004. Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and Western nations. Relations between Venezuela and the United States government worsened in 2002, after the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which the U.S. government recognized the short-lived interim presidency of Pedro Carmona Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery. Correspondingly, ties to various Latin American and Middle Eastern countries not allied to the U.S. have strengthened. Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration via such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas trade proposal and the newly launched pan-Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela is one of the four nations in the world—along with Russia, Nicaragua and Nauru—to have recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery. Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adopt its Anti-Corruption Convention, and is actively working in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and energy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world based on strengthened ties among Third World countries. Military See also: National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela The National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Fuerza Armada Nacional, FAN) are the overall unified military forces of Venezuela Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery. It includes over 320,150 men and women, under Article 328 of the Constitution, in 5 components of Ground, Sea and Air. The components of the National Armed Forces are: the Venezuelan Army, the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National Militia Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery. As of 2008, a further 600,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve. The President of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of the national armed forces. The main roles of the armed forces are to defend the sovereign national territory of Venezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug trafficking, to search and rescue and Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery, in the case of a natural disaster, civil protection. All men that are citizens of Venezuela have a constitutional duty to register for the military at the age of 18, which is the age of majority in Venezuela. Politics Main article: Politics of Venezuela Following the fall of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958, Venezuelan politics were dominated by the third-way Christian democratic COPEI and the center-left social democratic Democratic Action (AD) parties; this two-party system was formalized by the puntofijismo arrangement Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery. Economic crisis in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis which saw hundreds dead in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992, and impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez for corruption in 1993. A collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 election of former coup leader Hugo Chávez, and the launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery. The opposition's attempts to unseat Chávez included the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, the Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003, and the Venezuelan recall referendum, 2004, all of which failed. Chávez was re-elected in December 2006, but suffered a significant defeat in 2007 with the narrow rejection of the Venezuelan constitutional referendum Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery, 2007, which had offered two packages of constitutional reforms aimed at deepening the Bolivarian Revolution. There are currently two major blocs of political parties in Venezuela: the incumbent leftist bloc United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), its major allies Fatherland for All (PPT) and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), and the opposition bloc grouped into the electoral coalition Mesa de la Unidad Democrática Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery. This includes A New Era (UNT) together with allied parties Project Venezuela, Justice First, Movement for Socialism and others. Current concerns include: a weakening of democratic institutions, political polarization, a politicized military, drug-related violence along the Colombian border, overdependence on the petroleum industry with its price fluctuations, and irresponsible mining operations that are endangering the rain forest and indigenous peoples Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery. Culture Main articles: Culture of Venezuela, Music of Venezuela, and Sport in Venezuela The joropo, as depicted in a 1912 drawing by Eloy Palacios The Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex in Caracas The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot which includes mainly to three different families: the indigenous, African and Spanish. The first two cultures were in turn differentiated according to the tribes. Acculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, conditioned to arrive at the current Venezuelan culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery, similar in many respects to the rest of Latin America, although the natural environment means that there are important differences. The indigenous influence is limited to a few words of vocabulary and gastronomy. The African influence in the same way, in addition to musical instruments like the drum. The Spanish influence was more important and in particular came from the regions of Andalusia and Extremadura Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery, places of origin most settlers in the Caribbean during the colonial era. As an example of this can include buildings, part of the music, the Catholic religion and language. Spanish influences are evident bullfights and certain features of gastronomy. Venezuela also enriched by other streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery. In the latest stage in the major cities and regions stormed oil of U.S. origin and manifestations of the new immigration of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, increasing the already complex cultural mosaic. For example, from United States comes the influence of taste for baseball and current architectural constructions Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. Art Main article: Art of Venezuela Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious motifs, but began emphasizing historical and heroic representations in the late 19th century, a move led by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Modernism took over in the 20th century. Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artists Jesús-Rafael Soto and Carlos Cruz-Díez; and contemporary artist Yucef Merhi Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. Literature Main article: Venezuelan literature Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate indigenous societies; it was dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro. Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual. Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery. Music Cover of Alma Llanera Main article: Music of Venezuela Indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified by the groups Un Solo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa. The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Typical musical styles and pieces mainly emerged in and around the llanos region, including Alma Llanera (by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), Florentino y el Diablo (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba) Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery, Concierto en la Llanura by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and Caballo Viejo (by Simón Díaz). The Zulian gaita is also a popular style, generally performed during Christmas. The national dance is the joropo. Teresa Carreño was a world-famous 19th century piano virtuoso. In the last years, Classical Music has had great performances. The Simon Bolivar Youth Orchestra, under the baton of its principal conductor Gustavo Dudamel Sony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery, has hosted a number of excellent presentations in many European concert halls, notably at the 2007 London Proms, and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pinnacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed voluntary sector music education program now being emulated in other countries. Sport Main article: Sport in Venezuela See also: Baseball in Venezuela Baseball is Venezuela's most popular sport, with the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League existing since 1945 Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery. In recent years football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team, is gaining popularity as is basketball where Venezuela hosts the 2012 FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament. Venezuela will hold the Copa América every 40 years, according to the rotation policy. Venezuela is also home to Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado. At the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix, he claimed his first pole and victory and became the first and only Venezuelan to have done so in the entire Formula 1 history Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery. Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula 1 fans in Venezuela and is now inspiring thousands of young Venezuelan children to aim for Formula 1. Other Venezuela is well known for its successes in beauty pageants. Miss Venezuela is a big event in the country, and Venezuela has received 6 Miss World, 6 Miss Universe, 6 Miss International and 1 Miss Earth titles Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery. Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. Angel Falls (Spanish: Salto Ángel; Pemon language: Kerepakupai Vená, meaning "waterfall of the deepest place", or Parakupá Vená, meaning "the fall from the highest point") is a waterfall in Venezuela. It is the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, with a height of 979 m (3,212 ft) and a plunge of 807 m (2,648 ft). The waterfall drops over the edge of the Auyantepui mountain in the Canaima National Park (Spanish: Parque Nacional Canaima) Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery, a UNESCO World Heritage site in the Gran Sabana region of Bolívar State. The height figure 979 m (3,212 ft) mostly consists of the main plunge but also includes about 400 m (0.25 mi) of sloped cascades and rapids below the drop and a 30-metre (98 ft) high plunge downstream of the talus rapids. The base of the falls feeds into the Kerep River (alternatively known as the Río Gauya), which flows into the Churun River, a tributary of the Carrao River Sony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. The waterfall has been "Angel Falls" for most of the twentieth century, named after Jimmie Angel, a US aviator who was the first to fly over the falls in a plane.[2] The common Spanish name "Salto Ángel" derives from his surname. In 2009, President Hugo Chávez announced his intention to change the name to the original indigenous Pemon term Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery ("Kerepakupai Vená", meaning "waterfall of the deepest place"), on the grounds that the nation's most famous landmark should bear an indigenous name.[3] Explaining the name change, Chávez was reported to have said, "This is ours, long before Angel ever arrived there… this is indigenous property."[4] However, he later said that he will not decree the change of name, but only was defending the use of Kerepakupai Vená Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery. Angel Falls during the dry season. Exploration Angel's plane Sir Walter Raleigh described what was possibly a tepuy (table top mountain), and he is sometimes said to have been the first European to view the Angel Falls, but these claims are considered far-fetched.[7] Some historians state that the first European to visit the waterfall was Fernando de Berrío, a Spanish explorer and governor from the 16th and 17th centuries. Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H batteryLater on, they were indeed spotted in 1912 by the Venezuelan explorer Ernesto Sánchez La Cruz, but he did not publicize his discovery. They were not known to the outside world until American aviator Jimmie Angel flew over them on 16 November 1933 on a flight while he was searching for a valuable ore bed Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Returning on 9 October 1937, Angel tried to land his Metal Aircraft Corporation Flamingo monoplane El Río Caroní; atop Auyan-tepui, but the plane was damaged when the wheels sank into the marshy ground. Angel and his three companions, including his wife Marie, were forced to descend the tepui on foot Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. It took them 11 days to make their way back to civilization via the gradually sloping back side but news of their adventure spread, and the waterfall was named Angel Falls in his honor. Angel's plane remained on top of the tepuy for 33 years before being lifted out by helicopter.[citation needed] It was restored at the Aviation Museum in Maracay and now sits outdoors on the front of the airport at Ciudad Bolívar. Sony VAIO PCG-7152L batteryThe first recorded Westerner[clarification needed] to reach the river that feeds the falls was Latvian explorer Aleksandrs Laime, also known as Alejandro Laime to the native Pemon tribe. He made the ascent of Auyan-tepui in 1955, by climbing on the back side where the slope is not vertical. He also reached Angel's plane on the same trip, 18 years after the crash landing Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. He gave the river feeding the falls the name Gauja after a river in Latvia, but the Pemon-given name of the river, Kerep, is still widely used. Laime was also the first to clear a trail that leads from the Churun River to the base of the falls. On the way, there is a viewpoint commonly used to capture the falls in photographs. It is named Mirador Laime ("Laime's Viewpoint" in Spanish) in his honor. This trail is used now mostly for tourists, to lead them from the Isla Ratón camp to the small clearing Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. The official height of the falls was determined by a National Geographic Society survey carried out by American journalist Ruth Robertson in 1949. The first known attempt to climb the face of the cliff was made in 1968 during the wet season. It failed because of slippery rock. In 1969 a second attempt was made during the dry season Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. This attempt was thwarted by lack of water and an overhang 400 feet from the top. The first climb to the top of the cliff was completed on January 13, 1971. The climbers required nine and a half days to ascend and one and a half days to rappel down. Tourism Angel Falls is one of Venezuela's top tourist attractions, though a trip to the falls is a complicated affair. The falls are located in an isolated jungle Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery, and a flight from Puerto Ordaz or Ciudad Bolívar is required to reach Canaima camp, the starting point for river trips to the base of the falls. River trips generally take place from June to December, when the rivers are deep enough for the wooden curiaras used by the Pemon guides. During the dry season (December to March) there is less water seen than in the other months (this can be clearly seen in the photos of the falls above) Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery.
French Polynesia is an overseas country (pays d'outre-mer) of the French Republic. It is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory (Papeetē) ( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007. History The French frigate Floréal, stationed in Bora Bora lagoon. The island groups that make up French Polynesia were not officially united until the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first of these islands to be settled by indigenous Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800. The Polynesians were organized in loose chieftainships. ( SONY PCG-5G3L battery) European communication began in 1521 when the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sighted Pukapuka in the Tuāmotu-Gambier Archipelago. Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen came across Bora Bora in the Society Islands in 1722, and the British explorer Samuel Wallis visited Tahiti in 1767. The French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited Tahiti in 1768( SONY PCG-F305 battery), while the British explorer James Cook visited in 1769. Christian missions began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year from 1774; Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled permanently in Polynesia in 1797. King Pōmare II of Tahiti was forced to flee to Mo'orea in 1803; he and his subjects were converted to Protestantism in 1812. French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony.[7] In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pōmare Dynasty, without formally annexing it( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French. In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony. The islands of Rimatara and Rūrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888( SONY PCG-5K2L battery), so in 1889 they were annexed by France. Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892. The first official name for the colony was Établissements de l'Océanie (Settlements in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to Établissements Français de l'Océanie (French Settlements in Oceania). ( SONY PCG-5L1L battery) In 1940 the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II. Unknown at the time to French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions in the post-war world( SONY PCG-6S2L battery) – though in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the Maruroa atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site( SONY PCG-6S3L battery); tests were conducted underground after 1974.[10] In 1977, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended. French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2004.[6][11] In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The last test was on 27 January 1996. On 29 January 1996( SONY PCG-6V1L battery), France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons.[12] Politics Main article: Politics of French Polynesia Politics of French Polynesia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity, whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of French Polynesia (the territorial assembly) ( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). Political life in French Polynesia has been marked by great instability since the mid-2000s. On 14 September 2007, the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru, 63, was elected president of French Polynesia for the 3rd time in 3 years (with 27 of 44 votes cast in the territorial assembly).[13] He replaced former President Gaston Tong Sang( SONY PCG-7111L battery), opposed to independence, who lost a no-confidence vote in the Assembly of French Polynesia on 31 August after the longtime former president of French Polynesia, Gaston Flosse, hitherto opposed to independence, sided with his long enemy Oscar Temaru to topple the government of Gaston Tong Sang. Oscar Temaru, however, had no stable majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia, and new territorial elections were held in February 2008 to solve the political crisis( SONY PCG-71511M battery). The Assembly of French Polynesia. The party of Gaston Tong Sang won the territorial elections, but that did not solve the political crisis: the two minority parties of Oscar Temaru and Gaston Flosse, who together have one more member in the territorial assembly than the political party of Gaston Tong Sang, allied to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). Gaston Flosse was then elected president of French Polynesia by the territorial assembly on 23 February 2008 with the support of the pro-independence party led by Oscar Temaru, while Oscar Temaru was elected speaker of the territorial assembly with the support of the anti-independence party led by Gaston Flosse. Both formed a coalition cabinet( SONY PCG-7113L battery). Many observers doubted that the alliance between the anti-independence Gaston Flosse and the pro-independence Oscar Temaru, designed to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia, could last very long.[14] At the French municipal elections held in March 2008, several prominent mayors who are member of the Flosse-Temaru coalition lost their offices in key municipalities of French Polynesia( SONY PCG-7133L battery), which was interpreted as a disapproval of the way Gaston Tong Sang, whose party French Polynesian voters had placed first in the territorial elections the month before, had been prevented from becoming president of French Polynesia by the last minute alliance between Flosse and Temaru's parties. Eventually, on 15 April 2008 the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled by a constructive vote of no confidence( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) in the territorial assembly when two members of the Flosse-Temaru coalition left the coalition and sided with Tong Sang's party. Gaston Tong Sang was elected president of French Polynesia as a result of this constructive vote of no confidence, but his majority in the territorial assembly is very narrow. He offered posts in his cabinet to Flosse and Temaru's parties which they both refused. Gaston Tong Sang has called all parties to help end the instability in local politics( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) , a prerequisite to attract foreign investors needed to develop the local economy. High Commission of the French Republic. Despite a local assembly and government, French Polynesia is not in a free association with France, like the Cook Islands with New Zealand or the Federated States of Micronesia with the United States. As a French overseas collectivity, the local government has no competence in justice, education, security and defense, directly provided and administered by the French State( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery), the Gendarmerie and the French Military. The highest representative of the State in the territory is the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia (French: Haut commissaire de la République). French Polynesia also sends two deputies to the French National Assembly, one representing the Leeward Islands administrative subdivision, the Austral Islands administrative subdivision, the commune (municipality) of Mo'orea-Mai'ao( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery), and the westernmost part of Tahiti (including the capital Papeetē), and the other representing the central and eastern part of Tahiti, the Tuāmotu-Gambier administrative division, and the Marquesas Islands administrative division. French Polynesia also sends one senator to the French Senate. French Polynesians vote in the French presidential elections and at the 2007 French presidential election( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), in which the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru openly called to vote for the Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal while the parties opposed to independence generally supported the center-right candidate Nicolas Sarkozy, the turnout in French Polynesia was 69.12% in the first round of the election and 74.67% in the second round. French Polynesians voters placed Nicolas Sarkozy ahead of Ségolène Royal in both rounds of the election (2nd round: Nicolas Sarkozy 51.9%; Ségolène Royal 48.1%).( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery) Administration Between 1946 and 2003, French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory (French: territoire d'outre-mer, or TOM). In 2003 it became an overseas collectivity (French: collectivité d'outre-mer, or COM). Its statutory law of 27 February 2004 gives it the particular designation of overseas country inside the Republic (French: pays d'outre-mer au sein de la République, or POM), but without legal modification of its status( SONY PCG-7112L battery). [edit]Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of French Polynesia French Polynesia has five administrative subdivisions (French: subdivisions administratives): Marquesas Islands (French: (les) (Îles) Marquises or officially la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises) Leeward Islands (French: (les) Îles Sous-le-Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent) (the two subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands) ( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) Windward Islands (French: (les) Îles du Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent) (the two subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands) Tuāmotu-Gambier (French: (les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier or officially la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier) (the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands) ( SONY PCG-5K1L battery) Austral Islands (French: (les) (Îles) Australes or officially la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes) (including the Bass Islands) Geography Map of French Polynesia Main article: Geography of French Polynesia The islands of French Polynesia have a total land area of 4,167 square kilometres (1,622 sq. mi) scattered over 2,500,000 square kilometres (965,255 sq. mi) of ocean. There are around 130 islands in French Polynesia.[16] The highest point is Mount Orohena on Tahiti. It is made up of six groups of islands. The largest and most populated island is Tahiti, in the Society Islands( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). The island groups are: Marquesas Islands Society Islands Tuamotu Archipelago Gambier Islands often considered part of the Tuamotu Archipelago Austral Islands Bass Islands often considered part of the Austral Islands Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ahē, Bora Bora, Hiva 'Oa, Huahine, Mai'ao, Maupiti, Meheti'a, Mo'orea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Taha'a, Tetiaroa, Tupua'i, and Tūpai( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). Economy Main article: Economy of French Polynesia The GDP of French Polynesia in 2006 was 5.65 billion US dollars at market exchange rates, the fifth-largest economy in Oceania after Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and New Caledonia.[4] The GDP per capita was 21,999 US dollars in 2006 (at market exchange rates, not at PPP), lower than in Hawai'i, Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia, but higher than in all the independent insular states of Oceania. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the financial assistance of mainland France. Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands. Also, as the noni fruit from these islands is discovered for its medicinal uses, people have been able to find jobs related to this agricultural industry( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). The legal tender of French Polynesia is the CFP Franc. Agriculture: coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits. Natural resources: timber, fish, cobalt. In 2008 French Polynesia's imports amounted to 2.2 billion US dollars and exports amounted to 0.2 billion US dollars.[17] The major export of French Polynesia is their famous black Tahitian pearls which accounted for 55% of exports (in value) in 2008. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery) Demographics Main article: Demographics of French Polynesia Tahitian girls, 1860–1879. Total population on 1 January 2010 was 267,000 inhabitants,[2] up from 259,596 at the August 2007 census.[3] At the 2007 census, 68.6% of the population of French Polynesia lived on the island of Tahiti alone.[3] The urban area of Papeetē, the capital city, has 131,695 inhabitants (2007 census) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). At the 2007 census, 87.3% of people living in French Polynesia were born in French Polynesia, 9.3% were born in metropolitan France, 1.4% were born in overseas France outside of French Polynesia, and 2.0% were born in foreign countries.[18] At the 1988 census, the last census which asked questions regarding ethnicity, 66.5% of people were ethnically unmixed Polynesians( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), 7.1 % were Polynesians with light European and/or East Asian mixing, 11.9% were Europeans (mostly French), 9.3% were people of mixed European and Polynesian descent, the so-called Demis (literally meaning "Half"), and 4.7% were East Asians (mainly Chinese).[1] The Europeans, the Demis and the East Asians are essentially concentrated on the island of Tahiti, particularly in the urban area of Papeetē, where their share of the population is thus much greater than in French Polynesia overall. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery) Race mixing has been going on for more than a century already in French Polynesia, resulting in a rather mixed society. For example Gaston Flosse, the long-time leader of French Polynesia, is a Demi (European father from Lorraine and Polynesian mother).[19] His main opponent and former president, Gaston Tong Sang is a member of the East Asian (in his case Chinese) community. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery) Oscar Temaru, the current president, is ethnically Polynesian (father from Tahiti, mother from the Cook Islands),[21] but he has admitted to also have Chinese ancestry.[22] Despite a long tradition of race mixing, racial tensions have been growing in recent years, with politicians using a xenophobic discourse and fanning the flame of racial tensions. The pro-independence politicians have long pointed the finger at the European community (Oscar Temaru, pro-independence leader and former president of French Polynesia( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery), was for example found guilty of "racial discrimination" by the criminal court of Papeetē in 2007 for having referred to the Europeans living in French Polynesia as "trash", "waste").[24] More recently, the Chinese community which controls many businesses in French Polynesia has been targeted in verbal attacks by the newly allied Gaston Flosse and Oscar Temaru in their political fight against Gaston Tong Sang( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery), whose Chinese origins they emphasize in contrast with their Polynesian origins, despite the fact that they both have mixed origins (European and Polynesian for Flosse; Polynesian and Chinese for Temaru).[25] In April 2008, after the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled in the Assembly of French Polynesia and Gaston Tong Sang became the new president of French Polynesia, two French Polynesian labor union leaders made anti-Chinese remarks ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery) ("I'm not hiding from the fact that I wouldn't like our country to be ruled by someone who's not a Polynesian"; "a Chinese only thinks of the business leaders, because he is a businessman").[26] These anti-Chinese remarks caused a political furor and were widely condemned in French Polynesia. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) Historical population Languages Cemetery in the Tuāmotu. French is the only official language of French Polynesia.[31] An organic law of 12 April 1996 states that "French is the official language, Tahitian and other Polynesian languages can be used." At the 2007 census, among the population whose age was 15 and older, 68.5% of people reported that the language they speak the most at home is French( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery), 29.9% reported that the language they speak the most at home is any of the Polynesian languages (four-fifth of which Tahitian), 1.0% reported a Chinese language (half of which Hakka), and 0.6% another language.[32] At the same census, 94.7% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 2.0% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[32] 74.6% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they have some knowledge of one of the Polynesian languages( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery), whereas 13.6% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Polynesian languages.[32] [edit]Religion Christianity is the main religion of the islands: a majority (54%) belong to various Protestant churches and a large minority (30%) are Roman Catholic. Slightly more than 50% of French Polynesia's population belongs to the Maohi Protestant Church, the largest Protestant denomination. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had 20,282 members as of 2009.[34] Jehovah's Witnesses had 2,656 publishers in Tahiti as of 2011.[35] Transportation Main article: Transportation in French Polynesia There are 53 airports in French Polynesia; 46 are paved.[36] The Faaa International Airport is the only international airport in French Polynesia. Each island has its own airport that serves flights to other islands. Air Tahiti is the main airline that flies around the islands( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery). Notable people Jacques Brel (1929–1978), Belgian musician, lived in French Polynesia near the end of his life Jean Gabilou, singer (born 1944), represented France in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), French impressionist painter, spent the last years of his life in French Polynesia Maréva Georges, model, former Miss Tahiti 1990 and Miss France 1991 Pouvāna'a 'Ō'opa (1895–1977), Politician and Tahitian nationalist( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery) Henri Hiro (1944–1991), Film director and script writer, poet, ecologist, activist Ella Koon, model (born 1979) Marco Namouro, writer (1889–1968) Fabrice Santoro, tennis professional (born 1972) Marama Vahirua, footballer, cousin of Pascal Vahirua (born 1980) Pascal Vahirua, former French international footballer (born 1966) Célestine Hitiura Vaite, writer (born 1966) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery) Music Main article: Music of French Polynesia French Polynesia came to the forefront of the world music scene in 1992,[citation needed] with the release of The Tahitian Choir's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene tārava, recorded by French musicologist Pascal Nabet-Meyer. This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery), and is distinguished by a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases, which is a characteristic formed by several different voices; it is also accompanied by steady grunting of staccato, nonsensical syllables. Bali is an Indonesian island located in the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, lying between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. It is one of the country's 33 provinces with the provincial capital at Denpasar towards the south of the island( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). The province covers a few small neighbouring islands as well as the isle of Bali. With a population recorded as 3,891,428 in the 2010 census,[3] the island is home to most of Indonesia's Hindu minority. In the 2000 census about 92.29% of Bali's population adhered to Balinese Hinduism while most of the remainder follow Islam. It is also the largest tourist destination in the country and is renowned for its highly developed arts( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery), including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. Bali, a tourist haven for decades, has seen a further surge in tourist numbers in recent years. History Main article: History of Bali Bali was inhabited by around 2000 BC by Austronesian peoples who migrated originally from Taiwan through Maritime Southeast Asia.[4] Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are thus closely related to the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Oceania. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery) Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.[6] In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.[7] Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning "Walidwipa". It was during this time that the complex irrigation system subak was developed to grow rice. Some religious and cultural traditions still in existence today can be traced back to this period( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery). The Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. When the empire declined, there was an exodus of intellectuals, artists, priests, and musicians from Java to Bali in the 15th century. Tanah Lot, one of the major temples in Bali The first European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1585 when a Portuguese ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery)In 1597 the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali and, with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company in 1602, the stage was set for colonial control two and a half centuries later when Dutch control expanded across the Indonesian archipelago throughout the second half of the nineteenth century (see Dutch East Indies) ( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery). Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast, when the Dutch pitted various distrustful Balinese realms against each other.[9] In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control. The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who fought against the superior Dutch force in a suicidal puputan defensive( Sony VGN-NR110E Battery) assault rather than face the humiliation of surrender.[9] Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 1,000 Balinese marched to their death against the invaders.[10] In the Dutch intervention in Bali (1908), a similar massacre occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterwards the Dutch governors were able to exercise administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact( Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery). Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku. In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature", and western tourism first developed on the island( Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery). Balinese dancers show for tourists, in Ubud. Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II. Bali Island was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather. The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops( Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery). There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps Prajoda (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P. Roodenburg. On 19 February 1942 the Japanese forces landed near the town of Senoer. The island was quickly captured.[12] During the Japanese occupation a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery). The lack of institutional changes from the time of Dutch rule however, and the harshness of war requisitions made Japanese rule little better than the Dutch one.[13] Following Japan's Pacific surrender in August 1945, the Dutch promptly returned to Indonesia, including Bali, immediately to reinstate their pre-war colonial administration. This was resisted by the Balinese rebels now using Japanese weapons( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery). On 20 November 1946, the Battle of Marga was fought in Tabanan in central Bali. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai, by then 29 years old, finally rallied his forces in east Bali at Marga Rana, where they made a suicide attack on the heavily armed Dutch. The Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance. In 1946 the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery), a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery). Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting these traditional values. Politically, this was represented by opposing supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI) ( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs.[9] An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto. The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population. ( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery) With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.[15] As a result of the 1965/66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency, and his "New Order" government reestablished relations with western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery), and the resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.[9] A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely affected tourism, bringing much economic hardship to the island, although tourist numbers have now returned to levels before the bombings( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). Geography List of bodies of water in Bali and List of mountains in Bali Topography of the island The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (69 mi) north to south; its land area is 5,632 km²( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 3,000 metres in elevation. The highest is Mount Agung (3,031 m), known as the "mother mountain" which is an active volcano. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery). The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery). Subak irrigation system The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 491,500 (2002). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery). Three small islands lie to the immediate south east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait. To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery), named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery). Ecology The Bali Starling is found only on Bali and is critically endangered. Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna which is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali Starling( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery), which is endemic. Others Include Barn Swallow, Black-naped Oriole, Black Racket-tailed Treepie, Crested Serpent-eagle, Crested Treeswift, Dollarbird, Java Sparrow, Lesser Adjutant, Long-tailed Shrike, Milky Stork, Pacific Swallow, Red-rumped Swallow, Sacred Kingfisher, Sea Eagle, Woodswallow, Savanna Nightjar, Stork-billed Kingfisher, Yellow-vented Bulbul, White Heron, Great Egret( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). Until the early 20th century, Bali was home to several large mammals: the wild Banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali Tiger. The Banteng still occurs in its domestic form, while leopards are found only in neighboring Java, and the Bali Tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a Tiger on Bali dates from 1937, when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery) The relatively small size of the island, conflict with humans, poaching and habitat reduction drove the Tiger to extinction. This was the smallest and rarest of all Tiger subspecies and was never caught on film or displayed in zoos, while few skins or bones remain in museums around the world. Today, the largest mammals are the Javan Rusa deer and the Wild Boar. A second, smaller species of deer, the Indian Muntjac, also occurs( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). Monkey Forest, Ubud Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian Palm Civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce Kopi Luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery). They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The Crab-eating Macaque, known locally as “kera”, is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three “monkey forest” temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery). They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands, such as Bali which is far rarer and more elusive is the Javan Langur, locally known as "lutung". They occur in few places apart from the Bali Barat National Park. What is interesting about this species is that the young are born an orange colour, though by their first year they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery). In Java however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and so you can see a mixture of black and orange monkeys together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the Leopard Cat, Sunda Pangolin and Black Giant Squirrel. Snakes include the King Cobra and Reticulated Python. The Water Monitor can grow to an impressive size and move surprisingly quickly( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighboring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance Hawksbill Turtle, Giant Sunfish, Giant Manta Ray, Giant Moray Eel, Bumphead Parrotfish, Hammerhead Shark, Reef Shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery). Many plants have been introduced by humans within the last centuries, particularly since the 20th century, making it sometimes hard to distinguish what plants are really native. Among the larger trees the most common are: Banyan trees, Jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery). Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). A team of scientists has conducted survey from 29 April 2011 to 11 May 2011 at 33 sea site of Bali. They have discovered 952 species of reef fish which 8 of them were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery)The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36 percent (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29 percent or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25 percent) with the highest coverage was found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem regency. Environment Some of the worst erosion has occurred in Lebih Beach, where up to 7 meters of land is lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery) From ranked third in previous review, in 2010 Bali got score 99.65 of Indonesia's environmental quality index and the highest of all the 33 provinces. The score measured 3 water quality parameters: the level of total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery). Due to over-exploitation by the tourist industry which converse massive land, 200 out of 400 rivers on the island have dried up and based on research, the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage up to 2,500 liters of clean water per second by 2015.[21] To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery). The 300 liters capacity of water per second will be channeled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013. Administrative divisions The province is divided into 8 regencies (kabupaten) and 1 city (kota). These are: Economy Three decades ago, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia’s wealthiest regions. About 80% of Bali's economy depends on tourism; ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery) Note: non-referenced % in the article: in fact a great number of the population still lives thanks to agriculture although this situation is changing rapidly. By end of June 2011, non-performing loan of all banks in Bali were 2.23 percent average, relatively quite low compare to about 5 percent average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery)The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings 2002 and 2005. The tourism industry is slowly recovering once again. Agriculture Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island’s biggest employer;[25][citation needed] most notably rice cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruit, vegetables, Coffea arabica and other cash and subsistence crops. Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery), stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture. The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavors include lemon and other citrus notes. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery)Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana”. According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery). Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a Geographical Indication.[27] [edit]Tourism The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while significant in the other parts of the island as well. The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), in the center of the island Ubud( Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery), to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran, and the newer development of Nusa Dua and Pecatu. The American government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government last issued an advice on Friday, 4 May 2012. The overall level of the advice was lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. Kuta Beach is a popular tourist spot in Bali An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190 Battery). Most recently, high-end 5 star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the south side of the island. Million dollar villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active) investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/L Battery). In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies. Visitor arrivals for 2009 were forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels), due to the worldwide economic crisis which has also affected the global tourist industry, but not due to any travel warnings( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery). Bali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has in fact slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the longterm trend has been a steady increase of visitor arrivals. At 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists. It is surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery). The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65 percent (last year 60.8 percent), so still capable for accommodates tourists for next some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels,[28] although at the peak season some of them are fully booked. Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010. The award was presented in the show "World's Best Awards 2010" in New York, on 21 July( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery). Hotel Four Seasons Resort Bali at Jimbaran also received an award in the category of "World Best Hotel Spas in Asia 2010". The award was based on a survey of travel magazine Travel and Leisure readers between 15 December 2009 through 31 March 2010, and was judged on several criteria. Thermes Marins Bali, Ayana Resort and Spa, (formerly The Ritz-Carlton) got score 95.6 scored out of a maximum 100 of satisfaction index with spa facilities and services as No. 1( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery) Spa in the world by Conde Naste's Traveller Magazine for 2010 by their readers poll.[29] The island of Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people. According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, rank in second after Greece. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery) On August 2010, the film version of Eat, Pray, Love (EPL), which starred Julia Roberts, was released in theaters. The movie was based on Elizabeth Gilbert's best-selling memoir of the same name. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach at Bali. The 2006 book, which spent 57 weeks at the No. 1 spot on the New York Times paperback nonfiction best-seller list( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery), has already fueled a boom in EPL tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist center that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance through traditional spirituality and healing that leads to love.[31] Newly launched packages by luxury resorts and spas like Ubud Hanging Gardens and the cliff-top Ayana promise to recreate Gilbert's four transformative months on Bali in a few passing days with yoga classes, drawn-out beach dinners, massage therapy( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery). Other tours built around the book focus on curative group gatherings and self-discovery of the kind Gilbert had.[32] EPL helped boost Bali’s tourist numbers, together with the stable security situation on the island. Bali had 2.5 million visitors in 2010, exceeding their target of 2.3 million. That figure was also an improvement from 2009’s 2.2 million and 2008’s 1.96 million visitors. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery) The Tourism Office admitted that they had done nothing to maximize the opportunity to promote Bali and surrender to the filmmakers to promote.[34] Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list. China tourists increased by 17 percent from last year due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.[35] In January 2012, Chinese tourists year on year (yoy) increased by 222.18 percent compared to January 2011( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery), while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54 percent yoy.[36] Transportation A major form of transport in Bali is the Moped The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt.Col. Wisnu Airfield is found in north-west Bali. A coastal road surrounds the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar and enables cars to travel quickly in the heavily populated south. Bali has no railway lines yet( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery). December 2010: Government of Indonesia has invited investors to build Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali amounted $30 million.[37] In 17 July 2011 the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) will anchor about 400 meters away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbor. The current pier is only 154 meters and will be a 300 to 350 meters to accommodate international cruise ships( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery). The harbor would be safer than Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of a panoramic view of mountainous area with green rice fields.[38] In December 2011, the auction process will setlle and predicted Tanah Ampo to become the main hub for cruise ships in Indonesia in 2013.[39] A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by 2 ministers, Bali's Governor and Indonesian Train Company to build 565 kilometers railway along the coast around the island. It will be operated from 2015 onwards. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery) On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port has received a "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine.[41] Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector.[42] On May 2011, an integrated Areal Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery), Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters. It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery) On 21 December 2011 officially kicked off the construction of the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road which provide also with a special lane for motorcycle has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60 percent of shares was named PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the 9.91 kilometers toll road( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million) and is expected to be finished by April 2013 before Apec Summit and the Bali Summer Summit 2013. The project will through 2 kilometers mangrove forest and through 2.3 kilometer beach, both in 5.4 hectares area. Elevated toll road will be built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars which will occupy 2 hectares of mangroves forest( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery), but will compensate by new plant of 300,000 mangrove tress along the road. On 21 December 2011 the Dewa Ruci 450 meters underpass has also been kicked off on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with estimated cost Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget. To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar and Tohpati and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery). Demographics The population of Bali was 3,891,428 (at the 2010 Census). There are an estimated 30,000 expatriates living in Bali. Religion The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples. A religious procession Unlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 93.18% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (4.79%), Christianity (1.38%), and Buddhism (0.64%). These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery). When Islam surpassed Hinduism in Java (16th century), Bali became a refuge for many Hindus. Balinese Hinduism is an amalgam in which gods and demigods are worshipped together with Buddhist heroes, the spirits of ancestors, indigenous agricultural deities and sacred places. Religion as it is practiced in Bali is a composite belief system that embraces not only theology( Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery), philosophy, and mythology, but ancestor worship, animism and magic. It pervades nearly every aspect of traditional life. Caste is observed, though less strictly than in India. With an estimated 20,000 puras (temples) and shrines, Bali is known as the "Island of a Thousand Puras", or "Island of the Gods". Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and in Buddhism, and adopted the animistic traditions of the indigenous people( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery). This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual( Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery). Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behavior.[51] Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese not only embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism( Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery), Christianity, Taoism and Confucianism, but also find a way to harmonize it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's odalan. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese.[52] Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards. ( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery) Language Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. The word "bahasa" literally means language in Indonesian, and the most common spoken language around the touristic areas in Bali are Bahasa Indonesia, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery), but migrant workers from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia. There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese. The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing. Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery), for Hinduism literature was mostly written in Sanskrit. English is a common third language (and the primary foreign language) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry. Other foreign languages, such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery). Culture Main articles: Music of Bali and Balinese art The famous dancer I Mario, picture taken 1940. Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence( SONY VGP-BPS10A battery). Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong keybar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows. ( SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery) The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels. On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system( SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery). Balinese dancers wearing elaborate headgear, photographed in 1929. Digitally restored. Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context. ( SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery) Many of the ceremonial art forms such as wayang kulit and topeng are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation.[56] Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ramé, is distinctively Balinese. Often two or more gamelan ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other in order to be heard( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E battery). Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ramé. Stone carvings in Ubud. Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island’s largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E/B battery). Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.[58] Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E/B battery), dance and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called bali-balihan( SONY Vaio VGN-SR11M Battery). This three-tiered system of classification was standardized in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists in order to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience. Tourism, Bali’s chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers( SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/B Battery). The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists( SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/P Battery). This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances.[60] Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied. ( SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/S Battery) Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratization and decentralization of Indonesia since 1998.[61] Heritage sites Taman Ayun Temple, the Pakerisan Valley in Gianyar, rice terraces in Tabanan with the 'subak' system and Batukaru will be proposed to UNESCO as World Heritage sites by Bali administration( Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery).
The Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum located in Agra, India. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E batteryTaj Mahal is the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Turkish and Indian architectural styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653 Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen.[6] The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.[7][8] Lahauri[9] is generally considered to be the principal designer Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. Origin and inspiration Main article: Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.[11] Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632.[12] The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B batteryThe principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these words:[15] Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal Taj Mahal site plan. The Moonlight Garden to the north of the Yamuna. Terrace area: Tomb, Mosque and Jawab. Charbagh (gardens) Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. Gateway, attendant accommodations, and other tombs. Taj Ganji (bazaar) Should guilty seek asylum here, Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, All his past sins are to be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice has been made; To display thereby the creator's glory Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),[16] Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj) Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery, and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.[17] Architecture Tomb The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin. The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of river Yamuna The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. Viewed from the east The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome) Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery. The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements. Reflection of Taj The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva. Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H batteryThe minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Calligraphy on large pishtaq The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture.[citation needed] As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.[18][19] The texts refer to themes of judgment and include: The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E batteryThe calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity".[8] Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi."[20] Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery, made of jasper or black marble,[8] inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate. Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns. On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls. Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery. The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels which have been carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box. The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery, in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri." Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B batteryWalkways beside reflecting pool The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-south axis Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.[21] Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.[22] The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.[23] The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan.[24] Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery, daffodils, and fruit trees.[25] As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time of the British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London.[26] Outlying buildings The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The wall is interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as a museum. Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with floral motifs SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex. Taj Mahal mosque or masjid At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone buildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirror images of each other SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architectural balance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floors of jawab have a geometric design SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan Numa, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in 1643. Construction Ground layout of the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land.[27] An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex. The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time. SONY VAIO PCG-7196M batteryThe Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble. The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. is generally considered to be the principal designer. SONY VAIO PCG-7194M batteryArtist's impression of the Taj Mahal, from the Smithsonian Institution A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj Mahal are SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery: Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — Turkish architect, designer of the main dome. Ustad Isa (Isa Muhammad Effendi) of Persia — Turkish architect, trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design. 'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect. SONY PCG-8113M batteryQazim Khan, a native of Lahore – cast the solid gold finial. Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist. Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.[33] Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production SONY PCG-8112M battery. History Taj Mahal by Samuel Bourne, 1860. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.[34] By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857 SONY PCG-7134M battery , the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today SONY PCG-7131M battery. Threats Protective wartime scaffolding In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding in anticipation of an air attack by German Luftwaffe and later by Japanese Air Force[citation needed]. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.[37] More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain[38] due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, SONY PCG-7122M battery which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre (4,000 sq mi) area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place. SONY PCG-7121M batteryConcerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the water level of the Yamuna River which is decreasing at a rate of 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. Some persons predict that the tomb may collapse within 5 years SONY PCG-7113M battery. Tourism The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, including more than 200,000 from overseas.[43] A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February SONY PCG-7112M battery. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center. The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. SONY PCG-8Z3M battery Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll[47] with 100 million votes. The grounds are open from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, SONY PCG-8Z2M battery excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons[49] only five items—water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.[50] Myths Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. SONY PCG-8Z1M batteryJean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of the first European visitors to the Taj Mahal A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble across the Yamuna river.[52] The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built SONY PCG-8Y3M battery . Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black.[53] A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden SONY PCG-8Y2M battery. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.[54] No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb SONY PCG-7Z1M battery . Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings.[55] No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort. SONY PCG-6W2M batteryAnother myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.[57] In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. Oak claimed that origins of the Taj, together with other historic structures in the country currently ascribed to Muslim sultans pre-date Muslim rule of India and thus SONY PCG-5J5M battery, have a Hindu origin. Replicas There is a replica of Taj Mahal in the Window of the World theme park located in the western part of the city of Shenzhen in the People's Republic of China. Among the buildings modelled on the Taj Mahal are the Taj Mahal Bangladesh, the Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, the Trump Taj Mahal in Atlantic City, NJ and the Tripoli Shrine Temple in Milwaukee, Wisconsin SONY PCG-5K2M battery. The Canadian Rockies comprise the Canadian segment of the North American Rocky Mountains range. They are the eastern part of the Canadian Cordillera, extending from the Interior Plains of Alberta to the Rocky Mountain Trench of British Columbia. The southern end borders Idaho and Montana of the USA. The northern end is at the Liard River in northern British Columbia SONY PCG-5K1M battery. The Canadian Rockies have numerous high peaks and ranges, such as Mount Robson (3,954 metres (12,972 ft)) and Mount Columbia (3,747 metres (12,293 ft)). The Canadian Rockies are composed of shale and limestone. Much of the range is protected by parks and a World Heritage Site SONY PCG-5J4M battery . Geography The Canadian Rockies are the easternmost part of the Canadian Cordillera, the collective name for the mountains of Western Canada. They form part of the American Cordillera, an essentially continuous sequence of mountain ranges that runs all the way from Alaska to the very tip of South America. The Cordillera in turn are the eastern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire that runs all the way around the Pacific Ocean SONY PCG-5J1M battery. The Canadian Rockies are bounded on the east by the Canadian Prairies, on the west by the Rocky Mountain Trench, and on the north by the Liard River. Contrary to popular misconception, the Rockies do not extend north into Yukon or Alaska, or west into central British Columbia. North of the Liard River SONY PCG-5G2M battery, the Mackenzie Mountains, which are a distinct mountain range, form a portion of the border between the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. The mountain ranges to the west of the Rocky Mountain Trench in southern British Columbia are called the Columbia Mountains, and are not considered to be part of the Rockies by Canadian geologists. Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery[edit]Highest peaks See also: List of mountains in the Canadian Rockies Mount Robson (3,954 m (12,972 ft)) is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, but not the highest in British Columbia, since there are some higher mountains in the Coast Mountains and Saint Elias Range. However, Mount Robson is particularly impressive because it stands out on the continental divide towering over Yellowhead Pass Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, one of the lowest passes in the Canadian Rockies, and is close to the Yellowhead Highway. Its base is only 985 m above sea level, meaning it has a total vertical relief of 2,969 m or nearly 10,000 feet. In addition, it rises the 3 km to its summit in a distance of only 4 km from its base at Kinney Lake. Climbing Mount Robson is a challenge suitable for experienced and well-prepared mountaineers, and usually requires a week on the mountain Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. Mount Robson Mount Columbia (3,747 m (12,293 ft)) is the second-highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, and is the highest mountain in Alberta. There is a non-technical route to the top involving only kicking steps in the snow, but the approach is across the Columbia Icefield and requires glacier travel and crevasse rescue knowledge. It is normally done in two days, with a night at high camp Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, but some strong skiers have done from the highway in a day. On the other hand, many others have been stuck in their tents for days waiting for the weather to clear. From the same high camp as for Mount Columbia, it is possible to ascend a number of other high peaks in the area, including North Twin, South Twin, Kitchener, Stutfield and Snow Dome Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. Snow Dome (3,456 m (11,339 ft)) is not an impressive peak by Rockies standards, but it has the distinction of being the hydrological apex of North America. Water flows off Snow Dome into three different watersheds, into the Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean via Hudson Bay. It is the easiest and most popular ascent on the Columbia Icefield, a gentle ski to the top from Columbia high camp, but glacier travel is required Sony VAIO PCG-7186M batteryOf the highest peaks, only Mount Temple (3,543 m (11,624 ft)) has an established scrambling route. All other mountains (including other routes up Mount Temple), require more mountaineering skills and experience. Despite the fact that it is only a moderate scramble, even Mount Temple should not be attempted by novices. According to the Alpine Club of Canada Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery, more people have died on Mount Temple than any other Canadian mountain, including seven youths in an unsupervised American school group in 1955.[2] The upper slopes are usually covered with snow and there is a glacier on top. Scramblers on Mount Temple should carry an ice axe and enough clothing to survive a freezing night on the mountain if a storm hits and prevents them from descending Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. Contrary to popular misconception, the Canadian Rockies are not the highest mountain ranges in Canada. Both the Saint Elias Mountains (highest point in Canada Mount Logan at 5,959 metres) and the Coast Mountains (highest point Mount Waddington at 4,016 metres) have higher summits Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. [edit]Mountain ranges Main article: Ranges of the Canadian Rockies The Canadian Rockies are subdivided into numerous mountain ranges, structured in two main groupings, the Continental Ranges, which has three main subdivisions, the Front Range, Park Ranges and Kootenay Ranges, and the Northern Rockies which comprise two main groupings, the Hart Ranges and the Muskwa Ranges. The division-point of the two main groupings is at Monkman Pass northwest of Mount Robson and to the southwest of Mount Ovington Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. Geology Main article: Geology of the Rocky Mountains The Canadian Rockies are quite different in appearance and geology from the American Rockies to the south of them. The Canadian Rockies are composed of layered sedimentary rock such as limestone and shale, where as the American Rockies are made mostly of metamorphic and igneous rock such as gneiss and granite Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. The American Rockies are, on average, higher in elevation than the Canadian Rockies, but have less vertical relief, which is to say they are shorter from base to summit because the mountain valleys are higher.[1] The Canadian Rockies are more jagged than the American Rockies, because the Canadian Rockies have been very heavily glaciated, resulting in sharply pointed mountains separated by wide, U-shaped valleys gauged by glaciers Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, where as the American Rockies are more rounded, with river-carved V-shaped valleys between them. The Canadian Rockies are cooler and wetter, giving them moister soil, bigger rivers, and more glaciers. The tree line is much lower in the Canadian Rockies than in the American Rockies. Parks Peyto Lake, Banff National Park Five national parks are located within the Canadian Rockies, four of which interlock and make up the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage site Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. These four parks are Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho. The national park not included in the World Heritage Site is Waterton, which does not interlock with the others (it lies farther south, along the international boundary). The World Heritage site also includes three British Columbia provincial parks that adjoin the four national parks Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery: Hamber, Mount Assiniboine and Mount Robson. Together, all these national and provincial parks were declared a single UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984[3] for the unique mountain landscapes found there, comprising peaks, glaciers, lakes, waterfalls, canyons and limestone caves as well as fossils (e.g. the Burgess Shale, once a World Heritage Site in its own right Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery, is now part of the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site). Numerous other provincial parks are located in the Canadian Rockies. Throughout the Rockies, and especially in the national parks, the Alpine Club of Canada maintains a series of alpine huts for use by mountaineers and adventurers.[4] Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is a large sandstone rock formation in the southern part of the Northern Territory, central Australia. It lies 335 km (208 mi) Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery south west of the nearest large town, Alice Springs, 450 km (280 mi) by road. Kata Tjuta and Uluru are the two major features of the Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park. Uluru is sacred to the Anangu, the Aboriginal people of the area. The area around the formation is home to a plethora of springs, waterholes, rock caves and ancient paintings. Uluru is listed as a World Heritage Site Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. Name The local Pitjantjatjara people call the landmark Uluṟu (Aboriginal pronunciation: [uluɻu]). This word has no further particular meaning in the Pitjantjatjara language, although it is used as a local family name by the senior Traditional Owners of Uluru.[1] On 19 July 1873, the surveyor William Gosse sighted the landmark and named it Ayers Rock in honour of the then Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers.[2] Since then, both names have been used
Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. In 1993, a dual naming policy was adopted that allowed official names that consist of both the traditional Aboriginal name and the English name. On 15 December 1993, it was renamed "Ayers Rock / Uluru" and became the first official dual-named feature in the Northern Territory. The order of the dual names was officially reversed to "Uluru / Ayers Rock" on 6 November 2002 following a request from the Regional Tourism Association in Alice Springs. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L batteryDescription Uluru is one of Australia's most recognisable natural landmarks. The sandstone formation stands 348 m (1,142 ft) high (rising 863 m/2,831 ft above sea level), with most of its bulk lying underground, and has a total circumference of 9.4 km (5.8 mi).[4] Both Uluru and the nearby Kata Tjuta formation have great cultural significance for the Aṉangu people Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery, the traditional inhabitants of the area, who lead walking tours to inform visitors about the local flora and fauna, bush foods and the Aboriginal dreamtime stories of the area. Uluru is notable for appearing to change colour at different times of the day and year, most notably glowing red at dawn and sunset. Kata Tjuta, also called Mount Olga or The Olgas, lies 25 km (16 mi) west of Uluru. Special viewing areas with road access and parking have been constructed to give tourists the best views of both sites at dawn and dusk Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Geology Uluru rock formations Uluru is an inselberg, literally "island mountain".[5] An inselberg is a prominent isolated residual knob or hill that rises abruptly from and is surrounded by extensive and relatively flat erosion lowlands in a hot, dry region.[6] Uluru is also often referred to as a monolith, although this is a somewhat ambiguous term that is generally avoided by geologists Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery. The remarkable feature of Uluru is its homogeneity and lack of jointing and parting at bedding surfaces, leading to the lack of development of scree slopes and soil. These characteristics led to its survival, while the surrounding rocks were eroded.[7] For the purpose of mapping and describing the geological history of the area, geologists refer to the rock strata making up Uluru as the Mutitjulu Arkose Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, and it is one of many sedimentary formations filling the Amadeus Basin.[5] Composition Uluru is dominantly composed of coarse-grained arkose (a type of sandstone characterized by an abundance of feldspar) and some conglomerate.[5][8] Average composition is 50% feldspar, 25–35% quartz and up to 25% rock fragments; most feldspar is K-feldspar with only minor plagioclase as subrounded grains and highly altered inclusions within K-feldspar. Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery The grains are typically 2–4 millimetres (0.079–0.16 in) in diameter, and are angular to subangular; the finer sandstone is well sorted, with sorting decreasing with increasing grain size.[5] The rock fragments include subrounded basalt, invariably replaced to various degrees by chlorite and epidote.[5] The minerals present suggest derivation from a predominantly granite source, similar to the Musgrave Block exposed to the south. Sony VAIO PCG-8131L batteryWhen relatively fresh, the rock has a grey colour, but weathering of iron-bearing minerals by the process of oxidation gives the outer surface layer of rock a red-brown rusty colour.[5] Features related to deposition of the sediment include cross-bedding and ripples, analysis of which indicated deposition from broad shallow high energy fluvial channels and sheet flooding, typical of alluvial fans. Sony VAIO PCG-81312L batteryRain water flows off Uluru along channels marked by dark algae, forming small ponds at the base Age and origin The Mutitjulu Arkose is believed to be of about the same age as the conglomerate at Kata Tjuta, and to have a similar origin despite the rock type being different, but it is younger than the rocks exposed to the east at Mount Conner,[5] and unrelated to them. The strata at Uluru are nearly vertical, dipping to the south west at 85°, and have an exposed thickness of at least 2,400 m (7,900 ft) Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. The strata dip below the surrounding plain and no doubt extend well beyond Uluru in the subsurface, but the extent is not known. The rock was originally sand, deposited as part of an extensive alluvial fan that extended out from the ancestors of the Musgrave, Mann and Petermann Ranges to the south and west, but separate from a nearby fan that deposited the sand, pebbles and cobbles that now make up Kata Tjuta. Sony VAIO PCG-81115L batteryThe similar mineral composition of the Mutitjulu Arkose and the granite ranges to the south is now explained. The ancestors of the ranges to the south were once much larger than the eroded remnants we see today. They were thrust up during a mountain building episode referred to as the Petermann Orogeny that took place in late Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian times Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery (550-530 Ma), and thus the Mutitjulu Arkose is believed to have been deposited at about the same time. The arkose sandstone which makes up the formation is composed of grains that show little sorting based on grain size, exhibit very little rounding and the feldspars in the rock are relatively fresh in appearance. This lack of sorting and grain rounding is typical of arkosic sandstones and is indicative of relatively rapid erosion from the granites of the growing mountains to the south Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. The layers of sand were nearly horizontal when deposited, but were tilted to their near vertical position during a later episode of mountain building, possibly the Alice Springs Orogeny of Palaeozoic age (400-300 Ma).[5] Fauna and flora Black-flanked Rock-wallaby (Petrogale lateralis) Historically, 46 species of native mammals are known to have been living near Uluru; according to recent surveys there are currently 21. Aṉangu acknowledge that a decrease in the number has implications for the condition and health of the landscape Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. Moves are supported for the reintroduction of locally extinct animals such as Malleefowl, Common Brushtail Possum, Rufous Hare-wallaby or Mala, Bilby, Burrowing Bettong and the Black-flanked Rock-wallaby.[9] The Mulgara, the only mammal listed as vulnerable, is mostly restricted to the transitional sand plain area, a narrow band of country that stretches from the vicinity of Uluru to the Northern boundary of the park and into Ayers Rock Resort. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery This area also contains the marsupial mole, Woma Python and Great Desert Skink. Trees at the base of Uluru The bat population of the park comprises at least seven species that depend on day roosting sites within caves and crevices of Uluru and Kata Tjuta. Most of the bats forage for aerial prey within 100 m (330 ft) or so from the rock face. The park has a very rich reptile fauna of high conservation significance with 73 species having been reliably recorded Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. Four species of frog are abundant at the base of Uluru and Kata Tjuta following summer rains. The Great Desert Skink is listed as vulnerable. Aṉangu continue to hunt and gather animal species in remote areas of the park and on Aṉangu land elsewhere. Hunting is largely confined to the Red Kangaroo, Bush Turkey, Emu and lizards such as the Sand Goanna and Perentie Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. Of the 27 mammal species found in the park, six are introduced: the house mouse, camel, fox, cat, dog and rabbit. These species are distributed throughout the park but their densities are greatest near the rich water run-off areas of Uluru and Kata Tjuta. Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Park flora represents a large portion of plants found in Central Australia. A number of these species are considered rare and restricted in the park or the immediate region. There are many rare and endemic plants in the park Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. The growth and reproduction of plant communities rely on irregular rainfall. Some plants are able to survive fire and some are dependent on it to reproduce. Plants are an important part of Tjukurpa, and there are ceremonies for each of the major plant foods. Many plants are associated with ancestral beings Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Bush tucker from the area of Alice Springs Desert Park Flora in Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Park can be broken into the following categories: Punu – trees Puti – shrubs Tjulpun-tjulpunpa – flowers Ukiri – grasses Trees such as the Mulga and Centralian Bloodwood are used to make tools such as spearheads, boomerangs and bowls. The red sap of the bloodwood is used as a disinfectant and an inhalant for coughs and colds Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. There are several rare and endangered species in the park. Most of them, like Adder's Tongue ferns, are restricted to the moist areas at the base of the formation, which are areas of high visitor use and subject to erosion. Since the first Europeans arrived, 34 exotic plant species have been recorded in the park, representing about 6.4% of the total park flora. Some, such as perennial buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), were introduced to rehabilitate areas damaged by erosion Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. It is the most threatening weed in the park and has spread to invade water- and nutrient-rich drainage lines. A few others, such as burrgrass, were brought in accidentally, carried on cars and people. Climate and five seasons The park receives an average rainfall of 284.6 mm (11.2 in) per year.[10] The average high temperature in summer (December–January) is 37.8 °C (100.0 °F), and the average low temperature in winter (June–July) is 4.7 °C (40.5 °F Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery). Temperature extremes in the park have been recorded at 46 °C (115 °F) during the summer and −5 °C (23 °F) during winter nights. UV levels are extreme most days, averaging between 11 and 15 on the UV index.[4] Local Aboriginal people recognise five seasons:[4] Wanitjunkupai (April/May) – Cooler weather Wari (June/July) – Cold season bringing morning frosts Piriyakutu (August/September/October) – Animals breed and food plants flower Mai Wiyaringkupai (November/December) – The hot season when food becomes scarce Itjanu (January/February/March) – Sporadic storms can roll in suddenly Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L batteryMyths, legends and Aboriginal traditions According to the Aṉangu, traditional landowners of Uluru:[11] The world was once a featureless place. None of the places we know existed until creator beings, in the forms of people, plants and animals, traveled widely across the land. Then, in a process of creation and destruction, they formed the landscape as we know it today. Aṉangu land is still inhabited by the spirits of dozens of these ancestral creator beings which are referred to as Tjukuritja or Waparitja Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. There are a number of differing accounts given, by outsiders, of Aboriginal ancestral stories for the origins of Uluru and its many cracks and fissures. One such account, taken from Robert Layton's (1989) Uluru: An Aboriginal history of Ayers Rock,[12] reads as follows: Uluru was built up during the creation period by two boys who played in the mud after rain. When they had finished their game they travelled south to Wiputa Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery ... Fighting together, the two boys made their way to the table topped Mount Conner, on top of which their bodies are preserved as boulders. (Page 5) Two other accounts are given in Norbert Brockman's (1997) Encyclopedia of Sacred Places.[13] The first tells of serpent beings who waged many wars around Uluru, scarring the rock. The second tells of two tribes of ancestral spirits who were invited to a feast, but were distracted by the beautiful Sleepy Lizard Women and did not show up Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. In response, the angry hosts sang evil into a mud sculpture that came to life as the dingo. There followed a great battle, which ended in the deaths of the leaders of both tribes. The earth itself rose up in grief at the bloodshed, becoming Uluru. The Commonwealth Department of Environment's webpage advises:[11] Many...Tjukurpa such as Kalaya (Emu), Liru (poisonous snake), Lungkata (blue tongue lizard), Luunpa (kingfisher) and Tjintir-tjintirpa (willie wagtail) travel through Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park. Other Tjukurpa affect only one specific area Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Kuniya, the woma python, lived in the rocks at Uluru where she fought the Liru, the poisonous snake. It is sometimes reported that those who take rocks from the formation will be cursed and suffer misfortune. There have been many instances where people who removed such rocks attempted to mail them back to various agencies in an attempt to remove the perceived curse Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. History Petroglyphs on Uluru Archaeological findings to the east and west indicate that humans settled in the area more than 10,000 years ago.[12] Europeans arrived in the Australian Western Desert in the 1870s. Uluru and Kata Tjuta were first mapped by Europeans in 1872 during the expeditionary period made possible by the construction of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery. In separate expeditions, Ernest Giles and William Gosse were the first European explorers to this area. While exploring the area in 1872, Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga, while the following year Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honor of the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. Further explorations followed with the aim of establishing the possibilities of the area for pastoralism. In the late 19th century, pastoralists attempted to establish themselves in areas adjoining the South western/Petermann Reserve and interaction between Aṉangu and white people became more frequent and more violent. Due to the effects of grazing and drought, bush food stores became depleted Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Competition for these resources created conflict between the two groups, resulting in more frequent police patrols. Later, during the depression in the 1930s, Aṉangu became involved in dingo scalping with 'doggers' who introduced Aṉangu to European foods and ways. Between 1918 and 1921, large adjoining areas of South Australia, Western Australia and Northern Territory were declared as Aboriginal reserves, sanctuaries for nomadic people who had virtually no contact with European settlers Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. In 1920, part of Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Park was declared an Aboriginal Reserve (commonly known as the South-Western or Petermann Reserve) by the Australian government under the Aboriginals Ordinance. The first tourists arrived in the Uluru area in 1936. Beginning in the 1940s, permanent European settlement of the area for reasons of the Aboriginal welfare policy and to help promote tourism of Uluru Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. This increased tourism prompted the formation of the first vehicular tracks in 1948 and tour bus services began early in the following decade. In 1958, the area that would become the Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Park was excised from the Petermann Reserve; it was placed under the management of the Northern Territory Reserves Board and named the Ayers Rock – Mount Olga National Park Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery. The first ranger was Bill Harney, a well-recognised central Australian figure.[9] By 1959, the first motel leases had been granted and Eddie Connellan had constructed an airstrip close to the northern side of Uluru.[2] On 5 March 1968, a three-seat Bell 47 G2 helicopter piloted by Philip Latz crashed on Uluru, about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the cairn. The wreck was lifted off on 28 March by a Sikorsky S58 helicopter Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. Aerial view of Uluru On 26 October 1985, the Australian government returned ownership of Uluru to the local Pitjantjatjara Aborigines, with one of the conditions being that the Aṉangu would lease it back to the National Parks and Wildlife agency for 99 years and that it would be jointly managed. The agreement originally made between the community and Prime Minister Bob Hawke that the climb to the top by tourists would be stopped was broken Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery. The Aboriginal community of Mutitjulu, population of approximately 300, is located near the eastern end of Uluru. From Uluru it is 17 km (11 mi) by road to the tourist town of Yulara, population 3,000, which is situated just outside of the national park. The 25th anniversary of the handback of title was celebrated on 26 October 2010. Sony VAIO PCG-51311L batteryOn 8 October 2009, the Talinguru Nyakuntjaku viewing area opened to public visitation. The A$21 million project about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) on the east side of Uluru involved design and construction supervision by the Aṉangu traditional owners, with 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) of roads and 1.6 kilometres (1 mi) of walking trails being built for the area. Sony VAIO PCG-51211L batteryTourism Driving on Lasseter Highway from Uluru – Kata Tjuta National Park The development of tourism infrastructure adjacent to the base of Uluru that began in the 1950s soon produced adverse environmental impacts. It was decided in the early 1970s to remove all accommodation-related tourist facilities and re-establish them outside the park. In 1975, a reservation of 104 square kilometres (40 sq mi) Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery of land beyond the park's northern boundary, 15 kilometres (9 mi) from Uluru, was approved for the development of a tourist facility and an associated airport, to be known as Yulara. The camp ground within the park was closed in 1983 and the motels closed in late 1984, coinciding with the opening of the Yulara resort. In 1992, the majority interest in the Yulara resort held by the Northern Territory Government was sold and the resort was renamed Ayers Rock Resort Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. Since the park was listed as a World Heritage Site, annual visitor numbers rose to over 400,000 visitors by the year 2000.[21] Increased tourism provides regional and national economic benefits. It also presents an ongoing challenge to balance conservation of cultural values and visitor needs. Admission Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L batteryAdmission to the park costs A$25 per person, and provides a three day pass. Passes are non-transferable and all passes are checked by park rangers. Climbing Climbers and a warning sign Sign informing tourists that the climb is closed Climbing Uluru is a popular attraction for visitors. A chain handhold added in 1964 and extended in 1976 makes the hour-long climb easier, but it is still a long (800 m/0.5 mi) and steep hike to the top, where it can be quite windy Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. It is recommended individuals drink plenty of water whilst climbing, and those who are unfit, suffer from vertigo or medical conditions restricting exercise, do not attempt it. Climbing Uluru is generally closed to the public when high winds are recorded at the top. There have been at least 35 deaths relating to recreational climbing since such incidents began being recorded. Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L batteryThe local Aṉangu do not climb Uluru because of its great spiritual significance. They request that visitors do not climb the rock, partly due to the path crossing a sacred traditional Dreamtime track, and also due to a sense of responsibility for the safety of visitors. The visitors guide says "the climb is not prohibited, but we prefer that, as a guest on Aṉangu land, you will choose to respect our law and culture by not climbing." Sony VAIO PCG-394L batteryOn 11 December 1983, Prime Minister Bob Hawke promised to hand back the land title to the Aṉangu traditional owners and agreed to the community's 10-point plan which included forbidding the climbing of Uluru. However, the government set access to climb Uluru and a 99-year lease, instead of the previously agreed upon 50-year lease, as conditions before the title was officially given back to the Aṉangu. Sony VAIO PCG-393L batteryIn 2009, the Australian government indicated that climbing Uluru may no longer be allowed under the proposed "Draft Management Plan 2009–2019". The public has been invited to comment on the plan prior to submission to the Minister for the Environment.[23] Several controversial incidents in 2010, including a striptease, golfing and nudity on top of Uluru, have led to renewed calls for banning the climb Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Photography The Aṉangu also request that visitors do not photograph certain sections of Uluru, for reasons related to traditional Tjukurpa beliefs. These areas are the sites of gender-linked rituals, and are forbidden ground for Aṉangu of the opposite sex to those participating in the rituals in question. The photographic ban is intended to prevent Aṉangu from inadvertently violating this taboo by encountering photographs of the forbidden sites in the outside world Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery.
Cape Town is the second-most populous city in South Africa,[3] and the provincial capital and primate city of the Western Cape. As the seat of the National Parliament, it is also the legislative capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality. The city is famous for its harbour as well as its natural setting in the Cape floral kingdom( Sony pcga-bp2e Battery), including such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. Cape Town is also Africa's most popular tourist destination.[4] Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was originally developed by the Dutch East India Company as a victualling (supply) station for Dutch ships sailing to Eastern Africa, India, and the Far East( Sony pcga-bp2ea Battery). Jan van Riebeeck's arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa. Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa( Sony VGP-BPL2 Battery). Today it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. As of 2007 the city had an estimated population of 3.5 million.[3] Cape Town's land area of 2,455 square kilometres (948 sq mi) is larger than other South African cities, resulting in a comparatively lower population density of 1,425 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,690 /sq mi). ( Sony VGP-BPS2 Battery) The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design. History Main article: History of Cape Town A painting of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck in Table Bay (by Charles Bell) There is no certainty as to when humans first occupied the area prior to the first visits of Europeans in the 15th century. The earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. ( Sony VGP-BPS3 Battery) Little is known of the history of the region's first residents, since there is no written history from the area before it was first mentioned by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1486. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497. In the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies( Sony VGP-BPS4 Battery). They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat. In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck and other employees of the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Verenigde Oost-indische Compagnie, VOC) were sent to the Cape to establish a way-station for ships travelling to the Dutch East Indies, and the Fort de Goede Hoop (later replaced by the Castle of Good Hope) ( Sony VGP-BPL4 Battery). The settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia and Madagascar. Many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities.[7][8] Under Van Riebeeck and his successors as VOC commanders and later governors at the Cape, an impressive range of useful plants were introduced to the Cape – in the process changing the natural environment forever( Sony VGP-BPS5 Battery). Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important and lasting influence on the societies and economies of the region.[9] During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the Netherlands was repeatedly occupied by France, and Great Britain moved to take control of Dutch colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Netherlands by treaty in 1803( Sony VGP-BPL7 Battery). British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the battle of Bloubergstrand. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain. It became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s.[10] The discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa. ( Sony VGP-BPL8 Battery) Conflicts between the Boer republics in the interior and the British colonial government resulted in the Second Boer War of 1899–1902, which Britain won. In 1910, Britain established the Union of South Africa, which unified the Cape Colony with the two defeated Boer Republics and the British colony of Natal. Cape Town became the legislative capital of the Union, and later of the Republic of South Africa( Sony VGP-BPL9 Battery). In the 1948 national elections, the National Party won on a platform of apartheid (racial segregation) under the slogan of "swart gevaar". This led to the Group Areas Act, which classified all areas according to race. Formerly multi-racial suburbs of Cape Town were either purged of unlawful residents or demolished. The most infamous example of this in Cape Town was District Six. After it was declared a whites-only region in 1965( Sony VGP-BPS8 Battery), all housing there was demolished and over 60,000 residents were forcibly removed.[11] Many of these residents were relocated to the Cape Flats and Lavender Hill. Under apartheid, the Cape was considered a "Coloured labour preference area", to the exclusion of "Bantus", i.e. blacks. Cape Town was home to many leaders of the anti-apartheid movement( Sony VGP-BPS8A Battery). On Robben Island, a former penitentiary island 10-kilometres from the city, many famous political prisoners were held for years. In one of the most famous moments marking the end of apartheid, Nelson Mandela made his first public speech in decades on 11 February 1990 from the balcony of Cape Town City Hall hours after being released. His speech heralded the beginning of a new era for the country( Sony VGP-BPS9 Battery), and the first democratic election was held four years later, on 27 April 1994. Nobel Square in the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront features statues of South Africa's four Nobel Peace Prize winners – Albert Luthuli, Desmond Tutu, F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela. Since 1994, the city has struggled with problems such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, a surge in violent drug-related crime and more recent xenophobic violence( Sony VGP-BPS9/B Battery). At the same time, the economy has surged to unprecedented levels due to the boom in the tourism and the real estate industries.[citation needed] Geography Cape Town's "city bowl" as viewed from Table Mountain Cape Town is located at latitude 33.55° S (approx. the same as Sydney and Buenos Aires and equivalent to Casablanca and Los Angeles in the northern hemisphere) and longitude 18.25° E (approx. the same as Casablanca) ( Sony VGP-BPS9/S Battery). Table Mountain, with its near vertical cliffs and flat-topped summit over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high, and with Devil's Peak and Lion's Head on either side, together form a dramatic mountainous backdrop enclosing the central area of Cape Town, the so-called City Bowl. A thin strip of cloud, known colloquially as the "tablecloth", sometimes forms on top of the mountain. To the immediate south, ( Sony VGP-BPS10 Battery) the Cape Peninsula is a scenic mountainous spine jutting 25 miles southwards into the Atlantic Ocean and terminating at Cape Point. There are over 70 peaks above 1,000 feet (300 m) within Cape Town's official city limits. Many of the city's suburbs lie on the large plain called the Cape Flats, which extends over 30 miles to the east and joins the peninsula to the mainland( Sony VGP-BPL10 Battery). The Cape Flats is situated on what is known as a rising marine plain, consisting mostly of sandy geology and confirming that at one point Table Mountain was itself an island.[citation needed]. The Cape Town region generally, with its Mediterranean climate, extensive coastline, rugged mountain ranges, coastal plains, inland valleys and semi-desert fringes, has much in common with Southern California( Sony VGP-BPL11 Battery). Climate Cape Town enjoys an ocean Mediterranean climate (Koppen Csa), with mild, moderately wet winters and dry, warm summers. Winter, which lasts from the beginning of June to the end of August, may see large cold fronts entering for limited periods from the Atlantic Ocean with significant precipitation and strong north-westerly winds. Winter months in the city average a maximum of 18.0 °C (64 °F)and minimum of 8.5 °C (47 °F) ( Sony VGP-BPS11 Battery) Total annual rainfall in the city averages 515 millimetres (20.3 in). Summer, which lasts from early December to March, is warm and dry with an average maximum of 26.0 °C (79 °F) and minimum of 16.0 °C (61 °F). The region can get uncomfortably hot when the Berg Wind, meaning "mountain wind", blows from the Karoo interior for a couple of weeks in February or early March( Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery). Late spring and early summer may sometimes feature a strong wind from the south-east, known locally as the Cape Doctor, so called because it blows air pollution away. This wind is caused by a high-pressure system which sits in the South Atlantic to the west of Cape Town, known as the South-Atlantic High. Cape Town's average amount of sunshine per year (3,100 hours) compares favourably with that of Los Angeles (3,300 hours) ( Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery) and exceeds that of Athens and Madrid (2,900 hours). Water temperatures range greatly, between 10 °C (50 °F) on the Atlantic Seaboard, to 22 °C (72 °F) in False Bay. Average annual Ocean temperatures are between 13 °C (55 °F) on the Atlantic Seaboard (similar to Californian waters, such as San Francisco or Big Sur), and 17 °C (63 °F) in False Bay (similar to Northern Mediterranean temperatures, such as Nice or Monte Carlo) ( Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery). Flora and fauna Main article: Biodiversity of Cape Town Located in a CI Biodiversity hotspot as well as the unique Cape Floristic Region, the city of Cape Town has one of the highest levels of biodiversity of any equivalent area in the world.[17] It is home to a total of 19 different vegetation types, of which several are completely endemic to the city and occur nowhere else in the world. ( Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery) It is also the only habitat of hundreds of endemic species,[19] and hundreds of others which are severely restricted or threatened. This enormous species diversity is mainly because the city is uniquely located at the convergence point of several different soil types and micro-climates. An often quoted fact is that there are more indigenous plant species just on Table Mountain than there are in the whole of the British Isles( Sony VGP-BPS13/S Battery). Unfortunately, rapid population growth and urban sprawl has covered much of these ecosystems with development. Consequently Cape Town now has over 300 threatened plant species and 13 which are now extinct. In fact, the Cape Peninsula, which lies entirely within the city of Cape Town, has the highest concentration of threatened species of any continental area of equivalent size in the world. ( Sony VGP-BPS13A/S Battery)Tiny remnants of critically endangered or near extinct plants often survive on road sides, pavements and sports fields.[24] The remaining ecosystems are partially protected through a system of over 30 nature reserves – including the massive Table Mountain National Park. The City Bowl viewed from Lion's Head Main article: City Bowl The City Bowl is a natural amphitheatre-shaped area bordered by Table Bay and defined by the mountains of Signal Hill, Lion's Head, Table Mountain and Devil's Peak( Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery). The area includes the central business district of Cape Town, the harbour, the Company's Garden, and the residential suburbs of De Waterkant, Devil's Peak, District Six, Zonnebloem, Gardens, Bo-Kaap, Higgovale, Oranjezicht, Schotsche Kloof, Tamboerskloof, University Estate, Vredehoek, Walmer Estate and Woodstock( Sony VGP-BPS13S Battery). [edit]Northern Suburbs The Northern Suburbs are mostly Afrikaans-speaking, and include Bellville, Bothasig, Brooklyn, Burgundy Estate, Durbanville, Edgemead, Elsie's River, Facreton, Goodwood, Kensington, Maitland, Monte Vista, Panorama, Parow, Richwood, Thornton, Table View, and Welgemoed. [edit]Eastern Suburbs The Eastern Suburbs include Fairdale, Brackenfell, Kraaifontein, Kuils River, Blue Downs, Belhar, Delft and Protea Hoogte( Sony VGP-BPS13AS Battery). Atlantic Seaboard Camps Bay as seen from the ascent to Lion's Head. A panoramic view of Hout Bay from Chapman's Peak. Chapman's Peak Drive can be seen at the base of the mountain. The Atlantic Seaboard includes Bantry Bay, Camps Bay, Clifton, Fresnaye, Green Point, Hout Bay, Llandudno, Mouille Point, Sea Point, and Three Anchor Bay. Southern Suburbs Main article: Southern Suburbs, Cape Town The Southern Suburbs include Rondebosch, Claremont, Plumstead, Ottery, Pinelands, Wynberg, Newlands, Bergvliet, Constantia and Bishopscourt( Sony VGP-BPS13A/B Battery). South Peninsula The historical centre of Simon's Town The South Peninsula is generally regarded as the area south of Muizenberg on False Bay and Noordhoek on the Atlantic Ocean, all the way to Cape Point. Until recently quite rural, the population of the area is growing quickly as new coastal developments proliferate and larger plots are subdivided to provide more compact housing. It includes Capri Village( Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery), Clovelly, Fish Hoek, Glencairn, Kalk Bay, Kommetjie, Masiphumelele, Muizenberg, Noordhoek, Ocean View, Scarborough, Simon's Town, St James, Sunnydale, Sun Valley, and Steenberg. Cape Flats Main article: Cape Flats The Cape Flats is an expansive, low-lying, flat area situated to the southeast of the central business district of Cape Town. To most people in Cape Town, the area is known simply as 'The Flats'( Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery). Described by some as 'apartheid's dumping ground', from the 1950s the area became home to people the apartheid government designated as non-White. Race-based legislation such as the Group Areas Act and pass laws either forced non-white people out of more central urban areas designated for white people and into government-built townships in the Flats( Sony VGP-BPl15 Battery), or made living in the area illegal, forcing many people designated as Black into informal settlements elsewhere in the Flats. The Flats have since then been home to much of the population of Greater Cape Town. West Coast The West Coast suburbs of Cape Town include Bloubergstrand, Milnerton, Tableview, West Beach, Atlantis, Melkbosstrand, Big Bay, Sunset Beach, Sunningdale and Parklands( Sony VGP-BPs15 Battery). Government Cape Town City Hall. Main article: City of Cape Town Cape Town's local government is the City of Cape Town, which is a metropolitan municipality. Cape Town is governed by a 221-member city council. The city is divided into 111 electoral wards; each ward directly elects one member of the council, whilst the other 110 councillors are elected by a system of party-list proportional representation. The Executive Mayor and Executive Deputy Mayor are chosen by the city council( Sony VGP-BPs18 Battery). In the local government elections of 18 May 2011, the Democratic Alliance (DA) won an outright majority, taking 135 of the 221 council seats. The African National Congress, the national ruling party, received 73 seats. As a result of this victory Patricia de Lille, the DA mayoral candidate, was inaugurated as Executive Mayor on 1 June( Sony VGP-BPS21A/B Battery). Demographics According to the South African National Census of 2001, the population of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality – an area that includes suburbs and exurbs often considered not to be part of Cape Town – was 2,893,251 people. There are 759,767 formal households, of which 87.4% have a flush or chemical toilet, and 94.4% have refuse removed by the municipality at least once a week. 80.1% of households use electricity as the main source of energy( Sony VGP-BPS21/S Battery). 16.1% of households are headed by one person. Coloured people account for 48.13% of the population, followed by Black Africans at 31%, Whites at 18.75%, and Asians at 1.43%. In 1944, 47% of the city's population was White, 46% was Coloured, less than 6% was Black African and 1% was Asian. 46.6% of the population is under the age of 24, whilst 5% are over the age of 65( Sony VGP-BPS21B Battery). The median age in the city is 26 years old, and for every 100 females, there are 92.4 males. 19.4% of city residents are unemployed; 58.3% of the unemployed are Black, 38.1% are Coloured, 3.1% are White and 0.5% are Asian.[26] In the actual city of Cape Town, there is a higher percentage of white people. 41.4% of Cape Town residents speak Afrikaans at home, 28.7% speak Xhosa, 27.9% speak English( Sony VGP-BPS21 Battery), 0.7% speak Sotho, 0.3% speak Zulu, 0.1% speak Tswana and 0.7% of the population speaks a non-official language at home. 76.6% of residents are Christian, 10.7% have no religion, 9.7% are Muslim, 0.5% are Jewish and 0.2% are Hindu. 2.3% have other or undetermined beliefs.[26] 4.2% of residents aged 20 and over have received no schooling; 11.8% have had some primary; 7.1% have completed only primary school; 38.9% have had some high education; 25.4% have finished only high school and 12.6% have an education higher than the high school level( Sony Vaio PCG-5G2L Battery). Overall, 38.0% of residents have completed high school. The median annual income of working adults aged 20–65 is ZAR 25,774. Males have a median annual income of ZAR 27,406 versus ZAR 22,265 for females.[26] Economy Main article: Economy of the Western Cape Cape Town foreshore area with the central business district in the near-background. The main entrance to the Cape Town International Convention Centre Cape Town is the economic centre of the Western Cape Province, South Africa's second main economic centre and Africa's third main economic hub city( Sony Vaio PCG-5G3L Battery). It serves as the regional manufacturing centre in the Western Cape. It also has the primary harbour and airport in the province. The large government presence in the city – both as the capital of the Western Cape and the seat of the National Parliament – has led to increased revenue and growth in industries that serve the government. Cape Town hosts many conferences( Sony Vaio PCG-5J1L Battery), particularly in the recently expanded Cape Town International Convention Centre, which opened in June 2003 and is due for another expansion within the next year.[citation needed] Cape Town has recently enjoyed a booming real estate and construction market, because of the 2010 World Cup as well as many people buying summer homes in the city or relocating there permanently. Cape Town hosted 9 World Cup matches( Sony Vaio PCG-5J2L Battery): Six 1st round matches, one second round, one quarter final and a semifinal. The central business district is under an extensive urban renewal programme, with numerous new buildings and renovations taking place under the guidance of the Cape Town Partnership.[28] Cape Town has four major commercial nodes, with Cape Town Central Business District containing the majority of job opportunities and office space( Sony Vaio PCG-5K2L Battery). Century City, the Bellville/TygerValley strip and Claremont commercial nodes are well established and contain many offices and corporate headquarters as well. Most companies headquartered in the city are insurance companies, retail groups, publishers, design houses, fashion designers, shipping companies, petrochemical companies, architects and advertising agencies. ( Sony Vaio PCG-5L1L Battery) Much of the produce is handled through the Port of Cape Town or Cape Town International Airport. Most major shipbuilding companies have offices and manufacturing locations in Cape Town.[29] The Province is also a centre of energy development for the country, with the existing Koeberg nuclear power station providing energy for the Western Cape's needs( Sony Vaio PCG-6S2L Battery). Recently, oil explorers have discovered oil and natural gas off the coast in the Atlantic Ocean.[30] The Western Cape is an important tourist region in South Africa; the tourism industry accounts for 9.8% of the GDP of the province and employs 9.6% of the province's workforce. In 2010, over 1.5 million international tourists visited the area.[31] With the highest number of successful Information Technology companies in Africa, Cape Town is an important centre for the industry on the continent( Sony Vaio PCG-6S3L Battery). Growing at an annual rate of 8.5% and an estimated worth of R77 billion in 2010 nationwide the IT industry in Cape Town is becoming increasingly important to the city's economy.[32] The city was recently named as the most entrepreneurial city in South Africa, with the percentage of Capetonians pursuing business opportunities almost three times higher than the national average( Sony Vaio PCG-6V1L Battery). Those aged between 18–64 were 190% more likely to pursue new business, whilst in Johannesburg, the same demographic group was only 60% more likely than the national average to pursue a new business.[33] Tourism Cape of Good Hope Clifton 4th Beach Panoramic view across the Victoria Basin at the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, with Table Mountain in the background The distinctive Cape Malay Bo-Kaap is one of the most visited areas in Cape Town( Sony Vaio PCG-6W1L Battery). Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden Mostert's Mill Cape Town is not only the most popular international tourist destination in South Africa, but Africa as a whole. This is due to its good climate, natural setting, and well-developed infrastructure. The city has several well-known natural features that attract tourists, most notably Table Mountain,[34] which forms a large part of the Table Mountain National Park and is the back end of the City Bowl( Sony Vaio PCG-7111L Battery). Reaching the top of the mountain can be achieved either by hiking up, or by taking the Table Mountain Cableway. Cape Point is recognised as the dramatic headland at the end of the Cape Peninsula.[35] Many tourists also drive along Chapman's Peak Drive, a narrow road that links Noordhoek with Hout Bay, for the views of the Atlantic Ocean and nearby mountains. It is possible to either drive or hike up Signal Hill for closer views of the City Bowl and Table Mountain. ( Sony Vaio PCG-71511M Battery) Many tourists also visit Cape Town's beaches, which are popular with local residents.[37] Due to the city's unique geography, it is possible to visit several different beaches in the same day, each with a different setting and atmosphere. Though the Cape's water ranges from cold to mild, the difference between the two sides of the city is dramatic. While the Atlantic Seaboard averages annual water temperatures barely above that of coastal California around 13 °C (55 °F) ( Sony Vaio PCG-6W3L Battery), the False Bay coast is very much warmer, averaging between 16 and 17 °C (61 and 63 °F) annually. This is similar to water temperatures in much of the Northern Mediterranean (for example Nice). In Summer, False bay water averages slightly over 20 °C (68 °F), with 22 °C (72 °F) a common high. Beaches located on the Atlantic Coast tend to have very cold water due to the Benguela current which originates from the Southern Ocean( Sony Vaio PCG-7113L Battery), whilst the water at False Bay beaches may be warmer by up to 10 °C (18 °F) at the same moment due to the influence of the warm Agulhas current, and the surface warming effects of the South Easter wind. Both coasts are equally popular, although the beaches in affluent Clifton and elsewhere on the Atlantic Coast are better developed with restaurants and cafés, with a particularly vibrant strip of restaurants and bars accessible to the beach at Camps Bay( Sony Vaio PCG-7133L Battery). Boulders Beach near Simon's Town is known for its colony of African Penguins.[38] Surfing is popular and the city hosts the Red Bull Big Wave Africa surfing competition every year. The city has several notable cultural attractions. The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, built on top of part of the docks of the Port of Cape Town, is the city's most visited tourist attraction( Sony Vaio PCG-7Z1L Battery). It is also one of the city's most popular shopping venues, with several hundred shops and the Two Oceans Aquarium. Part of the charm of the V&A, as it is locally known, is that the Port continues to operate and visitors can watch ships enter and leave. The V&A also hosts the Nelson Mandela Gateway, through which ferries depart for Robben Island.[41] It is possible to take a ferry from the V&A to Hout Bay( Sony Vaio PCG-7Z2L Battery), Simon's Town and the Cape Fur Seal colonies on Seal and Duiker Islands. Several companies offer tours of the Cape Flats, a mostly Coloured township, and Khayelitsha, a mostly black township. An option is to sleep overnight in Cape Town's townships. There are several B&Bs where you can spend a safe and real African night. ( Sony Vaio PCG-8Y1L Battery) Cape Town is noted for its architectural heritage, with the highest density of Cape Dutch style buildings in the world. Cape Dutch style, which combines the architectural traditions of the Netherlands, Germany, France and Indonesia, is most visible in Constantia, the old government buildings in the Central Business District, and along Long Street. ( Sony Vaio PCG-8Y2L Battery) The annual Cape Town Minstrel Carnival, also known by its Afrikaans name of Kaapse Klopse, is a large minstrel festival held annually on 2 January or "Tweede Nuwe Jaar" (Afrikaans: Second New Year). Competing teams of minstrels parade in brightly coloured costumes, performing Cape Jazz, either carrying colourful umbrellas or playing an array of musical instruments( Sony Vaio PCG-8Z2L Battery). The Artscape Theatre Centre is the main performing arts venue in Cape Town. The city also encloses the 36 hectare Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden that contains protected natural forest and fynbos along with a variety of animals and birds. There are over 7,000 species in cultivation at Kirstenbosch, including many rare and threatened species of the Cape Floristic Region. In 2004 this Region, including Kirstenbosch, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site( Sony Vaio PCG-8Z1L Battery). Cape Town's transport system links it to the rest of South Africa; it serves as the gateway to other destinations within the province. The Cape Winelands and in particular the towns of Stellenbosch, Paarl and Franschhoek are popular day trips from the city for sightseeing and wine tasting.[46][47] Whale watching is popular amongst tourists( Sony Vaio PCG-7112L Battery): Southern Right Whales and Humpback Whales are seen off the coast during the breeding season (August to November) and Bryde's Whales and Killer Whale can be seen any time of the year.[48] The nearby town of Hermanus is known for its Whale Festival, but whales can also be seen in False Bay.[48] Heaviside's dolphins are endemic to the area and can be seen from the coast north of Cape Town( Sony Vaio PCG-6W2L Battery); Dusky dolphins live along the same coast and can occasionally be seen from the ferry to Robben Island. The only complete windmill in South Africa is Mostert's Mill, Mowbray. It was built in 1796 and restored in 1935 and again in 1995. The mill is open to the public on one Saturday a month. Approximately 1.5 million tourists visited in Cape Town during 2004, bringing in a total of R10 billion in revenue. ( Sony Vaio PCG-5K1L Battery)The forecasts for 2006 anticipate 1.6 million tourists spending a total of R12 billion.[who?] The most popular areas for visitors to stay include Camps Bay, Sea Point, the V&A Waterfront, the City Bowl, Hout Bay, Constantia, Rondebosch, Newlands, Somerset West, Hermanus and Stellenbosch, as well. ( Sony VGP-BPL7 Battery) The total accommodation capacity in Cape Town currently stands at close to 60,000 beds (29,800 rooms) in 2,690 establishments,[citation needed] the highest of all South African cities. Communications and media Several newspapers, magazines and printing facilities have their offices in the city. Independent News and Media publishes the major English language papers in the city( Sony VGP-BPL8 Battery), the Cape Argus and the Cape Times. Naspers, the largest media conglomerate in South Africa, publishes Die Burger, the major Afrikaans language paper. Cape Town has many local community newspapers. Some of the largest community newspapers in English are the Athlone News from Athlone, the Atlantic Sun, the Constantiaberg Bulletin from Constantiaberg, the City Vision from Bellville, the False Bay Echo from False Bay( Sony VGP-BPL8A Battery), the Helderberg Sun from Helderberg, the Plainsman from Michells Plain, the Sentinel News from Hout Bay, the Southern Mail from the Southern Peninsula, the Southern Suburbs Tatler from the Southern Suburbs, Table Talk from Table View and Tygertalk from Tygervalley/Durbanville. Afrikaans language community newspapers include the Landbou-Burger and the Tygerburger. Vukani, based in the Cape Flats, is published in Xhosa( Sony VGP-BPL9 Battery). Cape Town is a centre for broadcast media and has several radio stations that only broadcast within the city. 94.5 Kfm (94.5 MHz FM) and Good Hope FM (94–97 MHz FM) mostly play pop music. Heart FM (104.9 MHz FM), the former P4 Radio, plays Jazz and R&B, while Fine Music Radio (101.3 FM) plays classical music and jazz( Sony VGP-BPS10 Battery). Bush Radio is a community radio station (89.5 MHz FM). The Voice of the Cape (95.8 MHz FM) and Cape Talk (567 kHz MW) are the major talk radio stations in the city. The University of Cape Town also runs its own radio station, UCT Radio (104.5 MHz FM). The SABC (South African Broadcasting Corporation) has a small presence in the city, with satellite studios located at Sea Point. e.tv has a greater presence, with a large complex located at Longkloof Studios in Gardens( Sony VGP-BPS10 Battery). M-Net is not well represented with infrastructure within the city. Cape Town TV is a local TV station, supported by numerous organisation and focusing mostly on documentaries. Numerous productions companies and their support industries are located in the city, mostly supporting the production of overseas commercials, model shoots, TV-series and movies. The local media infrastructure remains primarily in Johannesburg( Sony VGP-BPS10/S Battery). Sport Cape Town's most popular sports by participation are cricket, association football, swimming, and rugby union.[54] In rugby union, Cape Town is the home of the Western Province side, who play at Newlands Stadium and compete in the Currie Cup. In addition, Western Province players (along with some from Wellington's Boland Cavaliers) ( Sony VGP-BPS10A Battery) comprise the Stormers in the Southern Hemisphere's Super Rugby competition. Cape Town also regularly hosts the national team, the Springboks, and hosted matches during the 1995 Rugby World Cup, including the opening ceremony and game, as well as the All Blacks versus England semi-final that saw Jonah Lomu run in four tries( Sony VGP-BPS10B Battery). Association football, which is better known as soccer in South Africa, is also popular. Two clubs from Cape Town play in the Premier Soccer League (PSL), South Africa's premier league. These teams are Ajax Cape Town, which formed as a result of the 1999 amalgamation of the Seven Stars and the Cape Town Spurs and newly-promoted Chippa United( Sony VGP-BPS11 Battery). Cape Town was also the location of several of the matches of the FIFA 2010 World Cup including a semi-final,[55] held in South Africa. The Mother City built a new 70,000 seat stadium (Green Point Stadium) in the Green Point area. In cricket, the Cape Cobras represent Cape Town at the Newlands Cricket Ground. The team is the result of an amalgamation of the Western Province Cricket and Boland Cricket teams( Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery). They take part in the Supersport and Standard Bank Cup Series. The Newlands Cricket Ground regularly hosts international matches. Cape Town has Olympic aspirations: in 1996, Cape Town was one of the five candidate cities shortlisted by the IOC to launch official candidatures to host the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although the games ultimately went to Athens( Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery), Cape Town came in third place. There has been some speculation that Cape Town is seeking the South African Olympic Committee's nomination to be South Africa's bid city for the 2020 Summer Olympic Games. Sports events Further information: List of sports events in Cape Town The city of Cape Town has vast experience in hosting major national and international sports events( Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery). The Cape Argus Pick 'n Pay Cycle Tour is the world's largest individually timed cycle race – and the first event outside Europe to be included in the International Cycling Union's Golden Bike Series. It sees over 35,000 cyclists tackling a 109 km route around Cape Town. The Absa Cape Epic is the largest full-service mountain bike stage race in the world( Sony VGP-BPS13/S Battery). Some notable events hosted by Cape Town have included the 1995 Rugby World Cup, 2003 ICC Cricket World Cup, and World Championships in various sports such as athletics, fencing, weightlifting, hockey, cycling, canoeing, gymnastics and others. Cape Town was also a host city to the 2010 FIFA World Cup from 11 June to 11 July 2010, further enhancing its profile as a major events city. It was also one of the host cities of the 2009 Indian Premier League cricket tournament( Sony VGP-BPS13/S Battery). Education Public primary and secondary schools in Cape Town are run by the Western Cape Education Department. This provincial department is divided into seven districts; four of these are "Metropole" districts – Metropole Central, North, South, and East – which cover various areas of the city. There are also many private schools, both religious and secular, in Cape Town( Sony VGP-BPS13A/B Battery). Tertiary education The University of Cape Town's main campus Cape Town has a well-developed higher system of public universities. Cape Town is served by three public universities: the University of Cape Town (UCT), the University of the Western Cape (UWC) and the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT). Stellenbosch University, while not in the city itself, is 50-kilometres from the City Bowl and has additional campuses( Sony VGP-BPS13A/S Battery), such as the Tygerberg Faculty of Health Sciences and the Bellville Business Park closer to the City. Both the University of Cape Town and Stellenbosch University are leading universities in South Africa. This is due in large part to substantial financial contributions made to these institutions by both the public and private sector. UCT is an English speaking institution. It has over 21,000 students and has an MBA programme that is ranked 51st by the Financial Times in 2006. ( Sony VGP-BPS13AS Battery) It is also the top-ranked university in Africa, being the only African university to make the world's Top 200 university list at number 146. Since the African National Congress has come into governmental power, some restructuring of Western Cape universities has taken place and as such, traditionally non-white universities have seen increased financing, which has benefitted the University of the Western Cape( Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery). The public Cape Peninsula University of Technology was formed on 1 January 2005, when two separate institutions – Cape Technikon and Peninsula Technikon – were merged. The new university offers education primarily in English, although one may take courses in any of South Africa's official languages. The institution generally awards the National Diploma( Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery). Cape Town has also become a popular study abroad destination for many American college students. Many study abroad providers, such as IES Abroad, offer semester, summer, short-term, and internship programs in partnership with Cape Town universities as a chance for American students to gain intercultural understanding( Sony VGP-BPS13S Battery). Map showing flights from Cape Town International Airport to destinations outside Southern Africa. Cape Town International Airport serves both domestic and international flights. It is the second-largest airport in South Africa and serves as a major gateway for travellers to the Cape region. Cape Town has direct flights to most cities in South Africa as well as a number of international destinations. ( Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery) Cape Town International Airport recently opened a brand new central terminal building that was developed to handle an expected increase in air traffic as tourism numbers will increase in the lead-up to the 2010 FIFA World Cup.[63] Other renovations include several large new parking garages, a revamped domestic departure terminal, a new Bus Rapid Transit system station and a new double-decker road system( Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery). The airport's cargo facilities are also being expanded and several large empty lots are being developed into office space and hotels. The Cape Town International Airport was among the winners of the World Travel Awards for being Africa's leading airport.[64] Sea Table Mountain from the Harbour. Cape Town has a long tradition as a port city. The Port of Cape Town, the city's main port, is located in Table Bay directly to the north of the central business district( Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery). The port is a hub for ships in the southern Atlantic: it is located along one of the busiest shipping corridors in the world. It is also a busy container port, second in South Africa only to Durban. In 2004, it handled 3,161 ships and 9.2 million tonnes of cargo.[65] Simon's Town Harbour on the False Bay coast of the Cape Peninsula is the main base of the South African Navy( Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery). The Port of Cape Town (specifically the V&A Waterfront) made headlines worldwide during 2009 when plans to berth the iconic liner QE2 were announced. Rail A Metrorail train leaving Kalk Bay station The Shosholoza Meyl is the passenger rail operations of Spoornet and operates two long-distance passenger rail services from Cape Town: a daily service to and from Johannesburg via Kimberley and a weekly service to and from Durban via Kimberley( Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery), Bloemfontein and Pietermaritzburg. These trains terminate at Cape Town railway station and make a brief stop at Bellville. Cape Town is also one terminus of the luxury tourist-oriented Blue Train as well as the five-star Rovos Rail. Metrorail operates a commuter rail service in Cape Town and the surrounding area. The Metrorail network consists of 96 stations throughout the suburbs and outskirts of Cape Town( Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery). Road The N2, also known as the Nelson Mandela Boulevard (prev. Eastern Boulevard), as it enters the City Bowl and ends in the Central Business District Three national roads start in Cape Town: the N1 which links Cape Town with Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, Pretoria and Zimbabwe; the N2 which links Cape Town with Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban( Sony VGP-BPS18 Battery); and the N7 which links Cape Town with the Northern Cape Province and Namibia. The N1 and N2 both start in the Central Business District, and split to the east of the CBD, with the N1 continuing to the north east and the N2 heading south east past Cape Town International Airport. The N7 starts in Mitchells Plain and runs north, intersecting with the N1 and the N2 before leaving the city( Sony VGP-BPS2 Battery). Cape Town also has a system of freeway and dual carriageway M-roads, which connect different parts of the city. The M3 splits from the N2 and runs to the south along the eastern slopes of Table Mountain, connecting the City Bowl with Muizenberg. The M5 splits from the N1 further east than the M3, and links the Cape Flats to the CBD. The R300, which is informally known as the Cape Flats Freeway, links Mitchells Plain with Bellville, the N1 and the N2( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ11S Battery). Buses Golden Arrow Bus Services operates scheduled bus services throughout the Cape Town metropolitan area. Several companies run long-distance bus services from Cape Town to the other cities in South Africa. Integrated Rapid Transit Cape Town has embarked on Phase 1 of the IRT system with a total investment of close to R5 billion. Phase 1 will include a West Coast Service, Inner City Service and Airport Link( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ11L Battery). A 2010 Starter service to meet the requirements for the FIFA World Cup will include an Inner City Service, Stadium Shuttle and Airport Service. A total of 43 IRT Volvo buses have been ordered and are expected to be delivered during April and May. Taxis Cape Town taxi rank above train station Cape Town has two kinds of taxis: metered taxis and minibus taxis. Unlike many cities, metered taxis are not allowed to drive around the city to solicit fares and instead must be called to a specific location( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ11M Battery). Minibus taxis are the standard form of transport for the majority of the population who cannot afford private vehicles. Although essential, these taxis are often poorly maintained and are frequently not road-worthy. These taxis make frequent unscheduled stops to pick up passengers, which can cause accidents. With the high demand for transport by the working class of South Africa( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ11E Battery), minibus taxis are often filled over their legal passenger allowance, making for high casualty rates when minibuses are involved in accidents. Minibuses are generally owned and operated in fleets, and inter-operator violence flares up from time to time, especially as turf wars occur over lucrative taxi routes. The Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum located in Agra, India. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ11Z Battery). The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".[3] Taj Mahal is the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Turkish and Indian architectural styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ140N Battery), it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen.[6] The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri[9] is generally considered to be the principal designer( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15 Battery). Origin and inspiration Main article: Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.[11] Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632.[12] The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15G Battery). The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these words:[15] Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution Gateway, attendant accommodations, and other tombs. Taj Ganji (bazaar) Should guilty seek asylum here, Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, All his past sins are to be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice has been made; To display thereby the creator's glory( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15L Battery). The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),[16] Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj) ( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15M Battery), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.[17] Architecture Tomb The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15S Battery). The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of river Yamuna The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ15T Battery). This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ160E Battery). Viewed from the south Viewed from the east The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome) ( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ17 Battery). The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ17G Battery). Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements. Viewed from Masjid Reflection of Taj The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ17L Battery). This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva. ( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ19L Battery) The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ190E Battery). At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18 Battery). Exterior decoration Calligraphy on large pishtaq The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture.[citation needed] As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18E Battery), the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.[18][19] The texts refer to themes of judgment and include( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18M Battery): The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."[19] The calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity".[8] Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18L Battery), "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi."[20] Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble,[8] inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18G Battery). Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ18S Battery). White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ460E Battery). On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21 Battery). The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls. Interior decoration Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21M Battery). The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21E Battery), and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21S Battery). The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels which have been carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21J Battery). Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) ( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ21Z Battery). Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ25 Battery). His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box. The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ210CE Battery), in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri." ( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31E Battery) Garden Walkways beside reflecting pool The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-south axis( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31M Battery), reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.[21] Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.[22] The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31S Battery). In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east. Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31J Battery). With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.[23] The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that they may have been designed by the same architect( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31B Battery), Ali Mardan.[24] Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees.[25] As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time of the British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ32B Battery). Outlying buildings The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ32 Battery). The garden-facing inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as a museum( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ38M Battery). Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with floral motifs( Sony Vaio VGN-FZ31Z Battery). The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex. Taj Mahal mosque or masjid At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone buildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architectural balance( Sony Vaio VGN-FW11 Battery), although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floors of jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble( Sony Vaio VGN-FW11M Battery). The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan Numa, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in 1643( Sony Vaio VGN-FW11S Battery). Construction Ground layout of the Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land.[27] An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In the tomb area( Sony Vaio VGN-FW139E/H Battery), wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight( Sony Vaio VGN-FW145E/W Battery). A fifteen kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism( Sony Vaio VGN-FW15T Battery), into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex. The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion"( Sony Vaio VGN-FW17/B Battery). For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time. The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials( Sony Vaio VGN-FW17T/H Battery). The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble( Sony Vaio VGN-FW17W Battery). The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer. Artist's impression of the Taj Mahal, from the Smithsonian Institution A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India( Sony Vaio VGN-FW19 Battery), stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj Mahal are: Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — Turkish architect, designer of the main dome( Sony Vaio VGN-FW21E Battery). Ustad Isa (Isa Muhammad Effendi) of Persia — Turkish architect, trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design. 'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect. Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore – cast the solid gold finial. Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist( Sony Vaio VGN-FW21J Battery). Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher. Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production. History Taj Mahal by Samuel Bourne, 1860. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife( Sony Vaio VGN-FW21L Battery). By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project( Sony Vaio VGN-FW21M Battery), which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today. Threats Protective wartime scaffolding In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding in anticipation of an air attack by German Luftwaffe and later by Japanese Air Force[citation needed]. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots. ( Sony Vaio VGN-FW21Z Battery) More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain[38] due to the Mathura Oil Refinery,[39] which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre ( Sony Vaio VGN-FW25T/B Battery) (4,000 sq mi) area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place. Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the water level of the Yamuna River which is decreasing at a rate of 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting( Sony Vaio VGN-FW26T/B Battery), as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. Some persons predict that the tomb may collapse within 5 years. Tourism The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, including more than 200,000 from overseas.[43] A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February( Sony Vaio VGN-FW27/B Battery). Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center. The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. ( Sony Vaio VGN-FW27/W Battery) Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll[47] with 100 million votes. The grounds are open from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, ( Sony Vaio VGN-FW27T/H Battery) excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons[49] only five items—water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed inside the Taj Mahal. Myths Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument( Sony Vaio VGN-FW31M Battery). Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of the first European visitors to the Taj Mahal A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble across the Yamuna river.[52] The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built( Sony Vaio VGN-FW32J Battery). Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black.[53] A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen( Sony Vaio VGN-FW31J Battery), befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself. No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design( Sony Vaio VGN-FW41J/H Battery). Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort. ( Sony Vaio VGN-FW41M/H Battery) Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.[57] In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. Oak claimed that origins of the Taj, together with other historic structures in the country currently ascribed to Muslim sultans pre-date Muslim rule of India and thus( Sony Vaio VGN-CS11S/P Battery), have a Hindu origin.[59] Replicas There is a replica of Taj Mahal in the Window of the World theme park located in the western part of the city of Shenzhen in the People's Republic of China. Among the buildings modelled on the Taj Mahal are the Taj Mahal Bangladesh, the Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, the Trump Taj Mahal in Atlantic City, NJ and the Tripoli Shrine Temple in Milwaukee, Wisconsin( Sony Vaio VGN-CS11S/Q Battery).
Cornell University is a private Ivy League research university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions HP Pavilion dv6-1299lx battery. Founded in 1865 by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White, the university was intended to teach and make contributions in all fields of knowledge—from the classics to the sciences, and from the theoretical to the applied. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornell's motto, a popular 1865 Ezra Cornell quotation: "I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study." HP Pavilion dv6-1299ez batteryThe university is broadly organized into seven undergraduate colleges and seven graduate divisions at its main Ithaca campus, with each college and division defining its own admission standards and academic programs in near autonomy. The university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar HP Pavilion dv6-1299es battery. Cornell is one of two private land grant universities,[note 1] and its seven undergraduate colleges include three private, state-supported statutory or contract colleges. As a land grant college, it also operates a cooperative extension outreach program in every county of New York. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission is offered irrespective of religion or race HP Pavilion dv6-1299er battery. Cornell counts more than 245,000 living alumni, 31 Marshall Scholars, 28 Rhodes Scholars and 41 Nobel laureates as affiliated with the university. The student body consists of nearly 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 states and 122 countries. History Main article: History of Cornell University Cornell University was founded on April 27, 1865 as the result of a New York State (NYS) Senate bill that named the university as the state's land grant institution HP Pavilion dv6-1299eo battery. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York as a site and $500,000 of his personal fortune as an initial endowment. Fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the initial two buildings and traveled around the globe to attract students and faculty. HP Pavilion dv6-1299ef battery The university was inaugurated on October 7, 1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell's founders Andrew Dickson White Cornell continued to be a technological innovator applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity to light the grounds from a water-powered dynamo in 1883 HP Pavilion dv6-1299ea battery. Since 1894, Cornell has included state-funded statutory colleges and has also administered research and extension activities that have been jointly funded by state and federal matching funds. Cornell has had an active alumni since its earliest classes and was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees HP Pavilion dv6-1295el battery. Cornell expanded significantly, particularly since World War II, with its student population in Ithaca growing to its current count of about 20,000 students. The faculty also expanded, and by the century's end, the university had more than 3,400 faculty members. The school also increased its breadth of course offerings HP Pavilion dv6-1291es battery. Today the university has wide-ranging programs and offers more than 4,000 courses. Cornell received national attention in April 1969 when African American students occupied Willard Straight Hall in protest over alleged racism. The crisis resulted in the resignation of President James A. Perkins and the restructuring of university governance HP Pavilion dv6-1290ev battery. Since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, the first American medical school outside of the United States.[18] It continues to forge partnerships with major institutions in India, Singapore, and the People's Republic of China. The university, with its high international profile, claims to be "the first transnational university". HP Pavilion dv6-1290es battery On March 9, 2004, Cornell and Stanford laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center located on the Israel–Jordan border.[23] Campuses Ithaca campus The Arts Quad on Cornell's main campus with iconic McGraw Tower in the background Overlooking Ho Plaza from atop McGraw Tower, with Sage Hall and Barnes Hall in the background Sage Chapel hosts religious services and concerts, and is the final resting place of the university's founders HP Pavilion dv6-1290en batteryMain articles: Cornell Central Campus, Cornell North Campus, and Cornell West Campus Cornell's main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake. When the university was founded in 1865, the campus consisted of 209.5 acres (0.85 km²) of Ezra Cornell's roughly 300 acre (1.2 km²) farm. Since then, it has swelled to about 745 acres (3.0 km²), encompassing both the hill and much of the surrounding areas. HP Pavilion dv6-1290ec battery Some 260 university buildings are divided primarily between Central and North Campuses on the plateau of the Hill, West Campus on its slope, and Collegetown immediately south of Central Campus.[24][not in citation given] Central Campus has laboratories, administrative buildings, and almost all of the campus' academic buildings, athletic facilities, auditoriums, and museums HP Pavilion dv6-1288la battery. The only remaining residential facility on Central Campus is the Law School's dormitory, Hughes Hall. North Campus contains freshman and graduate student housing, themed program houses, and 29 fraternity and sorority houses. West Campus has upperclass residential colleges and an additional 25 fraternity and sorority houses. HP Pavilion dv6-1285es batteryCollegetown contains two upperclass residence halls and the Schwartz Performing Arts Center amid a neighborhood of apartments, eateries, and businesses.[28] The main campus is marked by an irregular layout and eclectic architectural styles, including ornate Collegiate Gothic, Victorian, Neoclassical buildings, and less decorative international and modernist structures. The more ornate buildings generally predate World War II. Because the student population doubled from 7,000 in 1950 to 15,000 by 1970 HP Pavilion dv6-1282et battery, grandiosity was neglected in favor of less expensive and more rapidly constructed styles.[29] While some buildings are neatly arranged into quadrangles, others are packed densely and haphazardly. These eccentricities arose from the university's numerous, ever-changing master plans for the campus. For example, in one of the earliest plans, Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of Central Park HP Pavilion dv6-1280us battery, outlined a "grand terrace" overlooking Cayuga Lake.[30] Because the terrace plan was dropped, McGraw Hall appears to face the wrong direction, facing Libe Slope rather than the Arts Quad. The university is home to several buildings on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Andrew Dickson White House, Bailey Hall, Caldwell Hall, Comstock Hall HP Pavilion dv6-1280sn battery, Morrill Hall, and Deke House. At least three other historic buildings—the original Roberts Hall, East Robert Hall and Stone Hall—have also been listed on the NRHP, despite their demolitions in the 1980s.[31] The Ithaca Campus is among the rolling valleys of the Finger Lakes region and, atop East Hill, provides a view of the surrounding area, including 38 miles (61.4 km) long Lake Cayuga. Two gorges HP Pavilion dv6-1280ev battery, Fall Creek Gorge and Cascadilla Gorge, bound Central Campus and become popular swimming holes during the warmer months (although the university discourages their use).[citation needed] Adjacent to the main campus, Cornell owns the 2,800 acre (11.6 km²) Cornell Plantations, a botanical garden containing flowers, trees, and ponds along manicured trails HP Pavilion dv6-1280et battery. Cornell has adopted a comprehensive sustainability action plan, and has a number of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified buildings on the Ithaca campus.[33][not in citation given] In 2009, a new gas-fired combined heat and power facility replaced a coal-fired steam plant, resulting in a reduction in carbon emissions to 7% below 1990 levels HP Pavilion dv6-1280es battery, and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 75,000 tons per year.[34] The facility meets 15% of campus electrical needs,[35] and a university-run, on-campus hydroelectric plant in the Fall Creek Gorge provides an additional 2%.[36] An award-winning lake source cooling project uses Lake Cayuga to air condition campus buildings, with an 80% energy saving over conventional systems. HP Pavilion dv6-1280ep batteryIn 2007, Cornell established a Center for a Sustainable Future.[38] Cornell has been rated "A-" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives.[39] New York City campuses Cornell's medical campus in New York, also called Weill Cornell, is on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City. It is home to two Cornell divisions, Weill Cornell Medical College and Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, and has been affiliated with the NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital since 1927. HP Pavilion dv6-1280el batteryAlthough their faculty and academic divisions are separate, the Medical Center shares its administrative and teaching hospital functions with the Columbia University Medical Center.[citation needed] These teaching hospitals also include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan and the Westchester Division in White Plains, New York. HP Pavilion dv6-1277la battery Weill Cornell Medical College is also affiliated with the neighboring Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center, Rockefeller University, and the Hospital for Special Surgery. Many faculty members have joint appointments at these institutions, and Weill Cornell, Rockefeller, and Memorial Sloan–Kettering offer the Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program to selected entering Cornell medical students.[42] From 1942 to 1979, the campus also housed a Cornell school of nursing. HP Pavilion dv6-1277el batteryWeill Medical Center overlooks the East River in New York City. On December 19, 2011, a bid by a consortium of Cornell University and Technion-Israel Institute of Technology won a competition for rights to claim free city land as well as $100 million in subsidies to build an engineering campus in the city. The competition was established by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg in order to increase entrepreneurship and job growth in the city's technology sector HP Pavilion dv6-1275la battery. The winning bid consisted of a 2.1 million square feet state-of-the-art tech campus to be built on Roosevelt Island. Instruction is to begin in the fall of 2012 in a temporary location in Manhattan.[44] Thom Mayne of the architecture firm Morphosis has been selected to design the first building to be constructed on Roosevelt Island. Construction would begin in 2014 with a target completion for the start of the 2017 academic year HP Pavilion dv6-1275eg battery. In addition to the tech campus and medical center, New York City hosts local offices for some of Cornell's service programs. The Cornell Urban Scholars Program encourages students to pursue public service careers with organizations working with New York City's poorest children, families, and communities HP Pavilion dv6-1270st battery. The NYS College of Human Ecology and the NYS College of Agriculture and Life Sciences provide means for students to reach out to local communities by gardening and building with the Cornell Cooperative Extension. Students with the NYS School of Industrial and Labor Relations' Extension & Outreach Program make workplace expertise available to organizations, union members, policy makers HP Pavilion dv6-1270ss battery, and working adults. The College of Engineering's Operations Research Manhattan, in the city's financial district, brings together business optimization research and decision support services addressed to both financial applications and public health logistics planning. The College of Architecture, Art, and Planning has a facility on West 17th Street, near Union Square, to provide studio and seminar space for students and faculty HP Pavilion dv6-1270la battery. Qatar campus Weill Cornell Medical College in Education City, Qatar Main article: Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar is in Education City, near Doha. Opened in September 2004, it was the first American medical school outside the United States. The college is part of Cornell's program to increase its international influence. The College is a joint initiative with the Qatar government, which seeks to improve the country's academic programs and medical care. HP Pavilion dv6-1270ev batteryAlong with its full four-year MD program, which mirrors the curriculum taught at Weill Medical College in New York City, the college offers a two-year undergraduate pre-medical program with a separate admissions process. This undergraduate program opened in September 2002 and was the first coeducational institute of higher education in Qatar HP Pavilion dv6-1270et battery. The college is partially funded by the Qatar government through the Qatar Foundation, which contributed $750 million for its construction. The medical center is housed in a large two-story structure designed by Arata Isozaki. In 2004, the Qatar Foundation announced the construction of a 350-bed Specialty Teaching Hospital near the medical college in Education City HP Pavilion dv6-1270eq battery. The hospital is currently under construction and is slated to be completed in the next few years. Other facilities Cornell University owns and operates many facilities around the world.[54] The Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, site of the world's largest single-dish radio telescope, was operated by Cornell under a contract with the National Science Foundation from its construction until 2011. The Shoals Marine Laboratory, operated in conjunction with the University of New Hampshire HP Pavilion dv6-1270el battery, is a seasonal marine field station dedicated to undergraduate education and research on 95 acre (0.4 km²) Appledore Island off the Maine–New Hampshire coast. A World War I Memorial on Cornell's West Campus in Ithaca Many Cornell facilities focus on conservationism and ecology. The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, operated by the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, is in Geneva, New York, 50 miles (80 km) northwest of the main campus. The facility comprises 20 major buildings on 130 acres (0.5 km²) of land as well as more than 700 acres (2.8 km²) HP Pavilion dv6-1270eg battery of test plots and other lands devoted to horticultural research.[58][not in citation given] It also operates three substations: The Cornell Lake Erie Research and Extension Laboratory (CLEREL) in Portland,[59] Hudson Valley Laboratory in Highland,[60] and the Long Island Horticultural Research Laboratory in Riverhead. Cornell's Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, designed by I.M. Pei The Cornell Lab of Ornithology in Ithaca's Sapsucker Woods performs research on biological diversity, primarily in birds HP Pavilion dv6-1270ec battery. On April 18, 2005, the lab announced that it had rediscovered the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, long thought to be extinct (Although some experts disputed the evidence and subsequent surveys were inconclusive).[63] The Animal Science Teaching and Research Center in Harford, New York, and the Duck Research Laboratory in Eastport, New York, are resources for information on animal disease control and husbandry HP Pavilion dv6-1268tx battery. The Arnot Teaching and Research Forest, a 4,075 acre (16.5 km²) forest 20 miles (32.2 km) south of the Ithaca campus, is the primary field location for faculty and student training and research related to professional forestry. The mission of the Cornell Biological Field Station in Bridgeport, New York, is "to provide a center for long-term ecological research and support the University's educational programs HP Pavilion dv6-1268nr battery, with special emphasis on freshwater lacustrine systems". The Department of Horticulture operates the Homer C. Thompson Vegetable Research Farm and Freeville Organic Research Farm in Freeville, New York. In addition, the university operates biodiversity laboratories in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, and in the Amazon Rainforest in Peru named the Cornell University Esbaran Amazon Field Laboratory HP Pavilion dv6-1266el battery. The university also maintains offices for study abroad and scholarship programs. The Cornell in Washington is a program that allows students to study for a semester in Washington, D.C., holding research and internship positions while earning credit toward a degree. Cornell in Rome, operated by the College of Architecture, Art, and Planning HP Pavilion dv6-1265tx battery, allows students to use the city as a resource for learning architecture, urban studies, and art. The College of Human Ecology offers the Urban Semester Program, an opportunity to take courses and complete an internship in New York City for a semester. As well, the Capital Semester program allows students to intern in the New York state legislature HP Pavilion dv6-1265sg battery. As New York State's land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension service with 56 offices spread out across the state, each staffed with extension educators who offer programs in five subjects: Agriculture & Food Systems; Children, Youth, & Families; Community & Economic Vitality; Environment & Natural Resources; and Nutrition & Health. Cornell also operates New York's Animal Health Diagnostic Center HP Pavilion dv6-1264tx battery. Organization and administration Cornell is a non-profit organization governed by a 64-member board of trustees consisting of both privately and publicly appointed trustees. Three trustees are appointed by the Governor of New York; one seat is reserved for the eldest lineal descendant of Ezra Cornell; two members from each of the fields of agriculture, business and labor in New York state HP Pavilion dv6-1264ca battery; eight trustees to be elected from among and by the alumni of the university; two trustees to be elected from among and by the faculty of the university at Ithaca and Geneva; two trustees to be elected from among and by the membership of the university's student body at Ithaca (one undergraduate and one graduate student);[75] and one trustee to be elected from among and by the nonacademic staff and employees of the university at Ithaca and Geneva HP Pavilion dv6-1263cl battery, 37 trustees at large and finally, the Governor, Temporary President of the Senate, Speaker of the Assembly, and president of the university serve in an ex officio voting capacity. Peter C. Meinig has served as the chairman of the board since 2002. The Board elects a President to serve as the chief executive and educational officer. The twelfth and current president, David J. Skorton has served since July 2006 and succeeded Jeffrey S. Lehman HP Pavilion dv6-1261tx battery. The Board of Trustees hold four regular meetings each year, and portions of those meetings are subject to the New York State Open Meetings Law. Cornell consists of nine privately endowed colleges as well as four publicly supported "statutory colleges": the New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Human Ecology, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, and College of Veterinary Medicine HP Pavilion dv6-1260tx battery. These statutory colleges received $131.9 million in SUNY appropriations in 2010-2011 to support their teaching, research, and service missions, which makes them accountable to SUNY trustees and other state agencies. The budget also includes $3.9 million of state funds for Cornell Cooperative Extension Residents of New York enrolled in these colleges also qualify for discounted tuition HP Pavilion dv6-1260sn battery. However, Attorney General Eliot Spitzer issued a 2005 opinion asserting that, with respect to their academic activities, statutory colleges should be understood to be private, non-state parties. Cornell is decentralized, with its colleges and schools exercising wide autonomy. Each defines its own academic programs, operates its own admissions and advising programs, and confers its own degrees HP Pavilion dv6-1260sh battery. The only university-wide requirements for a baccalaureate degree are to pass a swimming test, take two physical education courses, and satisfy a writing requirement.[85] A handful of inter-school academic departments offer courses in more than one college. All academic departments are affiliated with at least one college; the last department without such an affiliation, the Cornell Africana Studies and Research Center, merged with the Arts College in July 2011 HP Pavilion dv6-1260sg battery. Seven schools provide undergraduate programs and an additional seven provide graduate and professional programs. Students pursuing graduate degrees in departments of these schools are enrolled in the Graduate School. The School of Continuing Education and Summer Sessions offers programs for college and high school students, professionals, and other adults. HP Pavilion dv6-1260se battery Of the 13,515 undergraduate students, 4,251 (31.5%) are affiliated with the largest college by enrollment, Arts and Sciences, followed by 3,153 (23.3%) in Agriculture and Life Sciences and 2,680 (19.8%) in Engineering. By student enrollment, the smallest of the seven undergraduate colleges is Architecture, Art, and Planning, with 515 (3.8%) students HP Pavilion dv6-1260ev battery. Several other universities have used Cornell as their model, including Stanford University, the University of Sydney in Australia and the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom; the latter on the recommendation of one of its financiers, Andrew Carnegie, who was a Cornell Trustee HP Pavilion dv6-1260et battery. The university also operates eCornell, which offers both certificate programs and professional development courses online. In addition to being New York's land-grant college, Cornell is also is a partner in New York's sea-grant program,[92] is the hub of the Northeast's sun-grant program,[93] and is a part of New York's space-grant consortium. HP Pavilion dv6-1260ep batteryIn 2009, Cornell ranked third among universities in the U.S. in fund-raising, collecting $446.75 million in private support. In addition to the central University development staff located in Ithaca and New York City, each college and program has its own staffed fundraising program. In 2006, Cornell launched a $4 billion fundraising campaign, which reached $3 billion in November 2010 HP Pavilion dv6-1260ej battery. Academics Sage Hall, home to the Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management Cornell is a large, primarily residential research university with a majority of enrollments in undergraduate programs.[97] The university has been accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education since 1921. HP Pavilion dv6-1260ei battery Cornell operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall term beginning in late August and ending in early December, a three week winter session in January, and the spring term beginning in late January and ending in early May.[99] The university awarded the world’s first degree in journalism, the nation’s first university degree in veterinary medicine, and the first doctorates in electrical engineering and industrial engineering HP Pavilion dv6-1260ec battery. It also established the first four-year schools of hotel administration and industrial and labor relations. Cornell was the first U.S. university to offer a major in American studies, and it was the first university to teach modern Far Eastern languages.[4] Cornell and Oregon State University are the only two institutions which are members of the Land Grant, Sea Grant, Space Grant, and Sun Grant programs HP Pavilion dv6-1259tx battery. Admissions For the undergraduate class of 2016, Cornell admitted a total of 6,123 students out of 37,812 applicants, for an acceptance rate of 16.2%. Cornell's College of Arts and Sciences admitted less than 14% of applicants for the class of 2015. For the students enrolling in the class of 2014, 89% of were in the top 10% of their class.[100] For the undergraduate class of 2013 HP Pavilion dv6-1259dx battery, the admission rate was 19.1%.[101] For the undergraduate class of 2012, the admission rate was 20.4%.[102] Of those admitted, the average SAT Verbal score was 700, while the average SAT Math was a 720. Also, 92% of admitted students for the Class of 2011 were in the top 10% of their graduating high school class. Cornell's policy of requiring students to submit all their SAT scores is uncommon among American universities. HP Pavilion dv6-1256tx battery Cornell enrolls students from all 50 U.S. states and more than 120 countries. The Class of 2010 has representatives from all states. As of Fall 2005, 28% of undergraduate students identified themselves as members of ethnic minority groups.[4] Legacy applicants receive a slight advantage in the admission process HP Pavilion dv6-1255tx battery. In 2005, the Graduate School accepted 21.6% of applicants, the Law School accepted 20.6%, and the Veterinary School accepted 10.9%.The Weill Cornell Medical School accepted 4.3%.[109][not in citation given] In 2010, the Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management enrolled 10.1% of its applicants for its two-year MBA program HP Pavilion dv6-1255eg battery. Financial aid The sarcophagus in Sage Chapel of Jennie McGraw, Cornell benefactor At the time of its founding, Cornell University was considered revolutionary because its founder, Ezra Cornell, was committed to access for all students, regardless of economic circumstance. Section 9 of the original charter of Cornell University ensured that the university "shall be open to applicants for admission ... at the lowest rates of expense consistent with its welfare and efficiency, and without distinction as to rank, class, previous occupation or locality." HP Pavilion dv6-1255ee battery The University Charter provided for free instruction to one student chosen from each Assembly district in the state. Within the first 10 years of operation, the university admitted women and underrepresented minority students and provided financial aid for many students, using a combination of grant, loan and work-study opportunities. The university awarded need-based grants as early as 1879, and its first endowed scholarship fund was created in 1892 HP Pavilion dv6-1254tx battery. Starting in the 1950s Cornell coordinated with other Ivy League schools to provide a consistent set of financial aid. However, in 1989, a consent decree to end a Justice Department antitrust investigation ended such coordination. Even after the decree, all Ivy League schools continue to award aid on financial need without offering any athletic scholarships. HP Pavilion dv6-1253cl battery In December 2010, Cornell announced a policy of matching any grant component of financial aid offers from other Ivy League schools, MIT, Duke University or Stanford, if an accepted applicant is trying to decide between Cornell and those other schools. On January 31, 2008, Cornell announced a new financial aid initiative to be phased in over the following two years HP Pavilion dv6-1253ca battery. In the first year, 2008–09, Cornell replaced need-based loans with scholarships for undergraduate students from families with incomes under $60,000 and capped such loans annually at $3,000 for students from families with incomes between $60,000 and $120,000. The following year, 2009–10, the program improved by replacing loan with scholarships for students from families with incomes up to $75,000 HP Pavilion dv6-1252tx battery, and capped annual loans at $3,000 for students from families with income between $75,000 and $120,000. For families above $120,000, need-based loans were capped at $7,500 per year. The initiative costs an additional $14 million per year to fully implement. Although Cornell's endowment dropped 27% in the second half of 2008, its President announced that the financial aid initiative will continue by withdrawing an additional $35 million from the endowment for undergraduate financial aid in 2009–10 HP Pavilion dv6-1250us battery. Cornell is seeking $125 million in gifts to support the financial aid initiative. In 2010, 1,647 of the 3,181 full-time freshmen enrolled were found to have financial need (40%).Of these, Cornell could meet the full financial aid needs of all 1,647 freshmen. Cornell's average undergraduate student's indebtedness at graduation is $21,549 HP Pavilion dv6-1250ss battery. International programs Students performing a Raas, a traditional folk dance from India Cornell offers undergraduate curricula with international focuses, including the Africana Studies, French Studies, German Studies, Jewish Studies, Latino Studies, Near Eastern Studies, Romance Studies, and Russian Literature majors. Cornell was the first university to teach modern Far Eastern languages.[4] In addition to traditional academic programs, Cornell students may study abroad on any of six continents HP Pavilion dv6-1250sp battery. The Asian Studies major, South Asia Program, South East Asia Program and China and Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS) major provide opportunities for students and researchers in Asia. Cornell has an agreement with Peking University allowing students in the CAPS major to spend a semester in Beijing HP Pavilion dv6-1250sn battery. Similarly, the College of Engineering has an agreement to exchange faculty and graduate students with Tsinghua University in Beijing, and the School of Hotel Administration has a joint master's program with Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. The College of Agriculture and Life Sciences has signed an agreement with Japan's National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences HP Pavilion dv6-1250sc battery, as well as the University of the Philippines, Los Baños, to engage in joint research and exchange graduate students and faculty members. It also cooperates in agricultural research with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. In the Middle East, Cornell's efforts focus on biology and medicine. The Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar trains new doctors to improve health services in the region HP Pavilion dv6-1250eq battery. The university is also developing the Bridging the Rift Center, a "Library of Life" (or database of all living systems) on the border of Israel and Jordan, in collaboration with those two countries and Stanford University. Cornell has partnered with Queen's University in Canada to offer a joint Executive MBA. The innovative program includes both on-campus and videoconferencing-based, interactive virtual classroom sessions HP Pavilion dv6-1250ep battery. Graduates of the program earn both a Cornell MBA and a Queen's MBA. Cornell University is member of the United Nations Academic Impact aligning institutions of higher education to the United Nations and promoting international cooperation. Rankings Cornell is usually ranked among the top twenty universities in the world in a variety of rankings. In 2011, Cornell ranked 15th in the QS World University Rankings and 20th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings HP Pavilion dv6-1250eo battery. (in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings). The university ranked 15th in the 2011 U.S. News & World Report National Universities ranking (tied with Brown University), tied for 6th with Columbia University and Brown University in the 2011 U.S. News & World Report High School Counselor rankings HP Pavilion dv6-1250el battery, and 13th globally in an academic ranking of world universities by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2011. Cornell was ranked 38th nationally and sixth among Ivy League universities in The Washington Monthly's 2010 ranking of universities' contributions to research, community service, and social mobility. In 2006, The Princeton Review reported that Cornell ranked ninth as a "dream college" for high school students and their parents, HP Pavilion dv6-1250eg battery however the school is not featured in the 2011 top ten list. Newsweek named Cornell the 'Hottest Ivy' in its 2007 listing of America's 25 Hot Schools. Instead of using the traditional school ranking methods, Newsweek offers a snapshot of today's most interesting colleges according to high school counselors, admissions officers, consultants, students, and parents, who noted Cornell for its emphasis on "problem-solving as well as scholarly debate" and "variety on campus" among other things HP Pavilion dv6-1250eb battery. Forbes ranked Cornell 51st in 2011, based on student criteria. Many of Cornell's schools have been consistently ranked as some of the top schools in the United States. In its annual edition of "America's Best Architecture & Design Schools", the journal DesignIntelligence has consistently ranked Cornell's Bachelor of Architecture program as number one in the nation (2000–2002, 2005–2007, and 2009–2011) HP Pavilion dv6-1249tx battery. In the 2011 survey, the program ranked first and the Master of Architecture program ranked sixth. In 2011 and 2012, Design Intelligence ranked Cornell's Master of Landscape Architecture program 4th in the nation with the undergraduate program placing 8th for the same two years. In 2011, US News and World Report ranked Cornell's Sloan Program in Health Administration 14th in the nation HP Pavilion dv6-1249eo battery. Cornell's 2008 commencement ceremony at Schoellkopf Field Among business schools in the United States, the Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management was ranked 7th by BusinessWeek in 2004, 9th by Forbes in 2005, 14th by U.S. News in 2008, and 18th by The Wall Street Journal in 2005. Worldwide, the school was ranked 17th by The Economist in 2005 and 36th by the Financial Times in 2006. U.S. News ranked the Weill Cornell Medical School as the 15th best in the United States in its 2007 edition HP Pavilion dv6-1248eo battery. The College of Veterinary Medicine was ranked first among national veterinary medicine graduate schools. The Cornell Law School was ranked as the 12th best graduate law program among national universities.[158] In 2005, The National Law Journal reported that Cornell Law had the sixth highest placement rate at the top 50 law firms in the U.S. among law schools with recent graduates HP Pavilion dv6-1248ca battery. Among graduate engineering programs, Cornell was ranked 9th in the United States by U.S. News in 2008. In 2006, Cornell was ranked 1st in the United States and 4th in the world in producing the most graduates who went on to receive engineering or natural science Ph.D.'s at American universities. In its 2006, 2007,[163] and 2008 ranking of undergraduate engineering programs at universities in the United States HP Pavilion dv6-1247tx battery, U.S. News placed Cornell 1st in engineering physics. In 1954, Conrad Hilton called the Cornell School of Hotel Administration "the greatest hotel school in the world."[165] According to the latest ranking of National Research Council in 1995, Cornell ranks sixth nationally in the number of graduate programs in the top ten in their fields.[166] Cornell had 19 ranked in the top 10 in terms of overall academic quality HP Pavilion dv6-1247ez battery. Also National Research Council ranked the quality of faculties as 5th in Arts and Humanities, 6th in Mathematics and Physical Sciences, and 5th in Engineering. Cornell's international relations offerings are also ranked in Foreign Policy magazine's Inside the Ivory Tower survey, which lists the world's top twenty of such programs at the undergraduate, Master's and Ph.D. levels.[169] In 2012, the survey ranked Cornell 11th overall for doctoral programs and 12th overall in the undergraduate category. HP Pavilion dv6-1247et batteryThe Cornell Law Library is one of 12 national depositories for print records of briefs filed with the U.S. Supreme Court. Main article: Cornell University Library The Cornell University Library is the 11th largest academic library in the United States, ranked by number of volumes held. Organized into 20 divisions, in 2005 it held 7.5 million printed volumes in open stacks, 8.2 million microfilms and microfiches, and a total of 440,000 maps, motion pictures, DVDs, sound recordings, and computer files in its collections HP Pavilion dv6-1247eo battery, in addition to extensive digital resources and the University Archives.[172] It was the first among all U.S. colleges and universities to allow undergraduates to borrow books from its libraries.[4] In 2006, The Princeton Review ranked it as the 11th best college library,[173] and it climbed to 6th best in 2009. The library plays an active role in furthering online archiving of scientific and historical documents HP Pavilion dv6-1247cl battery. arXiv, an e-print archive created at Los Alamos National Laboratory by Paul Ginsparg, is operated and primarily funded by Cornell as part of the library's services. The archive has changed the way many physicists and mathematicians communicate, making the e-print a viable and popular means of announcing new research HP Pavilion dv6-1246tx battery. Press and scholarly publications Main article: Cornell University Press The Cornell University Press, established in 1869 but inactive from 1884 to 1930, was the first university publishing enterprise in the United States. Today, the press is one of the country's largest university presses.[4] It produces approximately 150 nonfiction titles each year in various disciplines including anthropology, Asian studies, biological sciences, classics, history, industrial relations, literary criticism and theory, natural history, philosophy, politics and international relations, veterinary science, and women's studies HP Pavilion dv6-1246eo battery. Cornell's academic units and student groups also publish a number of scholarly journals. Faculty-led publications include the Johnson School's Administrative Science Quarterly,[179] the ILR School's Industrial and Labor Relations Review, the Arts and Sciences Philosophy Department's The Philosophical Review, the College of Architecture, Art, and Planning's Journal of Architecture, and the Law School's Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. HP Pavilion dv6-1245et battery Student-led scholarly publications include the Law Review, the Public Affairs School's Cornell Policy Review, the International Law Journal, the Journal of Law and Public Policy, the International Affairs Review, and the HR Review. Research Cornell's Center for Advanced Computing was one of the five original centers of the NSF's Supercomputer Centers Program. Cornell Plantations, located adjacent to the Ithaca campus, is used for conservation research as well as for recreation by Cornellians HP Pavilion dv6-1245es batteryIn the basement of Goldwin Smith Hall, researchers in the Dendrochronology Lab determine the age of archaeological artifacts found at digs Cornell, a research university, is ranked fourth in the world in producing the largest number of graduates who go on to pursue PhDs in engineering or the natural sciences at American institutions, as well as fifth in the world in producing graduates who pursue PhDs at American institutions in any field. HP Pavilion dv6-1245eo battery Research is a central element of the university's mission; in 2009 Cornell spent $671 million on science and engineering research and development, the 16th highest in the United States.[182] For the 2004–05 fiscal year, the university spent $561.3 million on research.[183] The primary recipients of this funding were the colleges of Medicine ($164.2 million), Agriculture and Life Sciences ($114.5 million), Arts and Sciences ($80.3 million), and Engineering ($64.8 million). HP Pavilion dv6-1245dx battery The money comes largely from federal sources, with federal investment of $381.0 million. The federal agencies that invest the most money are the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Science Foundation that make up, respectively, 51.4% and 30.7% of all federal investment in the university. Cornell was on the top-ten list of U.S. universities receiving the most patents in 2003 HP Pavilion dv6-1244tx battery, and was one of the nation's top five institutions in forming start-up companies.[184] In 2004–05, Cornell received 200 invention disclosures, filed 203 U.S. patent applications, completed 77 commercial license agreements, and distributed royalties of more than $4.1 million to Cornell units and inventors. HP Pavilion dv6-1244sb batterySince 1962, Cornell has been involved in unmanned missions to Mars.[185] In the 21st century, Cornell had a hand in the Mars Exploration Rover Mission. Cornell's Steve Squyres, Principal Investigator for the Athena Science Payload, led the selection of the landing zones and requested data collection features for the Spirit and Opportunity rovers. HP Pavilion dv6-1243cl battery Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers took those requests and designed the rovers to meet them. The rovers, both of which have operated long past their original life expectancies, are responsible for the discoveries that were awarded 2004 Breakthrough of the Year honors by Science.[187] Control of the Mars rovers has shifted between NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Caltech and Cornell's Space Sciences Building. HP Pavilion dv6-1242tx battery Further, Cornell researchers discovered the rings around the planet Uranus,[189] and Cornell built and operates the world's largest and most sensitive radiotelescope located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. The Automotive Crash Injury Research project was begun in 1952 by John O. Moore at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, which spun off in 1972 as Calspan Corporation HP Pavilion dv6-1242et battery. It pioneered the use of crash testing, originally using corpses rather than dummies. The project discovered that improved door locks, energy-absorbing steering wheels, padded dashboards, and seat belts could prevent an extraordinary percentage of injuries. The project led Liberty Mutual to fund the building of a demonstration Cornell Safety Car in 1956, which received national publicity and influenced carmakers. HP Pavilion dv6-1241tx battery Carmakers soon started their own crash-test laboratories and gradually adopted many of the Cornell innovations. Other ideas, such as rear-facing passenger seats,[192] never found favor with carmakers or the public.[citation needed] In the early 1980’s, Cornell deployed the first IBM 3090-400VF and coupled two IBM 3090-600E systems to investigate course-grained parallel computing. In 1984, the National Science Foundation began work on establishing five new supercomputer centers HP Pavilion dv6-1241et battery, including the Cornell Center for Advanced Computing, to provide high-speed computing resources for research within the United States. As an NSF center, Cornell deployed the first IBM Scalable Parallel supercomputer. In the 1990’s, Cornell developed scheduling software and deployed the first supercomputer built by Dell. Most recently, Cornell deployed Red Cloud, one of the first cloud computing services designed specifically for research HP Pavilion dv6-1241eo battery. Today, the center is a partner on the National Science Foundation XSEDE supercomputing program, providing coordination for XSEDE architecture and design, systems reliability testing, and online training using the Cornell Virtual Workshop learning platform. Cornell scientists have researched the fundamental particles of nature for more than 70 years. Cornell physicists, such as Hans Bethe, contributed not only to the foundations of nuclear physics but also participated in the Manhattan Project HP Pavilion dv6-1240us battery (see also: List of Cornell Manhattan Project people). In the 1930s, Cornell built the second cyclotron in the United States. In the 1950s, Cornell physicists became the first to study synchrotron radiation. During the 1990s, the Cornell Electron Storage Ring, located beneath Alumni Field, was the world's highest-luminosity electron-positron collider. After building the synchrotron at Cornell HP Pavilion dv6-1240tx battery, Robert R. Wilson took a leave of absence to become the founding director of Fermilab, which involved designing and building the largest accelerator in the United States. Cornell's accelerator and high-energy physics groups are involved in the design of the proposed International Linear Collider and plan to participate in its construction and operation HP Pavilion dv6-1240sh battery. The International Linear Collider, to be completed in the late 2010s, will complement the Large Hadron Collider and shed light on questions such as the identity of dark matter and the existence of extra dimensions. In the area of humanities and social sciences, Cornell is best known for being one of the world's greatest centers for the study of Southeast Asia. The Southeast Asia Program (SEAP) at Cornell is designated as a National Resource Center (NRC) HP Pavilion dv6-1240sf battery by the United States Department of Education 2010–2014. Therefore, the SEAP is nationally prominent in promoting advanced foreign language training, area and international knowledge in the liberal arts and applied discipline focused on Southeast Asia.[198] The George McTurnan Kahin Center for Advanced Research on Southeast Asia is located in the historic "Treman House." HP Pavilion dv6-1240sb battery The house was built by Robert Henry Treman, the son of an enterprising local family and the first member of that family to attend Cornell University and be elected to its board of trustees. The George McTurnan Kahin Center is home to SEAP graduate students, visiting fellows and scholars, faculty members, and SEAP's Publication and Outreach offices HP Pavilion dv6-1240ez battery. For the 2006–07 academic year, Cornell had 901 registered student organizations. These clubs and organizations run the gamut from kayaking to full-armor jousting, from varsity and club sports and a cappella groups to improvisational theatre, from political clubs and publications to chess and video game clubs HP Pavilion dv6-1240ep battery. They are subsidized financially by academic departments and/or the Student Assembly and the Graduate & Professional Student Assembly, two student-run organizations with a collective budget of $3.0 million per year. The assemblies also finance other student life programs including a concert commission and an on-campus theater. HP Pavilion dv6-1240eo battery The Cornell International Affairs Society sends over 100 Cornellians to collegiate Model United Nations conferences across North America and hosts the Cornell Model United Nations Conference each spring for over 500 high school students. Additionally, the Cornell International Affairs Society's travelling Model United Nations team is ranked number 16 in the nation. HP Pavilion dv6-1240el battery Cornell United Religious Work is a collaboration among many diverse religious traditions, helping to provide spiritual resources throughout a student's time at college. The Cornell Catholic Community is the largest Catholic student organization on campus, updated to Vatican II in 2004 by Mr. Jackson Browne. Mr. Browne, a quiet student of religious studies and known best for his relationship between the Provost and many Student organizations HP Pavilion dv6-1240ek battery. Student organizations also include a myriad of musical groups that play everything from classical, jazz, to ethnic styles in addition to the Big Red Marching Band, which performs regularly at football games and other campus events. Organized in 1868, the oldest Cornell student organization is the Cornell University Glee Club HP Pavilion dv6-1240ei battery. The university is home to two secret honor societies called Sphinx Head and Quill and Dagger that have maintained a presence on campus for well over 120 years. It also has a Student Innovation Group, a think-tank dedicated to improving student life on campus. Cornell hosts a large fraternity and sorority system, with 70 chapters involving 33% of male and 24% of female undergraduates. Alpha Phi Alpha, the first intercollegiate Greek-letter organization established for African Americans, was founded at Cornell in 1906 HP Pavilion dv6-1240ef battery. During the 2004–05 academic year, the Greek system committed 21,668 community service and advocacy hours and raised $176,547 in philanthropic efforts.[210] However, the administration has expressed concerns over student misconduct in the system. In 2004–05, of the 251 social events registered with the Office of Fraternity and Sorority Affairs HP Pavilion dv6-1240ed battery, 37 (15%) resulted in a complaint. In that same year, there were five reported instances of property destruction, five reports of bias, three hazing incidents, and various other allegations.[210] Misconduct by students, faculty or staff is reviewed by the Judicial Administrator, who administers Cornell's justice system. However, students accused of academic and conduct code violations at Cornell are entitled to representation in the Cornell justice system by the Office of the Judicial Codes Counselor HP Pavilion dv6-1240ec battery. Judicial Codes Counselors are usually Cornell Law students appointed by the University president to advocate for students accused of academic and conduct code violations. In addition to the right to representation, Cornell students have the right to not self-incriminate during Judicial Administrator investigations, which is an unusual (though very important) right in college justice systems HP Pavilion dv6-1240ea battery. Press and radio The Cornell student body produces several works by way of print and radio. Student-run press outlets include The Cornell Daily Sun, the oldest continuously independent college daily newspaper in the United States; The Cornell Lunatic, a campus humor magazine; the Cornell Chronicle, the university's newspaper of record; The Cornell Review HP Pavilion dv6-1239tx battery, a conservative newspaper;, Kitsch Magazine, a feature magazine published in cooperation with Ithaca College, and Law and Society Review, a university-wide undergraduate publication. The Cornellian is an independent student organization that organizes, arranges, produces, edits, and publishes the yearbook of the same name; it is composed of artistic photos of the campus, student life, HP Pavilion dv6-1239et battery and athletics, as well as the standard senior portraits. It carries the Silver Crown Award for Journalism as well as a Benjamin Franklin Award for Print Design – the only Ivy League Yearbook with such a distinction. Cornellians are represented over the radio waves on WVBR, an independent commercial FM radio station owned and operated by Cornell students. Other student groups also operate internet streaming audio sites HP Pavilion dv6-1239es battery. Housing One of several footbridges that span Cornell's gorges and ease commuting from housing to academic buildings on campus University housing is broadly divided into three sections: North Campus, West Campus, and Collegetown. Since a 1997 residential initiative, West Campus houses transfer and returning students, whereas North Campus is almost entirely populated by freshmen. HP Pavilion dv6-1238nr batteryThe only options for living on North Campus for upperclassmen are the program houses: Risley Residential College, Just About Music, the Ecology House, Holland International Living Center, the Multicultural Living Learning Unit, the Latino Living Center, Akwe:kon, and Ujamaa. In an attempt to create a sense of community and an atmosphere of education outside the classroom and continue Andrew Dickson White's vision HP Pavilion dv6-1238et battery, a $250 million reconstruction of West Campus created residential colleges there for undergraduates. The idea of building a house system can be attributed in part to the success of Risley Residential College, the oldest continually operating residential college at Cornell. Additionally, Cornell has several housing areas for graduate and professional students. Of these, Schuyler House (which was formerly a part of Sage Infirmary) and Hughes Hall (which is the domitory wing of the law school complex) have a dorm layout HP Pavilion dv6-1238es battery, while Maplewood Apartments, Hasbrouck Apartments, and Thurston Court Apartments are apartment-style, some even allowing for family living. Off campus, many single family houses in the East Hill neighborhoods adjacent to the university have been converted to apartments. Private developers have also built several multi-story apartment complexes in the Collegetown neighborhood HP Pavilion dv6-1238ca battery. Nine percent of undergraduate students reside in fraternity and sorority houses, although first semester freshmen are not permitted to join them.[225] Cornell’s Greek system has 67 chapters and over 54 Greek residences that house approximately 1,500 students. About 42% of Greek members live in their houses.[226] Housing cooperatives or other independent living units exist, including Watermargin, Telluride House, Triphammer Cooperative, the Center for Jewish Living HP Pavilion dv6-1237et battery, the Wait Cooperative and most famously the ever-prestigious, Cayuga Lodge. As of 2008, Cornell's dining system was ranked 11th in the nation by the Princeton Review. The university has 30 on-campus dining locations, and a program called the Cross Country Gourmet Guest Restaurant Series periodically brings chefs, menus, and atmosphere from restaurants to Cornell's ten cafeterias HP Pavilion dv6-1237es battery. Main article: Cornell Big Red A 1908 print depicting a Cornell baseball player Cornell has 36 varsity intercollegiate teams that have the nickname of the Big Red. An NCAA Division I institution, Cornell is a member of the Ivy League and ECAC Hockey and competes in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), the largest athletic conference in North America.[230] (Note that ECAC Hockey is no longer affiliated with the ECAC.) HP Pavilion dv6-1237ca battery Cornell's varsity athletic teams currently are highly successful within the Ivy League and consistently challenge for NCAA Division I titles in a number of sports, including men's lacrosse, men's ice hockey, and rowing (the women's crew program is subject to the NCAA, while the men's rowing program is governed by its own administrative body, the Intercollegiate Rowing Association). Under the Ivy League athletic agreement, the university does not offer athletic scholarships for athletic recruiting HP Pavilion dv6-1236ss battery. Cornell University's football team had at least a share of the national championship four times before 1940 and has won the Ivy League championship three times, last in 1990.[234] Cornell's Men's Heavyweight Rowing program has won the national championship a record 38 times (12 under the RAAC format and 26 under the IRA format), making it one of the most successful athletic programs in the history of intercollegiate sports HP Pavilion dv6-1236et battery. The Cornell Men's Ice Hockey team has won the national championship twice. In addition to the school's varsity athletics, club sports teams have been organized as student organizations under the auspices of the Dean of Students. Cornell's intramural program includes 30 sports. Beside such familiar sports such as flag football, squash, or water polo, such unusual offerings as "inner tube water polo" and formerly "broomstick polo" have been offered, as well as a sports trivia competition. HP Pavilion dv6-1236eo battery Cornell students also often participate in the International Rutabaga Curling Championship, held annually at the Ithaca Farmers' Market. Cornell also has a rich history of martial arts on campus, particularly Sport Taekwondo.[236] Since 1987, Cornell Sport Taekwondo has competed in the Ivy-Northeast Collegiate Taekwondo League (INCTL). In 2007 after a 4 year slump, Cornell Sport Taekwondo defeated MIT Sport Taekwondo to take the INCTL Cup HP Pavilion dv6-1235ss battery. Cornelliana A tradition started in 1901, Dragon Day celebrates a feat by first-year architecture students to construct a colossal dragon to be paraded to center campus and then burned. An ivy-covered emblem of Ezra Cornell circumscribed by the university motto Main article: Cornelliana Cornelliana is a term for Cornell's traditions, legends, and lore. Cornellian traditions include Slope Day, a celebration held on the last day of classes of the spring semester, and Dragon Day, which includes the burning of a dragon built by architecture students HP Pavilion dv6-1235sb battery. Dragon Day is one of the school's oldest traditions and has been celebrated annually since 1901, typically on or near St. Patrick's Day. The dragon is built secretly by the architecture students, and taunting messages are left for the engineering students for the week before Dragon Day. On Dragon Day, the dragon is paraded across the Arts Quad and then set afire HP Pavilion dv6-1235et battery. According to legend, if a virgin crosses the Arts Quad at midnight, the statues of Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White will walk off their pedestals, meet in the center of the Quad, and shake hands, congratulating themselves on the chastity of students. There is also another myth that if a couple crosses the suspension bridge on North Campus, and the young woman does not accept a kiss from her partner, the bridge will fall HP Pavilion dv6-1235es battery. If the kiss is accepted, the couple is assured a long future together. The university is also host to various student pranks. For example, on at least two different occasions the university has awoken to find something odd atop the 173-foot (52.7 m) tall McGraw clock tower—once a 60-pound (27 kg) pumpkin and another time a disco ball. Because there is no access to the spire atop the tower, how the items were put in place remains a mystery HP Pavilion dv6-1235eo battery. The colors of the lights on McGraw tower change to orange for Halloween and green for St. Patrick's Day.[241] The clock tower also plays music. The school colors are carnelian (a shade of red) and white, a play on "Cornellian" and Andrew Dickson White. A bear is commonly used as the unofficial mascot, which dates back to the introduction of the mascot "Touchdown" in 1915 HP Pavilion dv6-1235ee battery, a live bear who was brought onto the field during football games. The university's alma mater is "Far Above Cayuga's Waters", and its fight song is "Give My Regards to Davy". People associated with the university are called "Cornellians". Health Cornell offers a variety of professional and peer counseling services to students. Gannett Clinic offers on-campus outpatient health services with emergency services and residential treatment provided by Cayuga Medical Center. For most of its history HP Pavilion dv6-1235ec battery, Cornell provided residential medical care for sick students, including at the historic Sage Infirmary. Cornell offers specialized reproductive health and family planning services. The university received worldwide attention for a series of six student suicides that occurred during the 2009–10 school year, and they have since added temporary fences to its bridges while more permanent measures are in process. Before this abnormal cluster of suicides HP Pavilion dv6-1234tx battery, the suicide rate at Cornell had been similar to or below the suicide rates of other American universities, including a period between 2005 and 2008 in which no suicides occurred. People See also: List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Cornell University Cornell counts numerous notable individuals who have either come to the university as faculty to teach and to conduct research, or as students who have gone on to do noteworthy things. In total, 41 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Cornell as faculty or students HP Pavilion dv6-1234nr battery. Faculty 1916 Cornell faculty Main article: List of Cornell University faculty As of 2009, Cornell had 1,639 full-and part-time faculty members affiliated with its main campus,[4] 1,235 affiliated with its New York City divisions, and 34 affiliated with its campus in Qatar.[4] Cornell's faculty for the 2005–06 academic year included three Nobel laureates, a Crafoord Prize winner, two Turing Award winners, a Fields Medal winner HP Pavilion dv6-1234eo battery, two Legion of Honor recipients, a World Food Prize winner, an Andrei Sakharov Prize winner, three National Medal of Science winners, two Wolf Prize winners, five MacArthur award winners, four Pulitzer Prize winners, a Carter G. Woodson Scholars Medallion recipient, 20 National Science Foundation career grant holders, a recipient of the National Academy of Sciences Award HP Pavilion dv6-1233et battery, a recipient of the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement, a recipient of the Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, and three Packard Foundation grant holders. Kurt Lewin taught at Cornell from 1933 to 1935 and is considered the "father of social psychology". Norman Borlaug taught at the university from 1982 to 1988 and is considered the "father of the Green Revolution", being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize HP Pavilion dv6-1233eo battery, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal, and 49 honorary doctorates. Frances Perkins joined the Cornell faculty in 1952 after serving as the first female member of the United States Cabinet and served until her death in 1965. Perkins was a witness to the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in her adolescence and went on to champion the National Labor Relations Act, the Fair Labor Standards Act HP Pavilion dv6-1232ss battery, and the Social Security Act while United States Secretary of Labor. Buckminster Fuller was a visiting professor at Cornell for one year (1952), and Henry Louis Gates, African American Studies scholar and subject of an arrest controversy and White House "Beer Summit", taught at Cornell from 1985 to 1989. Emmy Award-winning actor John Cleese, known for his roles in Monty Python HP Pavilion dv6-1232et battery, James Bond, Harry Potter, and Shrek, has taught at Cornell since 1999. Charles Evans Hughes taught in the law school from 1893 to 1895 before becoming Governor of New York, United States Secretary of State, and Chief Justice of the United States. Georgios Papanikolaou, who taught at Cornell's medical school from 1913 to 1961, invented the Pap smear test for cervical cancer. Carl Sagan was a professor at the university from 1968 to 1996 HP Pavilion dv6-1232eo battery. He narrated and co-wrote the PBS series Cosmos, the Emmy- and Peabody-award-winning show that became the most watched series in public-television history. He also wrote the novel Contact, the basis for a 1997 film of the same name, and he won a Pulitzer Prize for his novel The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence. M. H. Abrams is a professor emeritus of English and was the founding editor of The Norton Anthology of English Literature HP Pavilion dv6-1231eo battery. Cornell has twice (2008 and 2009) been named a "Great College to Work For" by The Chronicle of Higher Education, due to receiving high ratings in compensation and benefits, connection to institution and pride, faculty-administration relations, job satisfaction, and post-retirement benefits HP Pavilion dv6-1230us battery. Alumni Main article: List of Cornell University alumni Cornell counted 245,027 living alumni as of August 2008. Its alumni constitute 31 Marshall Scholars and 28 Rhodes Scholars, and Cornell is the only university with three female winners (Pearl S. Buck, Barbara McClintock, and Toni Morrison) of unshared Nobel Prizes among its graduates. Many alumni maintain university ties through Homecoming's reunion weekend, through Cornell Magazine, and through the Cornell Club of New York HP Pavilion dv6-1230ss battery. In 2005, Cornell ranked #3 nationwide for gifts and bequests from alumni. The Cornell Club in New York City is a focal point for alumni. Cornellians are noted for their accomplishments in public, professional, and corporate life. Lee Teng-hui was president of Taiwan,[262] Mario García Menocal was president of Cuba,[263] Jamshid Amuzegar was prime minister of Iran, Hu Shih was a Chinese reformer and representative to the United Nations, Janet Reno ('60) HP Pavilion dv6-1230sl battery was the first female United States Attorney General, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg ('54) serves on the Supreme Court.[267] Alumnus David Starr Jordan (1872) was the founding president of Stanford University,[268] and M. Carey Thomas (1877) founded Bryn Mawr College. Additionally, alumnus Matt Urban ('41) holds the distinction as the most decorated serviceman in United States history HP Pavilion dv6-1230sf battery. Cornellians in business include: Citigroup CEO Sanford Weill, Goldman Sachs Group Chairman Stephen Friedman, Kraft Foods CEO Irene Rosenfeld, Aetna CEO Mark Bertolini ('84),[274] S.C. Johnson & Son CEO Fisk Johnson ('79, '80, '82, '84, '86),[275] Cargill Chairman Warren Staley ('67), Chevron Chairman Kenneth T. Derr ('59), Sprint Nextel CEO Dan Hesse, Verizon CEO Lowell McAdam ('76),[279] Mastercard CEO Robert Selander ('72), HP Pavilion dv6-1230sb battery Coors Brewing Company CEO Adolph Coors, Loews Corporation Chairman Andrew Tisch ('71), Baupost Group founder Seth Klarman ('79), Burger King founder James McLamore ('47), Hotels.com founder David Litman ('79), PeopleSoft founder David Duffield ('62), Priceline.com founder Jay Walker, Staples founder Myra Hart ('62), Qualcomm founder Irwin M. Jacobs ('56), and Tata Group CEO Ratan Tata HP Pavilion dv6-1230ew battery. In medicine, alumnus Robert Atkins developed the Atkins Diet, Henry Heimlich ('47) developed the Heimlich maneuver, Wilson Greatbatch ('50) invented the pacemaker,[293] James Maas ('66; also a faculty member) coined the term "power nap",[294] and C. Everett Koop ('41) served as Surgeon General of the United States HP Pavilion dv6-1230et battery. A number of Cornellians have been prominent innovators. Thomas Midgley, Jr. ('11) invented Freon,[296] Jon Rubinstein ('78) is credited with the development of the iPod,[297] and Robert Tappan Morris developed the first computer worm on the Internet. Eight Cornellians have served as NASA astronauts, Steve Squyres ('81) is the principal investigator on the Mars Exploration Rover Mission,[298] and Bill Nye ('77) is well known as "The Science Guy". HP Pavilion dv6-1230er batteryIn literature, Toni Morrison ('50; Nobel laureate) is well known for her novel Beloved, Pearl S. Buck ('25; Nobel laureate) authored The Good Earth,[300] Thomas Pynchon ('59) penned such canonical works of postwar American fiction as Gravity's Rainbow and The Crying of Lot 49, and E. B. White ('21) authored Charlotte's Web and Stuart Little HP Pavilion dv6-1230eq battery. Media personalities who have graduated from Cornell include conservative Ann Coulter ('84) and liberals Bill Maher ('78) and Keith Olbermann ('79). Several Cornellians have also achieved critical acclaim in entertainment. Christopher Reeve ('74) played Superman, Frank Morgan was The Wizard of Oz, Jimmy Smits ('82) was in Star Wars,[271] and Ronald D. Moore created the 2004 remake of Battlestar Galactica. On the architectural front, alumnus Richmond Shreve (1902) designed the Empire State Building, HP Pavilion dv6-1230eo battery and Raymond M. Kennedy ('15) designed Hollywood's famous Grauman's Chinese Theatre.[305] In athletics, Cornell graduates include football legend Glenn "Pop" Warner (1894), former head coach of the United States men's national soccer team Bruce Arena ('73), National Hockey League commissioner Gary Bettman ('74), six-time Stanley Cup winning hockey goalie Ken Dryden ('69)[309] and Toronto Raptors president Bryan Colangelo ('87) HP Pavilion dv6-1230ek battery. Alumni also include Super Bowl champions Kevin Boothe and Ed Marinaro ('71). Fictional alumni have been portrayed in several films, television shows, and books. Characters include Andy Bernard of The Office,[312] Natalie Keener of Up in the Air,[313] and Christina Pagniacci (portrayed by Cameron Diaz) in Any Given Sunday. The Johns Hopkins University[5] (informally Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins) is a private research university based in Baltimore, Maryland, United States HP Pavilion dv6-1230ej battery. The university was founded on January 22, 1876 and named for its benefactor, the philanthropist Johns Hopkins.[6] Daniel Coit Gilman was inaugurated as first president on February 22, 1876.[7] Johns Hopkins maintains campuses in Maryland; Washington, D.C.; Italy; China and Singapore. The university is organized into two undergraduate divisions and five graduate divisions on two main campuses HP Pavilion dv6-1230ed battery—the Homewood campus and the Medical Institutions campus—both located in Baltimore. The university also consists of the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, the Peabody Institute, the Carey Business School, and various other facilities. Johns Hopkins pioneered the concept of the modern research university in the United States and has ranked among the world's top such universities throughout its history HP Pavilion dv6-1230ec battery. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has ranked Johns Hopkins #1 among U.S. academic institutions in total science, medical and engineering research and development spending for 31 consecutive years.[8] As of 2011, thirty-seven Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins,[9] and the university's research is among the most cited in the world HP Pavilion dv6-1230ca battery. History The philanthropist and the founding See also: Johns Hopkins' Philanthropy and Legacy Johns Hopkins On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million (Between $140 million to $1.6 billion in 2011 dollars, by varying estimates) to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States HP Pavilion dv6-1229tx battery. The first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins. Samuel named one of his sons after his father and that son would be the university's benefactor HP Pavilion dv6-1229sf battery. In his 2001 undergraduate commencement address, university president William R. Brody said about the name: "In 1888, just 12 years after the university was founded, Mark Twain wrote about this university in a letter to a friend. He said: 'A few months ago I was told that the Johns Hopkins University had given me a degree. I naturally supposed this constituted me a Member of the Faculty and so I started in to help as I could there HP Pavilion dv6-1229et battery. I told them I believed they were perfectly competent to run a college as far as the higher branches of education are concerned, but what they needed was a little help here and there from a practical commercial man. I said the public is sensitive to little things and they wouldn't have full confidence in a college that didn't know how to spell the name John HP Pavilion dv6-1229er battery.' More than a century later, we continue to bestow diplomas upon individuals of outstanding capabilities and great talent. And we continue to spell Johns with an s." Milton Eisenhower, a former university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as "President of John Hopkins." Eisenhower retorted that he was "glad to be here in Pittburgh." HP Pavilion dv6-1228tx battery[edit]Early years and Daniel Coit Gilman The original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the modern research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the scientific discovery of new knowledge HP Pavilion dv6-1228sf battery. The founders intended the university to be national in scope to strengthen ties across a divided country in the aftermath of the American Civil War. Therefore, the university's official inauguration took on great significance: 1876 was the nation's centennial year and February 22 was George Washington's birthday HP Pavilion dv6-1228ez battery. Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about the Early History. The University's viability depended on its first president, Daniel Coit Gilman, recruited from the presidency of the University of California. Gilman launched what many at the time considered an audacious and unprecedented academic experiment to merge teaching and research. He dismissed the idea that the two were mutually exclusive HP Pavilion dv6-1227sf battery: "The best teachers are usually those who are free, competent and willing to make original researches in the library and the laboratory," he stated. To implement his plan, Gilman recruited internationally known luminaries such as the biologist H. Newell Martin; the physicist Henry A. Rowland (the first president of the American Physical Society), the classical scholars Basil Gildersleeve and Charles D. Morris;[16] the economist Richard T. Ely HP Pavilion dv6-1225tx battery; and the chemist Ira Remsen, who became the second president of the university in 1901. Daniel Coit Gilman Gilman focused on the expansion of knowledge, graduate education and support of faculty research. To Gilman, Johns Hopkins existed not for the sake of God, the state, the community, the board, the parents, or even the students, but for knowledge. Faculty who added to such knowledge were rewarded HP Pavilion dv6-1225sv battery. A complementary focus on graduate education fused advanced scholarship with such professional schools as medicine and engineering. Hopkins became the national trendsetter in doctoral programs and the host for numerous scholarly journals and associations with the founding of the first U.S. university press in 1878 HP Pavilion dv6-1225ss battery. With the completion of Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1889 and the medical school in 1893, the university's research–focused mode of instruction soon began attracting world-renowned faculty members who would become major figures in the emerging field of academic medicine, including William Osler, William Halsted, Howard Kelly, and William Welch HP Pavilion dv6-1225so battery. During this period Hopkins made more history by becoming the first medical school to admit women on an equal basis with men and to require a Bachelors degree, based on the efforts of Mary E. Garrett, who had endowed the school at Gilman's request. In his will and in his instructions to the trustees of the university and the hospital, Hopkins requested that both institutions be built upon the vast grounds of his Baltimore estate HP Pavilion dv6-1225sf battery, Clifton. When Gilman assumed the presidency, he decided that it would be best to use the university's endowment for recruiting faculty and students, deciding to "build men, not buildings." In his will Hopkins stipulated that none of his endowment should be used for construction; only interest on the principal could be used for this purpose. Unfortunately, stocks in The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad HP Pavilion dv6-1225ew battery, which would have generated most of the interest, became virtually worthless soon after Hopkins's death. The university's first home was thus in Downtown Baltimore delaying plans to site the university in Clifton. This decision became the only major criticism of Gilman's presidency. In the early 20th century the university outgrew its buildings and the trustees began to search for a new home HP Pavilion dv6-1225et battery. Developing Clifton for the university was too costly, and so the estate became a public park. In the end, the 140 acres (57 ha) estate in north Baltimore known as Homewood was purchased as the university's new campus with assistance from prominent Baltimore citizens. Since the 1910s, Johns Hopkins University has famously been a "fertile cradle" to Arthur Lovejoy's history of ideas HP Pavilion dv6-1225er battery. Institutions The Johns Hopkins University Press, founded in 1878, is the oldest American university press in continuous operation. Along with the hospital, Hopkins established one of the nation's oldest schools of nursing in 1889. The school of medicine was America's first coeducational, graduate-level medical school, and was a prototype for academic medicine that emphasized bedside learning, research projects, and laboratory training HP Pavilion dv6-1225ei battery. In 1909, the university was among the first to start adult continuing education programs and in 1916 it founded the US' first school of public health. Programs in international studies and the performing arts were established in 1950 and 1977 when the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies in Washington D.C and the Peabody Institute in Baltimore became divisions of the university HP Pavilion dv6-1225ef battery. Civil rights African-Americans Hopkins was a prominent abolitionist who supported Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War. After his death, reports said his conviction was a decisive factor in enrolling Hopkins' first African-American student, Kelly Miller, a graduate student in physics, astronomy and mathematics, and in admitting Harvard-trained physician Whitfield Winsey and two other African-American physicians to Maryland's Medical and Chirurgical Society MedChi. HP Pavilion dv6-1225ee battery These physicians could attend meetings only because they were held on campus. As the memory of Hopkins faded and trustees like King died, Hopkins became like other Baltimore institutions, particularly in terms of race. The Johns Hopkins University chronology stated that on March 15, 1892, an administrator hired by Gilman recommended that the hospital should have a "…separate ward for colored patients." HP Pavilion dv6-1224eo batteryJohns Hopkins Hospital subsequently became segregated. Johns Hopkins' "separate but equal" stance was evident when it came to these segregated wards: "Special care will be taken to see that the heating and ventilation apparatus is as perfect as possible. A sun balcony will be erected on each floor on the east side, for convalescents, while a sun bay-window will be constructed at the south end of the south wing HP Pavilion dv6-1223sl battery. On each floor there will be a dining room, kitchen, lavatory and bath-rooms...The building will be fireproof throughout."[19] As segregation grew within Johns Hopkins institutions, it affected pay, hiring and promotions. Staff in segregated wards and those employed in the lower rungs of the service industries had the longest history within the Johns Hopkins Institutions HP Pavilion dv6-1223sf battery. Johns Hopkins' students, physicians, administrators and staff of African descent had a much shorter history within these institutions. The first black undergraduate was Frederick Scott who entered the school in 1945. In 1967 the first black students earned graduate degrees. Dr. James Nabwangu a British-trained Kenyan, was the first black graduate of the medical school. A second was earned by Robert Gamble. HP Pavilion dv6-1223eo batteryThe first African-American instructor was laboratory supervisor Vivien Thomas, who also invented and developed research instruments, served as an assistant in surgery to surgeon Alfred Blalock and worked closely with Blalock and Helen Taussig in developing and conducting the first successful blue baby operation. Black students and professionals were rare at Johns Hopkins Institutions and Maryland's state medical societies until after the 1940s HP Pavilion dv6-1222tx battery. Diversity increased only in the 1960s and 1970s. African-Americans and women were labeled "The Uninvited" in the second major history of the university. [edit]Women Hopkins' most well–known battle for women's rights was the one led by daughters of trustees of the university; Mary E. Garrett, M. Carey Thomas, Mamie Gwinn, Elizabeth King, and Julia Rogers. HP Pavilion dv6-1222sl battery They donated and raised the funds needed to open the medical school, and required Hopkins' officials to agree to their stipulation that women would be admitted. Unfortunately, this stipulation applied only to the medical school. Other graduate schools were opened to women by president Ira Remsen only in 1907. Christine Ladd-Franklin was the first woman to earn a PhD at Hopkins, in mathematics in 1882 HP Pavilion dv6-1222et battery. The trustees denied her the degree and refused to change the policy about admitting women; she finally received her degree 44 years later. In 1893 Florence Bascomb became the university's first female PhD. The nursing school opened in 1889 and accepted women and men as students. The decision to admit women at undergraduate level was not considered until the late 1960s and was eventually adopted in October 1969 HP Pavilion dv6-1222eo battery; in the fall of 1970, 90 females, five of them African-American, became undergraduates. In the academic year 1970–1971, 4.7% of students in the Arts and Sciences programs were women. In the year 1985–1986 the proportion of female students in the Arts and Sciences programs had increased to around 38%. As of 2009–2010, the undergraduate population was 47% female and 53% male. HP Pavilion dv6-1221tx batteryHomewood Main article: Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University Homewood House Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences: The Krieger School offers more than 60 undergraduate majors and minors and more than 40 graduate programs.[23] G.W.C. Whiting School of Engineering: The Whiting School contains 14 undergraduate and graduate engineering programs and 12 additional areas of study. School of Education: Originally established in 1909 as The School of Professional Studies in Business and Education, the divisions of Education and Business became separate schools in 2007 HP Pavilion dv6-1221sl battery. The first campus was located on Howard Street. Eventually, they relocated to Homewood, in northern Baltimore, the estate of Charles Carroll, son of the oldest surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence. Carroll's Homewood House is considered one of the finest examples of Federal residential architecture HP Pavilion dv6-1221eo battery. The estate then came to the Wyman family, which participated in making it the park-like main campus of the schools of arts and sciences and engineering at the start of the 20th century. Most of its architecture was modeled after the Federal style of Homewood House. Homewood House is preserved as a museum. Most undergraduate programs are here HP Pavilion dv6-1221ax battery. East Baltimore Johns Hopkins Hospital Collectively known as Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions (JHMI) campus, the East Baltimore facility occupies several city blocks spreading from the Johns Hopkins Hospital trademark dome. School of Nursing: The School of Nursing is is one of America's oldest and pre-eminent schools for nursing education. It has consistently ranked first in the nation. HP Pavilion dv6-1220tx batterySchool of Medicine: The School of Medicine is widely regarded as one of the best medical schools and biomedical research institutes in the world. Bloomberg School of Public Health: The Bloomberg School was founded in 1916, the world's first and largest public health school. It has consistently been ranked first in its field.[28] Downtown Baltimore Peabody Institute Carey Business School: The Carey Business School was established in 2007, incorporating divisions of the former School of Professional Studies in Business and Education HP Pavilion dv6-1220st battery. It was originally located on Charles Street, but relocated to the Legg Mason building in Harbor East in 2011. Peabody Institute: founded in 1857, is the oldest continuously active music conservatory in the United States; it became a division of Johns Hopkins in 1977. The Conservatory retains its own student body and grants degrees in musicology and performance, though both Hopkins and Peabody students may take courses at both institutions. It is located on East Mount Vernon Place HP Pavilion dv6-1220ss battery. Washington, D.C. Washington D.C. Campus (SAIS) Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) is located on the Washington D.C. campus near Dupont Circle. SAIS is devoted to international studies, particularly international relations, diplomacy, and economics. SAIS has full-time international campuses in Bologna, Italy and Nanjing, China. Founded in 1943, SAIS became a part of the university in 1950 HP Pavilion dv6-1220sp battery. In a 2005 survey 65% of respondents ranked SAIS as the nation's top Master's Degree program in International Relations.[29] The Krieger School of Arts and Sciences' Advanced Academic Programs (AAP) Carey Business School The Washington, D.C. campus is on Massachusetts Avenue. Laurel, Maryland Installing a New Horizons Imager at the APL Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL): The APL in Laurel, Maryland, specializes in research for the U.S. Department of Defense, NASA and other government and civilian research agencies. It has developed more than 100 biomedical devices, many in collaboration with the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions HP Pavilion dv6-1220so battery. The Applied Physics Laboratory, a division of the university co-equal to the nine schools but with a non-academic mission, lies between Baltimore and Washington in Laurel, Maryland. Other campuses see also List of Johns Hopkins University Research Centers and Institutes Domestic Columbia, Maryland Center (Branches of The Carey Business School[32] and The School of Education) HP Pavilion dv6-1220sh batteryMontgomery County, Maryland Campus (Part-time programs in Biosciences, Engineering, Business & Education[34]) [edit]International The SAIS Bologna Center, Italy The SAIS Hopkins-Nanjing Center for Chinese and American Studies, China Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music (Collaboration between the Peabody Institute and the National University of Singapore) In 2009, JHU ranked fifth among US universities in private fund–raising, collecting $433.39 million HP Pavilion dv6-1220sd battery. The President is JHU's chief executive officer, and the university is organized into nine academic divisions. Campus environmental initiatives Johns Hopkins University has implemented a number of sustainability initiatives.[37] In 2011, the Sustainable Endowments Institute gave Johns Hopkins a College Sustainability Report Card grade of "C+." In particular the Institute criticized JHU for failing to disclose its endowment's holdings and proxy voting record on environmental issues. HP Pavilion dv6-1220sb batteryTransportation In 2007 carbon emissions were inventoried and electric vehicles were used for some campus transportation needs. Food As of 2007 dining services managers sought locally–sourced produce and seafood, and integrated organic food into menus.[39] In addition, the smaller cafés around campus sell exclusively organic, shade–grown coffees. A small pilot composting program operated on the undergraduate campus HP Pavilion dv6-1220sa battery. Buildings In 2007 the university was pursuing LEED certification for several buildings.[39] Energy retrofits in certain buildings have resulted in over 50% less energy consumption.[39] Retrofits included a green roof, experimentation with waterless urinals and low-flow shower heads, and upgraded fluorescent lighting that reduced electricity for lighting on one campus by over 40 percent HP Pavilion dv6-1220ez battery. Similar lighting retrofits were underway at all campuses. At the beginning of 2012, Hopkins sustainability announced the installation of 2,708 solar panels atop buildings at Homewood (Rec/Athletic Center, Mattin Center), the Eastern Building on 33rd Street and the East Baltimore Campus (Pinkard Building, 2024 Building, Bloomberg Building, Hampton House). These solar panels will produce 997,400 kWh and decrease 1,200,000 lbs of greenhouse gases each year. HP Pavilion dv6-1220ew batteryWater In 2004, one campus completed a water conservation retrofit that annually saved over 8,000,000 US gallons (30,000,000 l) of water. Student support As of 2010 students contributed significantly to environmental initiatives, setting up the JHU recycling program, hosting a national "Greening" conference, launching a transportation shuttle service between campuses and making the campus more bike-friendly. HP Pavilion dv6-1220ev battery Each year, students conduct the "S.E.X.:I.T." competition to see which dormitory can save the most electricity. Organization The Johns Hopkins entity is structured as two corporations, the university and The Johns Hopkins Health System, formed in 1986. The latter has grown into the bigger entity, with fiscal year 2005 consolidated net revenue of $3.3 billion, employing 27,700 people, including some 4,700 full–time physicians. HP Pavilion dv6-1220er batteryJHU's bylaws specify a Board of Trustees of between 18 and 65 voting members. Trustees serve six–year terms subject to a two–term limit. The alumni select 12 trustees. Four recent alumni serve 4-year terms, one per year, typically from the graduating class. The bylaws prohibit students, faculty or administrative staff from serving on the Board, except the President as an ex–officio trustee HP Pavilion dv6-1220ek battery. The Johns Hopkins Health System has a separate Board of Trustees, many of whom are doctors or health care executives. Some JHU Trustees also serve on the Johns Hopkins Health System Board. Academics Mason Hall, the Visitor's Center & Admissions Office at Johns Hopkins University The full-time, four year undergraduate program is "most selective"[44] with low transfer-in and a high graduate co-existence. The university is one of fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities (AAU) HP Pavilion dv6-1220ei battery; it is also a member of the Consortium on Financing Higher Education (COFHE) and the Universities Research Association (URA). Undergraduate Admissions In 2010, 87% of admitted students graduated in the top tenth of their high school class and the inter-quartile range on the SAT reading was 670–750, math was 690–780, and writing was 670–770. 97% of freshmen returned after the first year, 84% of students graduated in 4 years and 92% graduated in 6 years HP Pavilion dv6-1220eg battery. Over time, applications to Johns Hopkins University have risen steadily. As a result, the selectivity of Johns Hopkins University has also increased. Early Decision is an option at Johns Hopkins University for students who wish to demonstrate that the university is their first choice. These students, if admitted, are required to enroll HP Pavilion dv6-1220ec battery. This application is due November 1. Most students, however, apply Regular Decision, which is a traditional non-binding round. These applications are due January 1 and students are notified April 1. Rankings At the undergraduate level, Hopkins was ranked #13 among National Universities by U.S. News and World Report (USNWR). It is ranked #6 in the nation in the high school counselor reputation rankings. The 2010 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) HP Pavilion dv6-1219tx battery ranked Hopkins #18 internationally (#16 nationally) and 3rd in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy. In 2010, Johns Hopkins ranked 13th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 16th in the 2011 QS World University Rankings. Johns Hopkins also placed #2 in the 2010 University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP) HP Pavilion dv6-1219ez battery, #2 in the 2011 HEEACT – Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities, ranked #7 among Top Performing Schools according to the Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index (FSPI) in 2008,[65] and was listed #9 among research universities by the Center for Measuring University Performance in 2007.[66] For medical and public health research U.S. News and World Report ranks the School of Medicine #2[67] and has consistently ranked the Bloomberg School of Public Health in the nation HP Pavilion dv6-1218tx battery. The School of Nursing was ranked #1 nationally among peer institutions.[69] The Times Higher Education Supplement ranked Johns Hopkins University #3 in the world for biomedicine and life sciences.[70] Hopkins ranks #1 nationally in receipt of federal research funds and the School of Medicine is #1 among medical schools in receipt of extramural awards from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HP Pavilion dv6-1218ss battery Newsweek named Johns Hopkins as the "Hottest School for Pre-meds" in 2008. The Johns Hopkins Hospital was ranked as the top hospital in the United States for the eighteenth year in a row by the U.S. News and World Report annual ranking of American hospitals. The university's graduate programs in the areas of Biological & Biomedical Sciences, Engineering (Biomedical, Electrical & Environmental), Human Development & Family Studies, Health Sciences HP Pavilion dv6-1218ca battery, Humanities, Physical & Mathematical Sciences and International Affairs & Development all rank among the top-10 of their respective disciplines. The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) ranked #1 (2005), #2 (2007), and #2 (2009), by College of William and Mary's surveys conducted once every two years beginning in 2005, for its MA program among the world's top schools of International Affairs for those who want to pursue a policy career. HP Pavilion dv6-1217tx batteryThe School of Education is ranked #6 nationally by U.S. News and World Report.[76] Although no formal rankings exist for music conservatories, the Peabody Institute is generally considered one of the most prestigious conservatories in the country, along with Juilliard and the Curtis Institute. Johns Hopkins is ranked the #1 Social Media College by StudentAdvisor. HP Pavilion dv6-1217ss battery Several university departments have been known to actively engage on various social media platforms such as Blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Flickr to reach prospective students, current students, and alumni. Libraries The Johns Hopkins University Library system houses more than 3.6 million volumes.[79] It includes ten main divisions: the Sheridan Libraries at Homewood, the Welch Medical Library, the Medical Institution Libraries, the School of Nursing Library HP Pavilion dv6-1217er battery, Abraham M. Lilienfeld Library at the Bloomberg School, the Peabody Institute Library, the Carey Business School and School of Education libraries, the School of Advanced International Studies Libraries (Sydney R. and Elsa W. Mason Library and Bologna Center Library), the R.E. Gibson Library at the Applied Physics Laboratory Library and other minor satellite locations, as well as the archives HP Pavilion dv6-1217ax battery. Milton S. Eisenhower Library The Milton S. Eisenhower Library, located on the Homewood campus, is the main library. It was built in the 1960s. It houses over 2.6 million volumes and over 20,000 journal subscriptions. The Eisenhower Library is a member of the university's Sheridan Libraries encompassing collections at the Albert D. Hutzler Reading Room (called "The Hut" by students) in Gilman Hall HP Pavilion dv6-1216tx battery, the John Work Garrett Library at Evergreen House, and the George Peabody Library at Mount Vernon Place. Together these collections provide the major research library resources for the university, serving Johns Hopkins academic programs worldwide. The library was named for Milton S. Eisenhower, former president of the university and brother of former U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower HP Pavilion dv6-1216ss battery. JHU's library was previously housed in Gilman Hall, and other smaller departmental libraries throughout the Homewood campus.[80] Only two of the Eisenhower library's six stories are above ground, though the architects designed the building so that every level has windows and natural light. The design accords with a bit of traditional campus lore that no structure can be taller than Gilman Hall HP Pavilion dv6-1216sl battery, the oldest academic building ( although no written rule limits building height). In December 2008, an addition directly to the south of the library was announced. The six-and-a-half-story expansion will be named the Brody Learning Commons in honor of University President William R. Brody and will function as a "…collaborative learning space." It is scheduled to open on August 13, 2012 HP Pavilion dv6-1216sa battery. Research The opportunity to participate in important research is one of the distinguishing characteristics of Hopkins' undergraduate education. About 80 percent of undergraduates perform independent research, often alongside top researchers.[45][83] In FY 2009, Johns Hopkins received $1.856 billion in federal research grants—more than any other US university. HP Pavilion dv6-1216er batteryThirty-six (36) Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with the university as alumni or faculty members.[84] JHU views its academic strengths as being in art history, biological, physical and other natural sciences, biomedical engineering, creative writing, English, history, economics, international studies, medicine, music, neuroscience, nursing, political theory, public health, public policy, and the Romance languages. HP Pavilion dv6-1216ax batteryBetween 1999 and 2009, Johns Hopkins was among the most cited institutions in the world. It attracted nearly 1,222,166 citations and produced 54,022 papers under its name, ranking #3 globally behind Harvard University and Max Planck Society with the highest total citations published in Thomson Reuters-indexed journals over 22 fields in America. HP Pavilion dv6-1215tx batteryIn FY 2000, Johns Hopkins received $95.4 million in research grants from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), making it the leading recipient of NASA research and development funding.[85] In FY 2002, Hopkins became the first university to cross the $1 billion threshold on either list, recording $1.14 billion in total research and $1.023 billion in federally sponsored research HP Pavilion dv6-1215ss battery. In FY 2008, Johns Hopkins University performed $1.68 billion in science, medical and engineering research, making it the leading U.S. academic institution in total R&D spending for the 30th year in a row, according to a National Science Foundation (NSF) ranking.[86] These totals include grants and expenditures of JHU's Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland HP Pavilion dv6-1215sl battery. The Johns Hopkins University also offers the "Center for Talented Youth" program—a nonprofit organization dedicated to identifying and developing the talents of the most promising K-12 grade students worldwide. As part of the Johns Hopkins University, the "Center for Talented Youth" or CTY helps fulfill the university's mission of preparing students to make significant future contributions to the world. HP Pavilion dv6-1215sg batteryJohns Hopkins University Press Main article: Johns Hopkins University Press The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of the Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and holds the distinction of being the oldest continuously running university press in the United States.[96] To date the Press has published more than 6,000 titles and currently publishes 65 scholarly periodicals and over 200 new books each year HP Pavilion dv6-1215sf battery. Since 1993, the Johns Hopkins University Press has run Project MUSE, an online collection of over 250 full–text, peer–reviewed journals in the humanities and social sciences. The Press also houses the Hopkins Fulfilment Services (HFS), which handles distribution for a number of university presses and publishers. Taken together, the three divisions of the Press—Books, Journals (including MUSE) and HFS—make it one of the largest of America's university presses HP Pavilion dv6-1215sd battery. Student life Students gather under the holidays lights at the yearly "Lighting of the Quad", a Hopkins tradition The Johns Hopkins Student Government Association represents undergraduates in campus issues and projects. It is elected annually.[97] Blueprints for a new programming board called The Hopkins Organization for Programming ("The HOP") were drawn up during the summer and fall of 2006 HP Pavilion dv6-1215sa battery. In addition Charles Village, the region of North Baltimore surrounding the university, has undergone several restoration projects, and the university has gradually bought the property around the school for additional student housing and dormitories. The Charles Village Project, scheduled for completion in 2008, brought new commercial spaces to the neighborhood HP Pavilion dv6-1215ez battery. The project included Charles Commons, a new, modern residence hall that includes popular retail franchises. Hopkins invested in improving campus life with an arts complex in 2001, the Mattin Center, and a three–story sports facility, the O'Connor Recreation Center. The large on–campus dining facilities at Homewood were renovated in the summer of 2006 HP Pavilion dv6-1215ew battery. Quality of life is enriched by the proximity of neighboring academic institutions, including Loyola College, Maryland Institute College of Art (MICA), UMBC, Goucher College, and Towson University, as well as nearby Inner Harbor. Annually, the Johns Hopkins Spring Fair is held on the Homewood campus over a three day weekend in mid-to-late April HP Pavilion dv6-1215er battery. Food, arts and crafts, and non–profit vendors, along with a popular musical act and various other activities attract nearly 25,000 people from the greater Baltimore–Washington area. The Spring Fair is the largest entirely student–run fair in the country. Since 1972, the Johns Hopkins Outdoors Club, or JHOC, has organized weekend trips for students looking to experience the outdoors. Along with Outdoor Pursuits, an arm of the University's Rec Center HP Pavilion dv6-1215ei battery, JHOC offers students the opportunity to participate in activities such as canoeing, kayaking, caving, and mountain biking. Housing Freshman Residence Hall at JHU Living on campus is required for first- and second-year students, except for commuter students who live with a parent or legal guardian.[100] Housing is not guaranteed for juniors or seniors at Johns Hopkins. Freshmen housing is centered around Freshman Quad, which consists of three major residence hall complexes HP Pavilion dv6-1215ee battery: The Alumni Memorial Residences (AMR I and AMR II), Building A and Building B. AMR I was built in 1923 and includes Royce, Sylvester, Vincent, Willard, Wilson and Wood houses; AMR II in 1954, holding Adams, Baker, Clark, Gildersleeve, Griffin, Hollander, Jennings, Lazear houses.[citation needed] The houses were named for Hopkins Alumni who died in World Wars I and II HP Pavilion dv6-1215ax battery. While each house has its own outside entrance, there are no dividers indoors that distinguish them. In 1983, Buildings A and B were added to Freshmen Quad. They have not yet been dedicated. Freshmen are also housed in Wolman Hall and the terrace floor of McCoy Hall, located on the other side of North Charles Street HP Pavilion dv6-1214tx battery. Freshman enter a housing lottery in their spring semester to determine where they will live during their sophomore year. Juniors and seniors may choose between entering the campus housing lottery or moving into nearby apartments or row houses. They occupy one of four buildings.[102] The first, McCoy Hall, is located next to Wolman Hall on North Charles Street HP Pavilion dv6-1214sl battery. McCoy Hall is predominantly composed of sophomores and transfer students.[103] Apartment-style housing is offered in the Bradford Apartments, one block east of campus on St. Paul Street, and in the Homewood Apartments, two blocks south on North Charles Street.[102] The last is Charles Commons, the newest and largest university–owned dormitory, located at the corner of North Charles and East 33rd HP Pavilion dv6-1214ax battery. It was completed in 2006 to house 618 students and represented a major step by the university towards offering on–campus housing to students.[103] Charles Commons consists of two 11–story towers connected by a bridge, residential suites and features a ballroom, fitness center and several conference rooms. Nolan's on 33rd, a dining hall specializing in dinner services, is also located in the building. HP Pavilion dv6-1213tx batteryJHU rents several buildings on North Charles Street to house students when necessary. At full capacity, dormitory buildings can house approximately 60% of undergraduates.[citation needed] Privately–owned apartment buildings around Homewood are usually filled with Hopkins upperclassmen, so despite the lack of university–owned dormitories, housing is available HP Pavilion dv6-1213ax battery. Fraternities and Sororities The University Office of Greek Life recognizes thirteen fraternities and eight sororities, which include approximately 25% of the student body. Greek life has been a part of the university culture since 1877, when Beta Theta Pi fraternity became the first to form a chapter on campus. Sororities arrived at Hopkins in 1982 HP Pavilion dv6-1212tx battery. As with all Hopkins programs, Greek discrimination on the basis of "marital status, pregnancy, race, color, ethnicity, national origin, age, disability, religion, sexual orientation, veteran status" is prohibited. JHU also has an anti–hazing policy and prohibits alcohol at recruitment activities. Hopkins does not permit "city–wide" chapters, and requires all members of a JHU recognized fraternity or sorority to be a JHU student HP Pavilion dv6-1212sl battery. As of Spring 2011, 1,208 students were members of one of Hopkins' fraternities or sororities. The All–Greek Average GPA was 3.31, above the undergraduate average GPA.[108] In Spring 2010 the university was considering construction of a "fraternity row" of houses to consolidate the groups on campus. HP Pavilion dv6-1211tx batteryAll Johns Hopkins fraternities and sororities belong to one of four Councils: the Inter–Fraternity Council, the National Panhellenic Conference, the National Pan-Hellenic Council and the Multicultural Council. The Inter–Fraternity Council includes eleven fraternities:[110] Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, chapter founded 1889. Alpha Epsilon Pi fraternity, Psi chapter founded 1936. Jewish interest. Beta Theta Pi fraternity, Alpha Chi chapter founded 1877. Lambda Phi Epsilon fraternity, Upsilon chapter founded 1994. Asian–American interest. Phi Delta Theta fraternity, Maryland Delta chapter founded 2008 HP Pavilion dv6-1211sg battery. FIJI – Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, Beta Mu chapter founded 1891. Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, Maryland Alpha chapter founded 1879. Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, Iota Tau chapter founded 1994. Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, Maryland Phi chapter founded 1994. Sigma Chi fraternity, Kappa Upsilon chapter founded 2003. Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity, Maryland Alpha chapter founded 1929. The National Panhellenic Conference includes four sororities:[113] Alpha Phi sorority, Zeta Omicron chapter founded 1982 HP Pavilion dv6-1211sa battery. Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority, Eta Epsilon chapter founded 1999. Phi Mu sorority, Gamma Tau chapter founded 1982. Pi Beta Phi sorority, Maryland Gamma chartered November 20, 2010. The National Pan–Hellenic Council includes two historically African–American groups: Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Sigma Sigma chapter founded 1991. Sigma Gamma Rho sorority, Rho Omega chapter founded 2009. The Multicultural Council includes four groups: Johns Hopkins University Main Campus at Homewood. Alpha Kappa Delta Phi sorority, associate chapter founded 1997. Asian–American interest. Delta Xi Phi sorority, Lambda chapter founded 2003. Multicultural interest HP Pavilion dv6-1211er battery. INΔ – Iota Nu Delta fraternity, chapter founded 2008. South Asian interest. Sigma Omicron Pi sorority, Lambda chapter founded 2002. Asian–American interest. Delta Phi Fraternity, also known as St. Elmo's, maintains a chapter exclusive to students at Johns Hopkins, though it is not recognized by the Office of Greek Life. Unrecognized Alpha Kappa Alpha and Delta Sigma Theta African–American interest sororities often recruit Johns Hopkins undergraduates, in their city–wide chapters HP Pavilion dv6-1211ax battery. Delta Sigma Theta was the first National Pan–Hellenic Council member to charter on the campus in 1976, as well as the first sorority of any kind on the JHU campus.[citation needed] Kappa Alpha Theta, a National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) sorority, was disbanded by its national headquarters on April 14, 2009 after twelve years on campus. The removal was due to repeated risk management violations HP Pavilion dv6-1210tx battery. In March 2010, Johns Hopkins University officially opened for NPC extension. In May 2010, the University Panhellenic Council selected Pi Beta Phi, which opened in the fall of 2010. Recruitment for Inter–Fraternity Council and Panhellenic Conference fraternities and sororities takes place during the spring semester for freshmen, though some groups recruit upperclassmen during the fall semester HP Pavilion dv6-1210sv battery. All participants must have completed one semester and must be in good academic standing. Many of the fraternities maintain houses off campus, but no sororities do.[citation needed] Baltimore City allows housing to be zoned specifically for use as a fraternity or sorority house, but in practice this zoning code has not been awarded for at least 50 years.[citation needed] Only Sigma Phi Epsilon's building has this zoning code due to its consistent ownership since the 1920s HP Pavilion dv6-1210sr battery. Student publications Gilman Hall, Center for the Humanities Hopkins has many student publications. The Johns Hopkins News-Letter, founded in 1896, is one of the oldest continuously published weekly college newspapers in the nation with a press run of 5,200.[119] The News-Letter won a Associated Collegiate Press Newspaper Pacemaker award for four–year, non–daily college newspapers in 2007 HP Pavilion dv6-1210sl battery. The Hopkins Donkey is a political newspaper with a Democratic perspective on international, national and state–wide political topics. The Carrollton Record is a political newspaper with an American conservative perspective on campus and city–wide politics. Epidemic Proportions is the university's public health research journal, designed to highlight JHU research and field work in public health. Combining research and scholarship, the journal seeks to capture the breadth and depth of the JHU undergraduate public health experience HP Pavilion dv6-1210sf battery. Thoroughfare, Zeniada and j.mag are literary magazines. Prometheus is the undergraduate philosophy journal. Frame of Reference is an annual magazine that focuses on film and film culture. The New Diplomat is the multi–disciplinary international relations journal. Foundations is the undergraduate history journal HP Pavilion dv6-1210sb battery. Américas is the Latin American Studies journal. Argot is the undergraduate anthropology journal. The Triple Helix is the university's journal to address issues concerning science, law and society. Perspectives is the official newsletter of the Black Student Union. The Black & Blue Jay is among the nation's oldest campus humor magazines. It was founded in 1920.[128] According to The Johns Hopkins News–Letter, the magazine's name led the News–Letter to first use the moniker Blue Jays to refer to a Hopkins athletic team in 1923 HP Pavilion dv6-1210sa battery. While the magazine enjoyed popularity among students, it received repeated opposition from the university administration, reportedly for its vulgar humor. In October 1934, Dean Edward R. Berry removed financial support for the magazine; without funding, the magazine continued under the name The Blue Jay until Berry threatened to expel the editors in 1939. The magazine had a revival in 1984, and has appeared intermittently since then. HP Pavilion dv6-1210ez batteryStudent–Run Businesses Hopkins Student Enterprises (HSE) is a startup incubator with the goal of fostering student innovation and encouraging the development of student–run businesses. Currently, 4 businesses are in operation: Hopkins Consulting Agency (HCA)—Business and technology consulting company that prepares technology commercialization reports and business plans HP Pavilion dv6-1210ew battery. Hopkins Student Movers (HSM)—Moving and storage company that serves JHU faculty, staff, and students and the broader Baltimore community. Hopkins Student Creative Services (HSCS)—Full service graphic design company. The Blue Jay Cleaners - Student janitorial service for all on-campus and select off campus residence halls. Athletics Athletics logo Main article: Johns Hopkins Blue Jays Athletic teams are called Blue Jays. Even though sable and gold are used for academic robes, the university's athletic colors are Columbia blue (PMS 284) and black. HP Pavilion dv6-1210et battery Hopkins celebrates Homecoming in the spring to coincide with the height of the lacrosse season. The Men's and Women's lacrosse teams are in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I. Other teams are in Division III and participate in the Centennial Conference. JHU is also home to the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame, maintained by US Lacrosse HP Pavilion dv6-1210es battery. Men's lacrosse Main article: Johns Hopkins Blue Jays men's lacrosse Johns Hopkins Men's Lacrosse at Homewood Field The school's most prominent team is its men's lacrosse team. The team does not belong to a conference. The team has won 44 national titles – nine Division I (2007, 2005, 1987, 1985, 1984, 1980, 1979, 1978, 1974), 29 United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (USILA), and six Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association (ILA) titles HP Pavilion dv6-1210er battery. Hopkins' primary national rivals are Princeton University, Syracuse University, and the University of Virginia; its primary intrastate rivals are Loyola College (competing in what is called the "Charles Street Massacre"), Towson University, the United States Naval Academy, and the University of Maryland. The rivalry with Maryland is the oldest. The schools have met 103 times since 1899, twice in playoff matches HP Pavilion dv6-1210ek battery. Women's lacrosse Main article: Johns Hopkins Blue Jays women's lacrosse The women's team is a member of the American Lacrosse Conference (ALC). The team is developing into a top twenty team. The Lady Blue Jays were ranked number 19 in the 2008 Inside Lacrosse Women's DI Media Poll (ILWDIMP). They ranked number 8 in both the 2007 Intercollegiate Women's Lacrosse Coaches Association (IWLCA) Poll for Division I and the ILWDIMP HP Pavilion dv6-1210eg battery. In 2006, they were ranked 14th in the ILWDIMP, in 2005, they were 11th, and, in 2004, they were 9th. However, recently the team has struggled and finished with a record of 5 wins and 12 losses in the 2009 season. Other teams Hopkins has notable Division III Athletic teams. JHU Men's Swimming won three consecutive NCAA Championships in 1977, 1978, and 1979. HP Pavilion dv6-1210ee battery In 2009–2010, Hopkins won 8 Centennial Conference titles in Women's Cross Country, Women's Track & Field, Baseball, Men's and Women's Soccer, Football, and Men's and Women's Tennis. The Women's Cross Country team became the first women's team at Hopkins to achieve a #1 National ranking. In 2006–2007 teams won Centennial Conference titles in Baseball HP Pavilion dv6-1208ca battery, Men's and Women's Soccer, Men's and Women's Tennis and Men's Basketball. Hopkins has an acclaimed fencing team, which ranked in the top three Division III teams in the past few years and in both 2008 and 2007 defeated the University of North Carolina, a Division I team. In 2008, they defeated UNC and won the MACFA championship HP Pavilion dv6-1207tx battery. The Swimming team ranked highly in NCAA Division III for the last 10 years, most recently placing second at DIII Nationals in 2008. The Water Polo team was number one in Division III for several of the past years, playing a full schedule against Division I opponents. Hopkins also has a century-old rivalry with McDaniel College (formerly Western Maryland College) HP Pavilion dv6-1207sf battery, playing the Green Terrors 83 times in football since the first game in 1894. In 2009 the football team reached the quarterfinals of the NCAA Division III tournament, with three tournament appearances since 2005. In 2008, the baseball team ranked second, losing in the final game of the DIII College World Series to Trinity College. Notable alumni, faculty and staff Main article: List of Johns Hopkins University people Nobel laureates Main article: List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Johns Hopkins University HP Pavilion dv6-1207ax batteryAs of 2011, there had been 37 Nobel Laureates, who attended the university as undergraduate students, graduate students or were faculty members.[138] Woodrow Wilson, who received his PhD from Johns Hopkins in 1886, was Hopkins' first affiliated laureate, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919. Twenty-three laureates were faculty members, five earned PhDs, eight earned M.D. while Francis Peyton Rous and Martin Rodbell earned undergraduate degrees HP Pavilion dv6-1207au battery. Eighteen Johns Hopkins laureates have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, more than any other category.[138] Four Nobel Prizes were shared by Johns Hopkins laureates: George Minot and George Whipple won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,[140] Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine HP Pavilion dv6-1206tx battery, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,[142] and David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Two Johns Hopkins laureates won Nobel Prizes in Physics, Riccardo Giacconi in 2002 and Adam Riess in 2011 HP Pavilion dv6-1205tx battery.
Northwestern University is a private research university with campuses in Evanston and Chicago in Illinois, United States. Northwestern has 12 undergraduate, graduate, and professional schools offering 124 undergraduate degrees and 145 graduate and professional degrees( Dell 1691P battery). Northwestern was founded in 1851 by John Evans, for whom Evanston is named, and eight other lawyers, businessmen and Methodist leaders to serve the people of a region that had once been known as the Northwest Territory. Instruction began in 1855; women were admitted in 1869. Today, the main campus is a 240-acre (97 ha) parcel in Evanston( Dell 310-6321 battery), along the shores of Lake Michigan. The university's law and medical schools are located on a 25-acre (10 ha) campus in Chicago's Streeterville neighborhood. In 2008, the University opened a campus in Education City, Doha, Qatar with programs in journalism and communication. In academic year 2010-11, Northwestern enrolled 8,397 undergraduate and 7,870 graduate and professional students. ( Dell 312-0068 battery) Northwestern has one of the largest university endowments in the United States, currently valued at $7.2 billion.[1] One of only 62 institutions elected to the Association of American Universities (1917), Northwestern was awarded more than $500 million in research grants in 2010–2011, placing it in the first tier of the major research universities in the United States by the Center for Measuring University Performance. ( Dell 312-0078 battery)Its schools of management, engineering, and communication, for example, are among the most academically productive in the nation.[9] Northwestern is a founding member of the Big Ten Conference and remains the only private university in the conference. The Northwestern Wildcats compete in 19 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA's Division I( Dell 312-0079 battery). History Main article: History of Northwestern University The foundation of Northwestern University is traceable to a meeting on May 31, 1850 of nine prominent Chicago businessmen, Methodist leaders and attorneys who had formed the idea of establishing a university to serve what had once been known as the Northwest Territory. On January 28, 1851, the Illinois General Assembly granted a charter to the Trustees of the North-Western University, making it the first chartered university in Illinois. ( Dell 312-0305 battery) The school’s nine founders, all of whom were Methodists (three of them ministers), knelt in prayer and worship before launching their first organizational meeting.[12] Although they affiliated the university with the Methodist Episcopal Church, they were committed to non-sectarian admissions, believing that Northwestern should serve all people in the newly developing territory( Dell 312-0326 battery). John Evans, for whom Evanston is named, bought 379 acres (153 ha) of land along Lake Michigan in 1853, and Philo Judson developed plans for what would become the city of Evanston. The first building, Old College, opened on November 5, 1855.[14] To raise funds for construction, Northwestern sold $100 "perpetual scholarships" entitling the purchaser and his heirs to free tuition( Dell 312-0518 battery). In 1873 the Evanston College for Ladies merged with Northwestern, and Frances Willard, who later gained fame as a suffragette and as one of the founders of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), became the school's first dean of women. Northwestern admitted its first women students in 1869, and the first woman was graduated in 1874.[17] Willard Residential College (1938) is named in her honor( Dell 312-0566 battery). Northwestern fielded its first intercollegiate football team in 1882, later becoming a founding member of the Big Ten Conference. In the 1870s and 1880s, Northwestern affiliated itself with already existing schools of law, medicine, and dentistry in Chicago. As the university increased in wealth and distinction( Dell 312-0585 battery), and enrollments grew, these professional schools were integrated with the undergraduate college in Evanston; the result was a modern research university combining professional, graduate, and undergraduate programs, which gave equal weight to teaching and research. The Association of American Universities invited Northwestern to become a member in 1917( Dell 312-0831 battery). Deering Library (1933) Under Walter Dill Scott's presidency from 1920 to 1939, Northwestern began construction of an integrated campus in Chicago designed by James Gamble Rogers to house the professional schools; established the Kellogg School of Management; and built several prominent buildings on the Evanston campus, Dyche Stadium (now named Ryan Field) and Deering Library among others( Dell BAT30WL battery). In 1933, a proposal to merge Northwestern with the University of Chicago was considered but rejected. Northwestern played host to the first-ever NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship game in 1939 in the original Patten Gymnasium, later demolished and relocated farther north to make room for the Technological Institute. University Hall (1869), the second building constructed on campus, and the oldest building still standing( Dell D6400 battery). Like other American research universities, Northwestern was transformed by World War II. Franklyn B. Snyder led the university from 1939 to 1949, when nearly 50,000 military officers and personnel were trained on the Evanston and Chicago campuses. After the war, surging enrollments under the G.I. Bill drove drastic expansion of both campuses( Dell N3010 battery). In 1948 prominent anthropologist Melville J. Herskovits founded the Program of African Studies at Northwestern, the first center of its kind at an American academic institution.[22] J. Roscoe Miller's tenure as president from 1949–1970 was responsible for the expansion of the Evanston campus, with the construction of the lakefill on Lake Michigan( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery), growth of the faculty and new academic programs, as well as polarizing Vietnam-era student protests. In 1978, the first and second Unabomber attacks occurred at Northwestern University.[23] Relations between Evanston and Northwestern were strained throughout much of the post-war era because of episodes of disruptive student activism( Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery), disputes over municipal zoning, building codes, and law enforcement,[25] as well as restrictions on the sale of alcohol near campus until 1972. Northwestern's exemption from state and municipal property tax obligations under its original charter has historically been a source of town and gown tension( Dell Inspiron 1200 battery). Though government support for universities declined in the 1970s and 1980s, President Arnold R. Weber was able to stabilize university finances, leading to a revitalization of the campuses. As admissions to colleges and universities grew increasingly competitive in the 1990s and 2000s, President Henry S. Bienen's tenure saw a notable increase in the number and quality of undergraduate applicants, continued expansion of the facilities and faculty( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery), and renewed athletic competitiveness. In 1999, Northwestern student journalists uncovered information exonerating Illinois death row inmate Anthony Porter two days before his scheduled execution, and the Innocence Project has since exonerated 10 more men. On January 11, 2003, in a speech at Northwestern School of Law's Lincoln Hall( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery), then Governor of Illinois George Ryan announced that he would commute the sentences of more than 150 death row inmates.[30] The Latin phrase on Northwestern's seal, Quaecumque sunt vera (Whatsoever things are true) is drawn from the Epistle of Paul to the Philippians 4:8, while the Greek phrase inscribed on the pages of an open book is taken from the Gospel of John 1:14: ο λόγος πλήρης χάριτος και αληθείας (The Word full of grace and truth). ( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery)Purple became Northwestern's official color in 1892,[33] replacing black and gold after a university committee concluded that too many other universities had used these colors. Today, Northwestern's official color is purple, although white is something of an official color as well, being mentioned in both the university's earliest song, Alma Mater (1907) ("Hail to purple, hail to white") and in many university guidelines. ( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery) Campuses See also: List of Northwestern University buildings Evanston Northwestern's Evanston campus is located on Lake Michigan. Northwestern's Evanston campus, where the undergraduate schools, the Graduate School, and the Kellogg School of Management are located, runs north-south from Lincoln Avenue to Clark Street west of Lake Michigan along Sheridan Road. North and South Campuses have noticeably different atmospheres( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery), owing to the predominance of Science and Athletics in the one and Humanities and Arts in the other. North Campus is home to the fraternity quads, the Henry Crown Sports Pavilion and Norris Aquatics Center and other athletic facilities, the Technological Institute, Dearborn Observatory, and other science-related buildings including Patrick G. and Shirley W. Ryan Hall for Nanofabrication and Molecular Self-Assembly( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery), and the Ford Motor Company Engineering Design Center. South Campus is home to the University's humanities buildings, Pick-Staiger Concert Hall and other music buildings, the Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art, and the sorority quads. In the 1960s, the University created an additional 84 acres (34.0 ha) by means of a lakefill in Lake Michigan. Among some of the buildings located on these broad new acres are University Library( Dell inspiron 1525 battery), Norris University Center (the student union), and Pick-Staiger Concert Hall. The Chicago Transit Authority's elevated train running through Evanston is called the Purple Line, taking its name from Northwestern's school color. The Foster and Davis stations are within walking distance of the southern end of the campus, while the Noyes station is close to the northern end of the campus( Dell inspiron 1526 battery). The Central station is close to Ryan Field, Northwestern's football stadium. The Evanston Davis Street Metra station serves the Northwestern campus in downtown Evanston and the Evanston Central Street Metra station is near Ryan Field. Pace Suburban Bus Service and the CTA have several bus routes that run through or near the Evanston campus( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery). Panorama of Northwestern University in Evanston Chicago The Montgomery Ward Memorial Building (1927) at Northwestern's Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago, America's first academic skyscraper. Northwestern's Chicago campus is located in the city's Streeterville neighborhood. The Chicago campus is home to the medical school and affiliated hospitals, the law school, the part-time MBA program( Dell Inspiron 2000 battery), and the School of Continuing Studies, which offers evening and weekend courses for working adults. Northwestern's professional schools and affiliated hospitals are about four blocks east of the Chicago station on the CTA Red Line. The Chicago campus is also served by CTA bus routes. Founded at various times in the university's history, the professional schools originally were scattered throughout Chicago. In connection with a 1917 master plan for a central Chicago campus and President Walter D. Scott's capital campaign( Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery), 8.5 acres (3.44 ha) of land were purchased at the corner of Chicago Avenue and Lake Shore Drive for $1.5 million in 1920. The architect James Gamble Rogers was commissioned to create a master plan for the principal buildings on the new campus which he designed in collegiate gothic style. In 1923( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery), Mrs. Montgomery Ward donated $8 million to the campaign to finance the construction of the Montgomery Ward Memorial Building which would house the medical and dental schools and to create endowments for faculty chairs, research grants, scholarships, and building maintenance.[38] The building would become the first university skyscraper in the United States. ( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery) In addition to the Ward Building, Rogers designed Wieboldt Hall to house facilities for the School of Commerce[39] and Levy Mayer Hall to house the School of Law.[40] The new campus comprising these three new buildings was dedicated during a two-day ceremony in June 1927. The Chicago campus continued to expand with the addition of Thorn Hall in 1931 and Abbott Hall in 1939( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery). [edit]Satellite Campus in Qatar In Fall 2008, Northwestern opened a campus in Education City, Doha, Qatar, joining five other American universities: Carnegie Mellon University, Cornell University, Georgetown University, Texas A&M University, and Virginia Commonwealth University.[42] Through the Medill School of Journalism and School of Communication, NU-Q offers bachelors degrees in journalism and communication respectively. ( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery)The Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development provided funding for construction and administrative costs as well as support to hire 50 to 60 faculty and staff, some of whom rotate between the Evanston and Qatar campuses. [edit]Sustainability In January 2009, the Green Power Partnership (GPP, sponsored by the EPA) listed Northwestern as one of the top 10 universities in the country in purchasing energy from renewable sources. The university matches 74 million kilowatt hours ( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery) (kWh) of its annual energy use with Green-e Certified Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs). This green power commitment represents 30 percent of the university's total annual electricity use and places Northwestern in the EPA's Green Power Leadership Club. The 2010 Report by The Sustainable Endowments Institute awarded Northwestern a “B-” on its College Sustainability Report Card. ( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery) The Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern (ISEN), supporting research, teaching and outreach in these themes, was launched in 2008.[47] Northwestern requires that all new buildings be LEED-certified. Silverman Hall on the Evanston campus was awarded Gold LEED Certification in 2010; Wieboldt Hall on the Chicago campus was awarded Gold LEED Certification in 2007( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery), and the Ford Motor Company Engineering Design Center on the Evanston campus was awarded Silver LEED Certification in 2006. New construction and renovation projects will be designed to provide at least a 20% improvement over energy code requirements where technically feasible.[48] The university also released at the beginning of the 2008-09 academic year the Evanston Campus Framework Plan, which outlines plans for future development of the Evanston Campus( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery). The plan not only emphasizes the sustainable construction of buildings, but also discusses improving transportation by optimizing pedestrian and bicycle access.[49] Northwestern has had a comprehensive recycling program in place since 1990. Annually more than 1,500 tons are recycled at Northwestern, which represents 30% of the waste produced on campus. Additionally, all landscape waste at the university is composted. ( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery) Organization and administration Northwestern is privately owned and is governed by an appointed Board of Trustees. The board, composed of 70 members and as of 2011 chaired by William A. Osborn '69, delegates its power to an elected president to serve as the chief executive officer of the university.[51] Northwestern has had sixteen presidents in its history (excluding interim presidents) ( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery), the current president, Morton O. Schapiro, an economist, having succeeded Henry Bienen whose 14-year tenure ended on August 31, 2009. The president has a staff of vice presidents, directors, and other assistants for administrative, financial, faculty, and student matters.[55] Daniel I. Linzer, provost since September 2007, serves under the president as the chief academic officer of the university to whom the deans of every academic school( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery), leaders of cross-disciplinary units, and chairs of the standing faculty committee report.[56] The Associated Student Government consists of the elected representatives of the undergraduate students and the Graduate Student Association represents graduate students. Northwestern University is composed of 12 schools and colleges. The faculty for each school consists of the dean of the school and the instructional faculty. Faculty are responsible for teaching, research, advising students( Dell Inspiron 710m battery), and serving on committees. Each school's admission requirements, degree requirements, courses of study, and disciplinary and degree recommendations are determined by the voting members of that school's faculty (assistant professor and above).[59] Northwestern's endowment was $7.2 billion as of Aug. 31, 2011, estimated as ninth among US and Canadian universities.[1] In 2003, Northwestern finished a five-year capital campaign that raised $1.55 billion, $550 million more than its goal( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). In 2007, the university sold its royalty interest in the pain relief drug Lyrica for $700 million, a drug developed at Northwestern by Richard Bruce Silverman, the John Evans Professor of Chemistry. This was the largest such sale in history,[60] the proceeds of which were added to the endowment. ( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery) Northwestern University had a dental school from 1891 to May 31, 2001, when it closed.[62] Academics Northwestern is a large, residential research university.[7] Accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools and the respective national professional organizations for chemistry, psychology, business, education, journalism, music, engineering, law, and medicine, ( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery) the university offers 124 undergraduate programs and 145 graduate and professional programs. NU conferred 2,219 bachelors degrees, 2,971 masters degrees, 447 doctoral degrees, and 444 professional degrees in 2009–2010.[6] The four-year, full-time undergraduate program comprises the majority of enrollments at the university and emphasizes instruction in the arts and sciences, plus the professions of engineering, journalism, communication, music, and education. ( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery) Although a foundation in the liberal arts and sciences is required in all majors, there is no required common core curriculum; individual degree requirements are set by the faculty of each school.[59] Northwestern's full-time undergraduate and graduate programs operate on an approximately 10-week academic quarter system with the academic year beginning in late September and ending in early June( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery). Undergraduates typically take 4 courses each quarter and 12 courses in an academic year and[71] are required to complete at least 12 quarters on campus to graduate. Northwestern offers honors, accelerated, and joint degree programs in medicine, science, mathematics, engineering, and journalism.[72] The comprehensive doctoral graduate program has high coexistence with undergraduate programs. ( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery) Undergraduates with grade point averages in the highest 3 percent of each graduating class are awarded degrees summa cum laude, the next 5 percent magna cum laude, and the next 8 percent cum laude. Northwestern also has chapters of academic honor societies such as Phi Beta Kappa (Alpha of Illinois), Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, and Lambda Pi Eta. ( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery) Since 1951, Northwestern has awarded 520 honorary degrees. Undergraduate tuition for the 2010-2011 school year was $39,840.[76] Northwestern awards financial aid solely on the basis of need through loans, work-study, grants, and scholarships. The University processed in excess of $472 million in financial aid for the 2009-2010 academic year. This included $265 million in institutional funds( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery), with the remainder coming from federal and state governments and private organizations and individuals. Northwestern scholarship programs for undergraduate students support needy students from a variety of income and backgrounds. Approximately 44 percent of the June 2010 graduates had received federal and/or private loans for their undergraduate education, graduating with an average debt of $17,200( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery). Among the six undergraduate schools, 51.6% of undergraduate students are enrolled in the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, 17.4% in the McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, 13.7% in the School of Communication, 8.1% in the Medill School of Journalism, 4.3% in the Bienen School of Music, and 4.9% in the School of Education and Social Policy. ( Dell Latitude D400 battery)The five most commonly awarded undergraduate degrees are in economics, journalism, communication studies, psychology, and political science.[79] While professional students are affiliated with their respective schools, full-time graduate academic degrees are primarily administered by the Graduate School. With 2,446 students enrolled in science, engineering, and health fields, ( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery) the largest graduate programs by enrollment include chemistry, integrated biology, material sciences, electrical and computer engineering, neuroscience, and economics.[83] The Kellogg School of Management's MBA, the School of Law's JD, and the Feinberg School of Medicine's MD are the three largest professional degree programs by enrollment( Dell Vostro 1400 battery). Libraries and museums University Library (1970) in Brutalist style. The Northwestern library system consists of four libraries on the Evanston campus including the central University Library, three libraries on the Chicago campus, and the library affiliated with Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary.[84] University Library contains over 4.9 million volumes, 4.6 million microforms( Dell Vostro 1500 battery), and almost 99,000 periodicals making it (by volume) the 30th-largest university library in North America and the 10th-largest library among private universities.[84][85] Notable collections in the library system include the Melville J. Herskovits Library of African Studies, one of the largest Africana collections in the world,[86] an extensive collection of early edition printed music and manuscripts as well as late-modern works( Dell XPS GEN 2 battery), and an art collection noted for its 19th and 20th-century Western art and architecture periodicals.[87] The library system participates with 15 other universities in digitizing its collections as a part of the Google Book Search project.[87] The Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art is a major art museum in Chicago, containing more than 4,000 works in its permanent collection as well as dedicating a third of its space to temporary and traveling exhibitions. ( Dell XPS M1210 battery) In 2011, the Holocaust Educational Foundation, which had previously endowed the Theodore Zev Weiss – Holocaust Educational Foundation Professorship in Holocaust Studies, became part of Northwestern. Research Ford Motor Company Engineering Design Center (2005) Northwestern was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1917 and remains a research university with "very high" research activity. ( Dell XPS M1330 battery) Northwestern's schools of management, engineering, and communication are among the most academically productive in the nation.[9] Northwestern received $511.7 million in research funding in 2011. Northwestern supports nearly 1,500 research laboratories across two campuses, predominately in the medical and biological sciences. Northwestern researchers disclosed 165 inventions( Dell XPS 1340 battery), filed 76 patents applications, received 58 patents, started 4 companies, and generated $824.4 million in license income in 2009. The bulk of revenue has come from a patent on pregabalin, a synthesized organic molecule discovered by chemistry professor Richard Silverman, which ultimately was marketed as Lyrica, a drug sold by Pfizer, to combat epilepsy, neuropathic pain( Dell XPS M1530 battery), and fibromyalgia. The Lyrica returns in 2008 pushed Northwestern into first place among universities in licensing income. Northwestern is home to the Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics, Northwestern Institute for Complex Systems, Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center, Materials Research Center, Institute for Policy Research( Dell XPS M170 battery), International Institute for Nanotechnology, Center for Catalysis and Surface Science, Buffet Center for International and Comparative Studies, the Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern [91] and the Argonne/Northwestern Solar Energy Research Center and other centers for interdisciplinary research. ( Dell XPS M1710 battery) Campus life The Rock in front of University Hall The undergraduates have a number of traditions: Painting The Rock (originally a fountain donated by the Class of 1902) is a way to advertise, for example, campus organizations, events in Greek life, student groups, and university-wide events.[93] Dance Marathon, a 30-hour philanthropic event, has raised more than 13 million dollars in its history for various children's charities. ( Dell XPS M1730 battery) Primal Scream is held at 9 p.m. on the Sunday before finals week every quarter; students lean out of windows or gather in courtyards and scream.[95] Armadillo Day, or, more popularly, Dillo Day, is held on Northwestern's Lakefill every Spring on the weekend after Memorial Day.[95] There are traditions long associated with football games. Students growl like wildcats when the opposing team controls the ball, while simulating a claw with their hands( Dell XPS M2010 battery). They will also jingle keys at the beginning of each kickoff. In the past, before the tradition was discontinued, students would throw marshmallows during games.[96] The Clock Tower at the Rebecca Crown Center glows purple, instead of its usual white, after a winning game, thereby proclaiming the happy news. The Clock Tower remains purple until a loss or until the end of the sports season( Dell Latitude E5400 battery). Whereas formerly the Clock Tower was lighted only for football victories, wins for men's basketball and women's lacrosse now merit commemoration as well; important victories in other sports may also prompt an empurpling. [edit]Media The Daily Northwestern is the main student newspaper. Established in 1881, and published on weekdays during the academic year, it is directed entirely by undergraduates( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). Although it serves the Northwestern community, the Daily has no business ties to the university, being supported wholly by advertisers. It is owned by the Students Publishing Company. Current circulation is in excess of 7,500. Politics & Policy was founded at Northwestern and is dedicated to the analysis of current events and public policy. Begun in 2010 by students in the Weinberg College, School of Communication, and Medill School( Dell Latitude E6400 battery), the organization reaches students on more than two hundred and fifty college campuses around the world. Run entirely by undergraduates, Politics & Policy publishes several times a week with material ranging from short summaries of events to extended research pieces. The organization is funded in part by the Buffett Center. North by Northwestern is an online undergraduate magazine, having been established in September 2006 by students at the Medill School( Dell Latitude E6500 battery). It's published on weekdays, with updates on news stories and special events inserted throughout the day and on weekends. North by Northwestern also publishes a quarterly print magazine, recently honored by the Society of Professional Journalists as the nation's best student magazine.[97] WNUR (89.3 FM) is a 7,200 watt radio station that broadcasts to Chicago and its northern suburbs( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery). WNUR's programming consists of music – jazz, classical, rock – varsity sports (football, men's and women's basketball, baseball, softball, and women's lacrosse), breaking news on weekdays, politics, current events, and literature. Northwestern News Network, commonly known as NNN, is a student-produced television news report. It broadcasts news and sports programming three days a week during the academic year on NU Channel 1( Dell XPS M140 battery), online at nnntv.org, and weeknights at 10 p.m. on Evanston Public-access television cable TV channel 6. Syllabus is the undergraduate yearbook. First published in 1885, the yearbook is an epitome of that year's events at Northwestern. Published by Students Publishing Company and edited by Northwestern students, it is distributed in late May( Dell XPS 13 battery). Northwestern Flipside is an undergraduate satirical magazine. Founded in 2009, The Flipside publishes a weekly issue both in print and online. Helicon is the university's undergraduate literary magazine. Started in 1979, it is published twice a year, a web issue in the Winter, and a print issue with a web complement in the Spring. TriQuarterly Online (formerly TriQuarterly) is a literary magazine published twice a year featuring poetry, fiction, nonfiction, drama, literary essays, reviews, a blog, and graphic art. ( Dell XPS 16 battery) Studio 22 is Northwestern's student-run production company which produces roughly ten films per year. The organization, for example, financed the first film Zach Braff directed and has produced many films in which students who would go on to successful acting careers performed, including Zach Gilford of the TV show, Friday Night Lights. ( Dell XPS 1640 battery) [edit]Performing arts Two annual productions are especially notable: the Waa-Mu show, and the Dolphin show. Waa-Mu is an original musical, written and produced almost entirely by students.[99] Children's theater is represented on campus by Griffin’s Tale and Purple Crayon Players.[citation needed] Its umbrella organization—the Student Theatre Coalition, or StuCo—organizes nine student theatre companies, plus some other performance groups. ( Dell XPS 1645 battery) Students produce more than sixty independent productions each year.[citation needed] Many Northwestern alumni have used these productions as stepping stones to successful television and film careers. Chicago's Lookingglass Theatre, for example, which began life in the Great Room in Jones Residential College, was founded in 1988 by several alumni, including David Schwimmer; in 2011, it won the Regional Tony Award. ( Dell XPS 1647 battery) Northwestern also has a variety of improv groups. The improv and sketch comedy group Mee-Ow created by Paul Warshauer and Josh Lazar in 1974 lists Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Ana Gasteyer, Dermot Mulroney, Seth Meyers, John Cameron Mitchell, and Kristen Schaal among its alumni. Mee-Ow, The Titanic Players, and Out da Box, a multicultural comedy show, together with Northwestern's theatre department( Dell Latitude 131L battery), have brought attention to Northwestern's improv comedy training and performance. There are seventeen a cappella groups and a variety of dance companies on campus. The dance companies include Fusion Dance Company, Northwestern's premiere Hip-Hop Dance Crew; ReFresH Dance Crew, an open dance community that offers free hip-hop choreography and freestyling lessons; ( Dell Latitude C400 battery) Graffiti Dancers, a dance group that focuses on jazz and modern; and Boomshaka, Northwestern's premiere drum and dance ensemble, combining body rhythm, drumming, and dance.[101] Radio drama featuring student voice actors is a staple of WNUR's programming.[102] Debate Society The Northwestern Debate Society is a policy debate team which has won fourteen National Debate Tournaments, the highest number of any university( Dell Latitude C500 battery). Famous alumni of the Society include Erwin Chemerinsky and Elliot Mincberg, the latter senior vice president, general counsel and legal director of People For the American Way. Scott Deatherage, the head coach, was named the Coach of the Nineties. Service Many students are involved in community service in one form or another. Annual events include Dance Marathon, a thirty-hour event that raised more than a million dollars for charity in 2011;[103] and Project Pumpkin( Dell Latitude C510 battery), a Halloween celebration hosted by the Northwestern Community Development Corps (NCDC) to which more than 800 local children are invited for an afternoon of games and sweets. NCDC's work is to connect hundreds of student volunteers to some twenty volunteer sites in Evanston and Chicago throughout the year.[citation needed] Many students have assisted with the Special Olympics ( Dell Latitude C540 battery)and have taken alternative spring break trips to hundreds of service sites across the United States. Northwestern students also participate in the Freshman Urban Program, a program for students interested in community service. A large and growing number of students participate in the university's Global Engagement Summer Institute (GESI), a group service-learning expedition in Asia( Dell Latitude C600 battery), Africa, or Latin America, in conjunction with the Foundation for Sustainable Development.[104] Several internationally recognized non-profit organizations have originated at Northwestern including the World Health Imaging, Informatics and Telemedicine Alliance, a spin-off from an engineering student's honors thesis( Dell Latitude C610 battery). [edit]Undergraduate housing See also: List of Northwestern University residences Northwestern has several housing options, including both traditional residence halls and residential colleges which gather together students who have a particular intellectual interest in common. Among the residential colleges are the Residential College of Cultural and Community Studies (CCS), Ayers College of Commerce and Industry, Jones Residential College (Arts) ( Dell Latitude C640 battery), Slivka Residential College (Science and Engineering), the International Studies Residential College, Communications Residential College (CRC), and the Public Affairs Residential College (PARC). In Fall 2007, 27% of undergraduates were affiliated with a fraternity or sorority.[107] Northwestern recognizes 21 fraternities and 18 sororities.[108] Athletics Main article: Northwestern Wildcats 2005 NCAA Women's Lacrosse Championship game between the Virginia Cavaliers and Northwestern Wildcats( Dell Latitude C800 battery) Northwestern is a charter member of the Big Ten Conference and the only private institution in the conference. Northwestern fields 19 intercollegiate athletic teams (8 men's and 11 women's) in addition to numerous club sports.[109] The women's lacrosse team won five consecutive NCAA national championships between 2005 and 2009, went undefeated in 2005 and 2009( Dell Latitude C810 battery), added another NCAA championship in 2011, and holds several scoring records. The men's basketball team is recognized by the Helms Athletic Foundation as the 1931 National Champion.[112] In the 2010-11 school year, the Wildcats had one national championship, 12 teams in postseason play, 20 All-Americans, two CoSIDA Academic All-American selections, 8 CoSIDA Academic All0District selections( Dell Latitude C840 battery), 1 conference Coach of the Year and Player of the Year, 53 All-Conference and a record 201 Academic All-Big Ten athletes. Overall, 12 of Northwestern's 19 varsity programs had NCAA or bowl postseason appearances. The football team plays at Ryan Field (formerly known as Dyche Stadium); the basketball and volleyball teams play at Welsh-Ryan Arena( Dell Latitude CPI battery). Northwestern's athletic teams are nicknamed the Wildcats. Before 1924, they were known as "The Purple" and unofficially as "The Fighting Methodists." The name Wildcats was bestowed upon the university in 1924 by Wallace Abbey, a writer for the Chicago Daily Tribune who wrote that even in a loss to the University of Chicago, "Football players had not come down from Evanston; wildcats would be a name better suited to [Coach Glenn] Thistletwaite's boys." ( Dell Latitude CPX battery) The name was so popular that university board members made "wildcats" the official nickname just months later. In 1972, the student body voted to change the official nickname from "Wildcats" to "Purple Haze" but the new name never stuck. The mascot of Northwestern Athletics is Willie the Wildcat. The first mascot, however, was a live, caged bear cub from the Lincoln Park Zoo named Furpaw who was brought to the playing field on the day of a game to greet the fans. But after a losing season( Dell Latitude D410 battery), the team, deciding that Furpaw was to blame for its misfortune, banished him from campus forever. Willie the Wildcat made his debut in 1933 first as a logo, and then in three dimensions in 1947, when members of the Alpha Delta fraternity dressed as wildcats during a Homecoming Parade. The Northwestern University Marching Band (NUMB) performs at all home football games and leads cheers in the student section and performs the Alma Mater at the end of the game( Dell Latitude D420 battery). Ryan Field (1926), Northwestern's 49,000 seat football stadium Northwestern's football team has made 73 appearances in the top 10 of the AP poll since 1936 (including 5 at #1) and has won eight Big Ten conference championships since 1903. At one time, Northwestern had the longest losing streak in Division I-A, losing 34 consecutive games between 1979 and 1982. ( Dell Latitude D430 battery) The team did not appear in a bowl game after 1949 until the 1996 Rose Bowl. Despite playing in the 1996 Rose Bowl, 1997 Citrus Bowl, 2000 Alamo Bowl, 2003 Motor City Bowl, 2005 Sun Bowl, 2009 Alamo Bowl, 2010 Outback Bowl, 2011 TicketCity Bowl, and 2011 Texas Bowl, the last bowl game Northwestern won was the 1949 Rose Bowl.[120] Following the sudden death of football coach Randy Walker in 2006, ( Dell Latitude D500 battery) 31-year-old former All-American Northwestern linebacker Pat Fitzgerald assumed the position, becoming the youngest Division I FBS coach at the time. In 1998, two former Northwestern basketball players were charged and convicted for sports bribery as a result of being paid to shave points in games against three other Big 10 schools during the 1995 season( Dell Latitude D505 battery). The football team became embroiled in a different betting scandal later that year when federal prosecutors indicted four former players for perjury related to betting on their own games.[127] In August 2001, Rashidi Wheeler, a senior safety, collapsed and died during practice from an asthma attack. An autopsy revealed that he had ephedrine, a stimulant banned by the NCAA, in his system( Dell Latitude D510 battery), which prompted Northwestern to investigate the prevalence of stimulants and other banned substances across all of its athletic programs. In 2006, the Northwestern women's soccer team was suspended and coach Jenny Haigh resigned following the release of images of alleged hazing. People( Dell Latitude D520 battery) [edit]Student body Northwestern enrolled 8,367 full-time undergraduate and 8,108 full-time graduate and professional students in the 2010-11 academic year, along with approximately 1,100 part-time students.[6] The undergraduate population is drawn from the 50 states and from some 50 foreign countries( Dell Latitude D600 battery). Admissions are characterized as "more selective, lower transfer-in".[7] There were over 32,000 applications for the undergraduate Class of 2016 (entering 2012): 15% were admitted.[137] The interquartile range on the SAT was 2030–2290 and 90% ranked in the top ten percent of their high school class.[138] In 2007, Northwestern enrolled 249 National Merit Scholars as freshmen( Dell Latitude D610 battery), the third-largest total in the nation.[139] 86% of students were graduated after four years, 92% after five years, the university having several five-year programs.[6] Faculty Main article: List of Northwestern University faculty The university employs 2,291 full-time faculty members across its eleven schools,[2] including 18 members of the National Academy of Sciences,[140] 65 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,[141] 19 members of the National Academy of Engineering, ( Dell Latitude D620 battery) and 6 members of the Institute of Medicine.[143] Notable faculty include 2010 Nobel Prize- winning economist Dale T. Mortensen;[144] nano-scientist Chad Mirkin; Tony Award-winning director Mary Zimmerman; management expert Philip Kotler; King Faisal International Prize in Science recipient Sir Fraser Stoddart; Steppenwolf Theatre director Anna Shapiro; sexual psychologist J. Michael Bailey; ( Dell Latitude D630 battery) Holocaust denier Arthur Butz;[146] Federalist Society co-founder Steven Calabresi;[147] former Weatherman Bernardine Rae Dohrn;[148] ethnographer Gary Alan Fine;[149] Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Garry Wills;[150] and MacArthur Fellowship recipients Stuart Dybek, and Jennifer Richeson. Notable former faculty include political advisor David Axelrod, ( Dell Latitude D800 battery)artist Ed Paschke,[152] writer Charles Newman,[153] Nobel Prize-winning chemist John Pople,[154] and military sociologist and "don't ask, don't tell" author Charles Moskos.[155] Alumni Main article: List of Northwestern University alumni Charlton Heston, Academy Award-winning actor, National Rifle Association President, B.S. '45 Northwestern has roughly 225,000 alumni in all branches of business, government, law, science, education, medicine, media, and the performing arts( Dell Latitude D810 battery). Among Northwestern's more notable alumni are U.S. Senator and presidential candidate George McGovern, Nobel Prize-winning economist George J. Stigler, Nobel Prize-winning novelist Saul Bellow, Pulitzer Prize-winning composer and diarist Ned Rorem, the much-decorated composer Howard Hanson, Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey Ali Babacan, the historian and novelist Wilma Dykeman, and the founder of the presidential prayer breakfast Abraham Vereide( Dell Latitude D820 battery). U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice John Paul Stevens, Supreme Court Justice and Ambassador to the United Nations Arthur Joseph Goldberg, and Governor of Illinois and Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson are among the graduates of the Northwestern School of Law. Many Northwestern alumni play or have played important roles in Chicago and Illinois, such as former Illinois governor and convicted felon Rod Blagojevich( Dell Latitude D830 battery), Chicago Bulls and Chicago White Sox owner Jerry Reinsdorf, and theater director Mary Zimmerman. Northwestern alumnus David J. Skorton currently serves as president of Cornell University. Rahm Emanuel, the mayor of Chicago and former White House Chief of Staff, earned a Masters in Speech and Communication in 1985. John Paul Stevens, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, J.D. '47( Dell Latitude 2100 battery) Northwestern's School of Communication has been especially fruitful in the number of actors, actresses, playwrights, and film and television writers and directors it has produced. Alumni who have made their mark on film and television include Ann-Margret, Warren Beatty, Paul Lynde, David Schwimmer, Anne Dudek, Zach Braff, Zooey Deschanel( Dell Latitude 2110 battery), Marg Helgenberger, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Jerry Orbach, Jennifer Jones, Jerry Springer, Megan Mullally, John Cameron Mitchell, Dermot Mulroney, Charlton Heston, Richard Kind, Ana Gasteyer, Brad Hall, Shelley Long, William Daniels, Cloris Leachman, Bonnie Bartlett, Paula Prentiss, Richard Benjamin, Laura Innes, Charles Busch, Stephanie March, Tony Roberts( Dell Latitude E4300 battery), Jeri Ryan, Kimberly Williams-Paisley, McLean Stevenson, Tony Randall, Charlotte Rae, Patricia Neal, Nancy Dussault, Robert Reed, Mara Brock Akil, Greg Berlanti, Dan Shor, Seth Meyers, Frank DeCaro, Zach Gilford, Nicole Sullivan, Stephen Colbert and Garry Marshall. Directors who were graduated from Northwestern include Gerald Freedman, Stuart Hagmann, Marshall W. Mason( Dell Vostro 1310 battery), and Mary Zimmerman. Lee Phillip Bell hosted a talk show in Chicago from 1952–1986 and co-created the Daytime Emmy Award-winning soap operas The Young and the Restless in 1973 and The Bold and the Beautiful in 1987. Alumni such as Sheldon Harnick, Stephanie D'Abruzzo, Heather Headley, Kristen Schaal, Lily Rabe, and Walter Kerr have distinguished themselves on Broadway( Dell Vostro 1320 battery), as has designer Bob Mackie. Amsterdam-based comedy theater Boom Chicago was founded by Northwestern alumni, and the school has become a training ground for future The Second City, I.O., ComedySportz, Mad TV and Saturday Night Live talent. Tam Spiva wrote scripts for The Brady Bunch and Gentle Ben. In New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, the number of Northwestern alumni involved in theater( Dell Vostro 1510 battery), film, and television is so large that a perception has formed that there's such a thing as a "Northwestern mafia." The Medill School of Journalism has produced notable journalists and political activists including 38 Pulitzer Prize laureates. National correspondents, reporters and columnists such as The New York Times's Elisabeth Bumiller, David Barstow, Dean Murphy, and Vincent Laforet, USA Today's Gary Levin, Susan Page and Christine Brennan( Dell Vostro 1520 battery), NBC correspondent Kelly O'Donnell, CBS correspondent Richard Threlkeld, CNN correspondents Nicole Lapin and Joie Chen, and ESPN personalities Rachel Nichols, Michael Wilbon, Mike Greenberg, Steve Weissman, J. A. Adande, and Kevin Blackistone. The bestselling author of the A Song of Ice and Fire series, George R. R. Martin, earned a B.S. and M.S. from Medill( Dell Vostro 2510 battery). Northwestern alumni involved in music include Steve Albini, Thomas Tyra, Andrew Bird, Joshua Radin, members of Arcade Fire, The Lawrence Arms, Chavez, and OK Go. Lastly, Northwestern alumni involved in professional sports include Rick Sund (NBA), Billy McKinney (NBA), Mark Loretta (MLB), Joe Girardi (MLB), Luis Castillo (NFL), Ernie Adams (NFL), Otto Graham (NFL), three-time Olympic medalist Matt Grevers, and PGA Tour star Luke Donald( Dell Vostro 1014 battery). The University of Chicago (U of C, UC, UChicago, or simply Chicago) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Chicago has an international reputation for strong devotion to advanced academic scholarship and intellectualism[6][7] and is affiliated with 49 Rhodes Scholars[8] and 87 Nobel Prize laureates( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). The University consists of the College of the University of Chicago, various graduate programs and interdisciplinary committees organized into four divisions, six professional schools, and a school of continuing education. The University enrolls approximately 5,000 students in the College and about 15,000 students overall( Dell Vostro 1014N battery). In 2008, the University spent $423.7 million on scientific research.[9] University of Chicago scholars have played a role in the development of the Chicago school of economics, the Chicago school of sociology, the law and economics movement in legal analysis,[10] the Chicago school of literary criticism, the Chicago school of religion, the school of political science known as behavioralism, ( Dell Vostro 1015 battery) and in the physics leading to the world's first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction.[13] The University is also home to the University of Chicago Press, the largest university press in the United States.[14] The University was founded by the American Baptist Education Society with a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and incorporated in 1890. William Rainey Harper became the university's first president, in 1891, and the first classes were held in 1892( Dell Vostro 1015N battery). Harper worked with steel magnate Clayton Mark on educational reforms in Chicago.[15] It is now non-sectarian. History Main article: History of the University of Chicago An early convocation ceremony at the University of Chicago Founding–1910s The University of Chicago was created and incorporated as a coeducational,[16] secular institution in 1890 by the American Baptist Education Society and a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field.[17] It emerged from a Baptist university of the same name that had closed in 1886 due to financial difficulties( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery). William Rainey Harper became the modern University's first president on July 1, 1891, and the first classes were held on October 1, 1892.[18] The business school was founded in 1898,[19] and the law school was founded in 1902.[20] Harper died in 1906,[21] and was replaced by a series of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929.[22] During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded. ( Dell Vostro A840 battery) [edit]1920s–1980s In 1929, the University's fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office; the University underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. Hutchins eliminated varsity football from the University in an attempt to emphasize academics over athletics,[24] instituted the undergraduate college's liberal-arts curriculum known as the Common Core, ( Dell Vostro A860 battery) and organized the University's graduate work into its current[when?] four divisions.[24] In 1933, Hutchins proposed an unsuccessful plan to merge the University of Chicago and Northwestern University into a single university.[26] During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals (now called the University of Chicago Medical Center) finished construction and enrolled its first medical students,[27] and the Committee on Social Thought was created( Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery). The University of Chicago team that worked on the production of the world's first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction, including Enrico Fermi in the front row left Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression.[24] During World War II, the University made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. ( SONY PCG-5G2L battery) The University was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, self-sustained nuclear reaction by Enrico Fermi in 1942. In the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood. In response, the University became a major sponsor of a controversial urban renewal project for Hyde Park, which profoundly affected both the neighborhood's architecture and street plan. ( SONY PCG-5G3L battery) The University experienced its share of student unrest during the 1960s, beginning in 1962, when students occupied President George Beadle's office in a protest over the University's off-campus rental policies. In 1969, more than 400 students, angry about the dismissal of a popular professor, Marlene Dixon, occupied the Administration Building for two weeks( SONY PCG-F305 battery). After the sit-in ended, when Dixon turned down a one-year reappointment, 42 students were expelled and 81 were suspended,[31] the most severe response to student occupations of any American university during the student movement.[32] In 1978, Hanna Holborn Gray, then the provost and acting president of Yale University, became President of the University of Chicago, in which capacity she served for 15 years. ( SONY PCG-5J1L battery) View from the Midway Plaisance [edit]1990s–2000s In 1999, then-President Hugo Sonnenschein announced plans to relax the University's famed core curriculum, reducing the number of required courses from 21 to 15. When The New York Times, The Economist, and other major news outlets picked up this story, the University became the focal point of a national debate on education. The changes were ultimately implemented, but the controversy played a role in Sonnenschein's decision to resign in 2000. ( SONY PCG-5J2L battery) In the past decade, the University began a number of multi-million dollar expansion projects. In 2008, the University of Chicago announced plans to establish the Milton Friedman Institute which attracted both support and controversy from faculty members and students. The institute will cost around $200 million and occupy the buildings of the Chicago Theological Seminary. During the same year( SONY PCG-5K2L battery), investor David G. Booth donated $300 million to the University's Booth School of Business, which is the largest gift in the University's history and the largest gift ever to any business school.[40] In 2009, planning or construction on several new buildings, half of which cost $100 million or more, was underway.[41] A recent[when?] two-billion dollar campaign has brought substantial expansion to the campus, including the unveiling of the Max Palevsky Residential Commons( SONY PCG-5L1L battery), the South Campus Residence Hall, the Gerald Ratner Athletics Center, a new hospital, and a new science building. Current[when?] construction projects include: the Jules and Gwen Knapp Center for Biomedical Discovery, a ten-story medical research center, as well as further additions to the medical campus of the University of Chicago Medical Center. ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery) Woodlawn, seven miles (11 km) south of downtown Chicago. The northern and southern portions of campus are separated by the Midway Plaisance, a large, linear park created for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. The first buildings of the University of Chicago campus, which make up what is now known as the Main Quadrangles, were part of a "master plan" conceived by two University of Chicago trustees and plotted by Chicago architect Henry Ives Cobb. ( SONY PCG-6S3L battery) The Main Quadrangles consist of six quadrangles, each surrounded by buildings, bordering one larger quadrangle.[44] The buildings of the Main Quadrangles were designed by Cobb, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, Holabird & Roche, and other architectural firms in a mixture of the Victorian Gothic and Collegiate Gothic styles, patterned on the colleges of the University of Oxford.[43] (Mitchell Tower, for example, is modeled after Oxford's Magdalen Tower,[45] and the University Commons, Hutchinson Hall, replicates Christ Church Hall. ( SONY PCG-6V1L battery)) After the 1940s, the Gothic style on campus began to give way to self-consciously modern styles.[43] In 1955, Eero Saarinen was contracted to develop a second master plan, which led to the construction of buildings both north and south of the Midway, including the Laird Bell Law Quadrangle (a complex designed by Saarinen);[43] a series of arts buildings; ( SONY PCG-6W1L battery) a building designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for the University's School of Social Service Administration;[43], a building which is to become the home of the Harris School of Public Policy Studies by Edward Durrell Stone, and the Regenstein Library, the largest building on campus, a brutalist structure designed by Walter Netsch of the Chicago firm Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. ( SONY PCG-7111L battery) Another master plan, designed in 1999 and updated in 2004,[48] produced the Gerald Ratner Athletics Center (2003),[48] the Max Palevsky Residential Commons (2001),[43] South Campus Residence Hall and dining commons (2009), a new children's hospital,[49] and other construction, expansions, and restorations.[50] In 2011, the University completed the glass dome-shaped Joe and Rika Mansueto Library( SONY PCG-71511M battery), which provides a grand reading room for the University Library and eliminates the need for an off-campus book depository. The site of Chicago Pile-1 is a National Historic Landmark and is marked by the Henry Moore sculpture Nuclear Energy.[51] Robie House, a Frank Lloyd Wright building acquired by the University in 1963, is also a National Historic Landmark, ( SONY PCG-6W3L battery)as is room 405 of the George Herbert Jones Laboratory, where Glenn T. Seaborg and his team were the first to isolate plutonium.[53] Hitchcock Hall, an undergraduate dormitory, is on the National Register of Historic Places. Satellite campuses The University of Chicago also maintains facilities apart from its main campus. The University's Booth School of Business maintains campuses in Singapore, London, and the downtown Streeterville neighborhood of Chicago( SONY PCG-7113L battery). The Center in Paris, a campus located on the left bank of the Seine in Paris, hosts various undergraduate and graduate study programs.[57] The University of Chicago also opened a new center in Beijing in fall 2010. Administration and finances The University of Chicago is governed by a board of trustees. The Board of Trustees oversees the long-term development and plans of the University and manages fundraising efforts, and is composed of 50 members including the University President. ( SONY PCG-7133L battery)Directly beneath the President are the Provost, fourteen Vice Presidents (including the Chief Financial Officer, Chief Investment Officer, and Dean of Students of the University), the Directors of Argonne National Laboratory and Fermilab, the Secretary of the University, and the Student Ombudsperson.[59] As of August 2009, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees is Andrew Alper,[60] and the President of the University is Robert Zimmer( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery). The University's endowment was the 12th largest among American educational institutions and state university systems in 2010[61] and as of July 2010 is valued at $5.578 billion.[2] [edit]Academics The academic bodies of the University of Chicago consist of the College, four divisions of graduate research, six professional schools, and the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies (a continuing education school). The University also contains a library system( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) , the University of Chicago Press, the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, and the University of Chicago Medical Center, and holds ties with a number of independent academic institutions, including Fermilab and Argonne National Laboratory. The University is accredited by The Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. ( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery) The University runs on a quarter system in which the academic year is divided into four terms: Summer (June–August), Autumn (September–December), Winter (January–March), and Spring (April–June).[70] Full-time undergraduate students take three to four courses every quarter[71] for approximately eleven weeks before their quarterly academic breaks. The school year typically begins in late September and ends in mid-June. ( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) Undergraduate college Main article: College of the University of Chicago The College of the University of Chicago grants Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees in 50 academic majors[72] and 28 minors.[73] The college's academics are divided into five divisions: the Biological Sciences Collegiate Division, the Physical Sciences Collegiate Division, the Social Sciences Collegiate Division, the Humanities Collegiate Division( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), and the New Collegiate Division.[74] The first four are sections within their corresponding graduate divisions, while the New Collegiate Division administers interdisciplinary majors and studies which do not fit in one of the other four divisions.[75] Undergraduate students are required to take a distribution of courses to satisfy the University's core curriculum known as the Common Core. Most of the Core classes at Chicago contain no more than 25 students, and are generally led by a full-time professor( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery) (as opposed to a teaching assistant).[76] As of the 2009–2010 school year, 15 courses, tested proficiency in a foreign language, passage of a swim test, and up to three physical education courses (depending on results of an entrance examination) are required under the Core.[25] Eckhart Hall houses the University's math and statistics departments( SONY PCG-7112L battery). Graduate schools and committees The University graduate schools and committees are divided into four divisions: Biological Sciences, Humanities, Physical Sciences, and Social Sciences. In the spring quarter of 2009, the University enrolled 3,633 graduate students: 485 in the Biological Sciences Division, 1,076 in the Humanities Division, 732 in the Physical Sciences Division, and 1,340 in the Social Sciences Division. ( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) The University is home to several committees for interdisciplinary scholarship, including the Committee on Social Thought. Professional schools The University contains six professional schools: the Pritzker School of Medicine (which is a part of the Biological Sciences Division), the Booth School of Business, the Law School, the Divinity School, the Harris School of Public Policy Studies( SONY PCG-5K1L battery), and the School of Social Service Administration (SSA). The total enrollment for these six professional schools was 5,086 students in the 2009 spring quarter: 2,878 students in the business school, 344 in the Divinity School, 452 in the medical school, 269 in the Harris School, 494 in SSA, and 649 in the Law School. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery) The Law School is accredited by the American Bar Association, the Divinity School is accredited by the Commission on Accrediting of the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada, Pritzker is accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education.[69] Associated academic institutions The University of Chicago Lab Schools, a private day school run by the University The University runs a number of academic institutions and programs apart from its undergraduate and postgraduate schools( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). It operates the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (a private day school for K-12 students and day care),[78] the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School (a residential treatment program for those with behavioral and emotional problems),[79] and four public charter schools on the South Side of Chicago administered by the university's Urban Education Institute. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery)In addition, the Hyde Park Day School, a school for students with learning disabilities, maintains a location on the University of Chicago campus.[81] Since 1983, the University of Chicago has maintained the University of Chicago School Mathematics Project, a mathematics program used in urban primary and secondary schools.[82] The University runs a program called the Council on Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences and Humanities( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery), which administers interdisciplinary workshops to provide a forum for graduate students, faculty, and visiting scholars to present scholarly work in progress.[83] The University also operates the University of Chicago Press, the largest university press in the United States.[14] The Joseph Regenstein Library Library system The University of Chicago Library system encompasses six libraries[84] that contain a total of 8.5 million volumes, the 12th most among library systems in the United States. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery)The largest of the University's libraries is the Regenstein Library, which will be the largest collection of print volumes in the United States once its expansion is completed in 2010.[86][87] The John Crerar Library contains more than 1.3 million volumes in the biological, medical and physical sciences and collections in general science and the philosophy and history of science, medicine, and technology. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery) The University also operates a number of special libraries, including the D'Angelo Law Library, the Social Service Administration Library, and the Eckhart Library for mathematics and computer science. Research Aerial view of Fermilab, one of the science research laboratories partially operated by the University of Chicago In fiscal year 2006, the University of Chicago spent US$305,301,000 on scientific research. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery) It is classified by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as an institution with "very high research activity"[91] and is a founding member of the Committee on Institutional Cooperation and the Association of American Universities. The University operates 12 research institutes and 113 research centers on campus.[92] Among these are the Oriental Institute( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery)—a museum and research center for Near Eastern studies owned and operated by the University—and a number of National Resource Centers, including the Center for Middle Eastern Studies. Chicago also operates or is affiliated with a number of research institutions apart from the university proper. The University partially manages Argonne National Laboratory, part of the United States Department of Energy's national laboratory system( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery), and has a joint stake in Fermilab, a nearby particle physics laboratory, as well as a stake in the Apache Point Observatory in Sunspot, New Mexico. Faculty and students at the adjacent Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago collaborate with the University,[93] and although formally unrelated, the National Opinion Research Center is located on campus( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery). The University of Chicago has been the site of some important experiments and academic movements. In economics, the University has played an important role in shaping ideas about the free market[94] and is the namesake of the Chicago school of economics, the school of economic thought supported by Milton Friedman and other economists( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). The University's sociology department was the first independent sociology department in the United States and gave birth to the Chicago school of sociology.[95] In physics, the University was the site of the Chicago Pile-1 (the first self-sustained man-made nuclear reaction, part of the Manhattan Project), of Robert Millikan's oil-drop experiment that calculated the charge of the electron,[96] and of the development of radiocarbon dating. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery) People See also: List of University of Chicago people and List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Chicago There have been 87 Nobel Laureates affiliated with the University of Chicago,[98] 17 of whom were pursuing research or on faculty at the University at the time of the award announcement. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery) In addition, many Chicago alumni and scholars have won the Fulbright awards[100] and 49 have matriculated as Rhodes Scholars.[101] Student body In the 2009 Spring Quarter, the University of Chicago enrolled 4,920 students in the College, 3,633 students in its four graduate divisions, 5,088 students in its professional schools, and 14,000 students overall.[104] In the 2009 Spring Quarter( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery), international students comprised about 18% of the overall study body, at least 23% of students were domestic ethnic minorities, and 45% were female.[102] The middle 50% band of SAT scores for the undergraduate class of 2014, excluding the writing section, was 1400–1530,[105] the average MCAT score of students in the Pritzker School of Medicine is 36,[106] and the median LSAT score for students entering the Law School in 2009 was 171. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery) Alumni Main article: List of University of Chicago alumni In 2004, the University of Chicago claimed 133,155 living alumni.[108] Notable alumni in the field of government and politics include community organizer Saul Alinsky, Obama campaign advisor David Axelrod, Attorney General and federal judge Robert Bork, Attorney General Ramsay Clark, Governor of New Jersey Jon Corzine, Prohibition agent Eliot Ness, Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens, and World Bank President Paul Wolfowitz( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). In business, Goldman Sachs and MF Global CEO Jon Corzine, Bloomberg L.P. CEO Daniel Doctoroff, Credit Suisse CEO Brady Dougan, and Morningstar, Inc. founder and CEO Joe Mansueto are all alumni. In journalism, notable graduates include New York Times columnist David Brooks, Washington Post columnist David Broder, Washington Post publisher Katharine Graham, investigative journalist Seymour Hirsch, and statistical analyst Nate Silver( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). In literature, novelists Philip Roth and Kurt Vonnegut are graduates. In academia, alumni include astronomer Carl Sagan, economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Edwin Hubble, and international relations scholar Samuel P. Huntington. Notable former students who did not graduate include novelist Saul Bellow, film critic Roger Ebert, Oracle Corporation founder and CEO Larry Ellison, and director Mike Nichols( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). Athletics Main article: Chicago Maroons The University of Chicago hosts 19 varsity sports teams: 10 men's teams and 9 women's teams,[109] all called the Maroons, with 585 students participating in the 2008–2009 school year.[109] The Maroons compete in the NCAA's Division III as members of the University Athletic Association (UAA). The University was a founding member of the Big Ten Conference and participated in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball and Football and was a regular participant in the Men's Basketball tournament( Sony VAIO VGN-SZ battery). In 1935 the University of Chicago reached the Sweet Sixteen.[109] However, the University chose to withdraw from the conference in 1946 after University President Robert Maynard Hutchins de-emphasized varsity athletics in 1939 and dropped football.[110] (In 1969, Chicago reinstated football as a Division III team, resuming playing its home games at the new Stagg Field.) ( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery) Student life The University's Reynolds Club, the student center [edit]Student organizations Students at the University of Chicago run over 400 clubs and organizations known as Recognized Student Organizations (RSOs). These include cultural and religious groups, academic clubs and teams, and common-interest organizations.[112] Among notable RSOs are the nation's longest continuously running student film society Doc Films, organizing committee for the University of Chicago Scavenger Hunt, ( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery) the twice-weekly student newspaper The Chicago Maroon, the alternative weekly student newspaper the Chicago Weekly, the nation's second oldest continuously running student improvisational theater troupe Off-Off Campus, and the University-owned radio station WHPK-FM. [edit]Fraternities and sororities There are fourteen fraternities and six sororities at the University of Chicago,[113] as well as one co-ed community service fraternity, Alpha Phi Omega. ( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery) Three of the sororities are members of the National Panhellenic Conference,[115] and ten of the fraternities form the University of Chicago Interfraternity Council.[116] In 2002, the Associate Director of Student Activities estimated that 8–10 percent of undergraduates were members of fraternities or sororities.[115] The student activities office has used similar figures, stating that one in ten undergraduates participate in Greek life. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) Student housing Max Palevsky Residential Commons, a dormitory constructed in 2001 designed by postmodernist Mexican architect Ricardo Legorreta Main article: Housing at the University of Chicago On-campus undergraduate students at the University of Chicago participate in a house system in which each student is assigned to one of the university's 10 residence hall buildings and to a smaller community within their residence hall called a "house"( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). There are 35 houses, with an average of 70 students in each house[117] Freshmen are required to participate in the house system, and housing is guaranteed every year thereafter.[118] About 60% of undergraduate students live on campus.[118] For graduate students, the University owns and operates 28 apartment buildings near campus. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery) Traditions Qwazy Quad Rally, Scav Hunt 2005, item #38 Main articles: Doc Films, Summer Breeze (concert), and University of Chicago Scavenger Hunt Every May since 1987, the University of Chicago has held the University of Chicago Scavenger Hunt, in which large teams of students compete to obtain notoriously esoteric items from a list.[120] Since 1963, the Festival of the Arts (FOTA) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery)takes over campus for 7–10 days of exhibitions and interactive artistic endeavors.[121] The University also annually holds a summer carnival and concert called Summer Breeze that hosts outside musicians, and is home to Doc Films, a student film society founded in 1932 that screens films nightly at the University. Since 1946, the University has organized the Latke-Hamantash Debate( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), which involves humorous discussions about the relative merits and meanings of Latke and Hamantash.
Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is an American private Ivy League research university located in New York City, New York, United States. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution.[5] Today the university operates seven Columbia Global Centers overseas in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Santiago and Nairobi. The university was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain. After the American Revolutionary War Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery, King's College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. The University now operates under a 1787 charter that places the institution under a private board of trustees, and in 1896 it was further renamed Columbia University.[7] That same year, the university's campus was moved from Madison Avenue to its location in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhatta Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI batteryn, where it occupies more than six city blocks, or 32 acres (0.13 km2).[8] The university encompasses twenty schools and is affiliated with numerous institutions, including Teachers College, Barnard College, and the Union Theological Seminary, with joint undergraduate programs available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as the Juilliard School Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Columbia annually administers the Pulitzer Prize and is affiliated with more Nobel Prize laureates than any other academic institution in the world. The university is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities, and was the first school in the United States to grant the M.D. degree. Notable alumni of the university include nine Justices of the United States Supreme Court; Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery 20 living billionaires;[14] 25 Academy Award winners;[15] and 29 heads of state, including three United States Presidents. History Main article: History of Columbia University King's College (1754–1784) King's College Hall, 1770 Discussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704, when Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the missionary arm of the Church of England, persuading the society that New York City was an ideal community in which to establish a college; Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery however, not until the founding of Princeton University across the Hudson River in New Jersey did the City of New York seriously consider founding a college.[17] In 1746 an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. In 1751, the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents, seven of whom were members of the Church of England Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery, to direct the funds accrued by the state lottery towards the foundation of a college. Classes were initially held in July 17, 1754 and were presided over by the college's first president, Dr. Samuel Johnson. Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the college's first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan. Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H batteryThe college was officially founded on October 31, 1754, as King's College by royal charter of King George II, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States. In 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queen's College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his chief opponent in discussions at the College was an undergraduate of the class of 1777, Alexander Hamilton.[21] The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, and was catastrophic for the operation of King's College, which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of the Continental Army Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The college's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces. Columbia College (1784–1896) The Gothic Revival Law School building on the Madison Avenue campus After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, promising to make whatever changes to the schools charter the state might demand. Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery The Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed "an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College."[25] The Act created a Board of Regents to oversee the resuscitation of King's College, and, in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic, the Legislature stipulated that "the College within the City of New York heretofore called King's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name of Columbia College." Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H batteryThe name Columbia is derived from "the land of Columbus", and is the historical and poetic name used for the United States of America and is also the name of its female personification. The Regents finally became aware of the college's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, which was headed by John Jay and Alexander Hamilton Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. In April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On the May 21, 1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College. Prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. For a period in the 1790s, with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successive Federalist governments, a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay. Both President George Washington and Vice President John Adams attended the college's commencement on May 6, 1789 Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school that had been involved in the American Revolution.[28] The college's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the College functioned. In 1857, the College moved from Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery, where it remained for the next fifty years. During the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F.A.P. Barnard, the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. By this time, the College's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school, mainly owing to the city's rapidly expanding population. Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E batteryColumbia University (1896–present) An illustration of Columbia in 1915. In 1896, the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name, Columbia University, and today the institution is officially known as "Columbia University in the City of New York." At the same time, university president Seth Low moved the campus again, from 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights. Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery Under the leadership of Low's successor, Nicholas Murray Butler, who served for over four decades, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the "multiversity" model that later universities would adopt.[7] Research into the atom by faculty members John R. Dunning, I. I. Rabi, Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the 1940s Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E batteryafter the first nuclear pile was built to start what became the Manhattan Project.[32] In 1947, to meet the needs of GIs returning from World War II, University Extension was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the Columbia University School of General Studies.[33] During the 1960s Columbia experienced large-scale student activism, which reached a climax in the spring of 1968 when hundreds of students occupied various buildings on campus Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's then President, Grayson Kirk and the establishment of the University Senate. Though several schools within the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983, after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College, an all female institution affiliated with the university Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, to merge the two schools.[36] Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas authorized by both Columbia University and Barnard College. Campus Morningside Heights The majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in Morningside Heights on Seth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery. The campus was designed along Beaux-Arts principles by architects McKim, Mead, and White. Columbia's main campus occupies more than six city blocks, or 32 acres (13 ha), in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions. The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery, graduate students, and staff. Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights.[8] Columbia University has an extensive underground tunnel system more than a century old, with the oldest portions predating the present campus. Some of these remain accessible to the public, while others have been cordoned off Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. Butler Library, rated one of the most beautiful college libraries in the United States [40] The Nicholas Murray Butler Library, commonly known simply as Butler Library, is the largest single library in the Columbia University Library System, and is one of the largest buildings on the campus. Proposed as "South Hall" by the university's former President Nicholas Murray Butler as expansion plans for Low Memorial Library stalled Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery, the new library was funded by Edward Harkness, benefactor of Yale's residential college system, and designed by his favorite architect, James Gamble Rogers. It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946. The library's design is neo-classical in style. Its facade features an arcade of columns in the Ionic order above which are inscribed the names of great writers Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery, philosophers, and thinkers, most of whom are read by students engaged in the Core Curriculum of Columbia College.[41] As of 2009, Columbia's library system includes over 10.4 million volumes, making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States. Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Low Memorial Library Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery, a National Historic Landmark and the centerpiece of the campus, is listed for its architectural significance. Philosophy Hall is listed as the site of the invention of FM radio. Also listed is Pupin Hall, another National Historic Landmark, which houses the physics and astronomy departments. Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted by Enrico Fermi Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world's first atom-splitting in Copenhagen, Denmark. A statue by sculptor Daniel Chester French called Alma Mater is centered on the front steps of Low Memorial Library. McKim, Mead & White invited French to build the sculpture in order to harmonize with the larger composition of the court and library in the center of the campus Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. Draped in an academic gown, the female figure of Alma Mater wears a crown of laurels and sits on a throne. The scroll-like arms of the throne end in lamps, representing sapientia and doctrina. A book signifying knowledge, balances on her lap, and an owl, the attribute of wisdom, is hidden in the folds of her gown. Her right hand holds a scepter composed of four sprays of wheat Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery, terminating with a crown of King's College which refers to Columbia's origin as a Royalist institution in 1754. A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture. The statue was dedicated on September 23, 1903, as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet, and was originally covered in golden leaf. During the Columbia University protests of 1968 a bomb damaged the sculpture Sony VAIO PCG-31114V battery, but it has since been repaired.[47] The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends, the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian, and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student, given that Barnard is a women's college Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. "The Steps", alternatively known as "Low Steps" or the "Urban Beach", are a popular meeting area for Columbia students. The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus (South Field) to its upper terrace. With a design inspired by the City Beautiful movement, the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery, faculty, and staff with a comfortable and spacious outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings, events, and ceremonies. McKim's classical facade epitomizes late 19th century new-classical designs, with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure. On warm days when the weather is favorable, the Low Steps often become a popular gathering place for students to sunbathe, eat lunch, or play frisbee. Sony VAIO PCG-31112M batteryPanorama view of the Morningside Heights campus as seen from Butler Library and facing Low Memorial Library. Other campuses In April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a 17 acres (6.9 ha) site for a new campus in Manhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus. Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, the new campus will house buildings for Columbia's schools of business and the arts and allow the construction of the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. The $7 billion expansion plan includes demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery, eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments. Replacing these buildings will be 6,800,000 square feet (630,000 m2) of space for the university. Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights Sony VAIO PCG-41111V battery. Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition. Most recently, as of December 2008, the State of New York's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's "blighted" status, gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use. On May 20, 2009, the New York State Public Authorities Control Board approved the Manhanttanville expansion plan Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. New York-Presbyterian Hospital is affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University. According to US News and World Reports "Americas Best Hospitals 2009", it is ranked sixth overall and third among university hospitals. Columbia Medical School has a strategic partnership with New York State Psychiatric Institute SONY VAIO PCG-21214V battery, and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals overseas. Health-related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center, a 20 acres (8.1 ha) campus located in the neighborhood of Washington Heights, fifty blocks uptown. Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the New York-Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan SONY VAIO PCG-21213V battery, and the Payne Whitney Westchester, a psychiatric institute located in White Plains, New York.[57] On the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood of Inwood), Columbia owns 26-acre (11 ha) Baker Field, which includes the Lawrence A. Wien Stadium as well as facilities for field sports, outdoor track, and tennis. There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River SONY VAIO PCG-21212V battery, the 157-acre (64 ha) Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York. A fourth is the 60-acre (24 ha) Nevis Laboratories in Irvington, New York. A satellite site in Paris, France holds classes at Reid Hall. Sustainability Access to Columbia is enhanced by the Columbia University subway station. In 2006, the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate, coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university's environmental footprint. The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university's Manhattanville plan for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Neighborhood Design pilot program SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The plan commits to incorporating smart growth, new urbanism and "green" building design principles.[58] Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners, a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse emissions by 30% within the next ten years. Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. The University requires a minimum of Silver, but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels. This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use; however, the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers. SONY VAIO PCG-51212M batteryEvery Thursday and Sunday of the month, Columbia hosts a greenmarket where local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city. In addition, from April to November Hodgson's farm, a local New York gardening center, joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers. The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non-profit group GrowNYC. SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products, in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus.[61] Columbia has been rated "B+" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives. SONY VAIO PCG-51112M batteryAcademics Undergraduate admissions and financial aid Alma Mater is a well-known statue on the steps of Low Memorial Library. Columbia University's acceptance rate for the Columbia College and Engineering class of 2016 is 7.4%,[63] making Columbia the fourth most selective college in the United States by admission rate behind Harvard, Stanford and Yale[64][65] The undergraduate yield rate for the class of 2015 is 60%.[66] According to the 2011 college selectivity ranking by U.S. News & World Report SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, which factors admission and yield rates among other criteria, Columbia is the third most selective college in the nation, behind Yale and Caltech and tied with Harvard, MIT, and Princeton.[67] Columbia sends approximately 90% of its undergraduates to graduate school in virtually every academic, professional and vocational field.[68] Columbia is a racially diverse school, with approximately 52% of all students identifying themselves as persons of color. Additionally SONY VAIO PCG-51111V battery, 50.3% of all undergraduates in the Class of 2013 receive financial aid. The average financial aid package for these students exceeds $30,000, with an average grant size of over $20,000. On April 11, 2007, Columbia University announced a $400m to $600m donation from media billionaire alumnus John Kluge to be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid. The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education SONY VAIO PCG-81211V battery. Its exact value will depend on the eventual value of Kluge's estate at the time of his death; however, the generous donation has helped change financial aid policy at Columbia.[70] Annual gifts, fund-raising, and an increase in spending from the university's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students SONY VAIO PCG-81111V battery. As of 2008, undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $60,000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university, including room, board, and academic fees, subsidized by the university. That same year, the university ended loans for incoming and current students who were on financial aid, replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the university SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. However, this does not apply to international students, transfer students, visiting students, or students in the School of General Studies. In the fall of 2010, admission to Columbia's undergraduate colleges Columbia College and the SEAS, began accepting the Common Application. The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the last Ivy League university to switch to the common application Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee. Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars, John Jay Scholars, C. Prescott Scholars, Global Scholars, Egleston Scholars, and Science Research Fellows. Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first-year applicants. According to Columbia SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery, the first four designated scholars "distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements, dynamism, intellectual curiosity, the originality and independence of their thinking, and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences." SONY VAIO PCG-7192V batteryOrganization Columbia University is an independent, privately supported, nonsectarian institution of higher education. Its official corporate name is "The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York." The university's first Charter was granted in 1754 by King George II; however, its modern Charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature SONY VAIO PCG-7191V battery. The university is governed by 24 Trustees, customarily including the President, who serves ex officio. The Trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors. Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association. Another six are nominated by the Board in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. The remaining 12, including the President, are nominated by the Trustees themselves through their internal processes. The term of office for Trustees is six years. Generally, they serve for no more than two consecutive terms. The Trustees appoint the President and other senior administrative officers of the university, and review and confirm faculty appointments as required SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. They determine the university's financial and investment policies, authorize the budget, supervise the endowment, direct the management of the university's real estate and other assets, and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university. The University Senate was established by the Trustees after a university-wide referendum in 1969. It succeeded to the powers of the University Council SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery, which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty, deans, and other administrators to regulate inter-Faculty affairs and consider issues of university-wide concern. The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university. These include the president of the university, the Provost, the Deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery all who serve ex officio, and five additional representatives, appointed by the President, from the university's administration. The President serves as the Senate's presiding officer. The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies, physical development, budget, and external relations of the university. It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students SONY PCG-8113M battery. The President of Columbia University, who is selected by the Trustees in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate and who serves at the Trustees' pleasure, is the chief executive officer of the university. Assisting the President in administering the University are the Provost, the Senior Executive Vice President SONY PCG-8112M battery, the Executive Vice President for Health and Biomedical Sciences, several other vice presidents, the General Counsel, the Secretary of the University, and the deans of the Faculties, all of whom are appointed by the Trustees on the nomination of the President and serve at their pleasure.[75] Lee C. Bollinger became the 19th President of Columbia University on June 1, 2002 SONY PCG-7134M battery . A prominent advocate of affirmative action, he played a leading role in the twin Supreme Court cases—Grutter v Bollinger and Gratz v Bollinger—that upheld and clarified the importance of diversity as a compelling justification for affirmative action in higher education. A leading First Amendment scholar, he is widely published on freedom of speech and press, and currently[when?] serves on the faculty of Columbia Law School SONY PCG-7131M battery. Columbia has three official undergraduate colleges: Columbia College (CC), the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree, Columbia Engineering, formerly known as SEAS, is the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree, and The School of General Studies (GS), in which nontraditional students obtain a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science through either full time or part time study. SONY PCG-7122M battery The university is affiliated with Teachers College, Barnard College, the Union Theological Seminary, and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, all located nearby in Morningside Heights. Joint undergraduate programs are available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as through the Juilliard School. Two affiliated institutions – Barnard College and Teachers College – are also Faculties of the university SONY PCG-7121M battery. Research and rankings Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split. It was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser.[88] The MPEG-2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering. Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in labelling cells in intact organisms. SONY PCG-7113M battery Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification (SLS) technology for making LCDs, System Management Arts (SMARTS), Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) (which is used for audio, video, chat, instant messaging and whiteboarding), pharmacopeia, Macromodel (software for computational chemistry), a new and better recipe for glass concrete SONY PCG-7112M battery , Blue LEDs, and Beamprop (used in photonics).[90] Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year.[90] More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia are on the market today. These include Remicade (for arthritis), Reopro (for blood clot complications), Xalatan (for glaucoma), Benefix, shoulder prosthesis SONY PCG-8Z3M battery , homocysteine (testing for cardiovascular disease), and Zolinza (for cancer therapy).[91] Columbia Technology Ventures (formerly Science and Technology Ventures) currently[when?] manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements.[91] Patent-related deals earned Columbia more than $230 million in the 2006 fiscal year, according to the university. Columbia is ranked first (tied with MIT, Stanford University and Penn) SONY PCG-8Z2M battery in the first tier of the United States' top research universities by the Center for Measuring University Performance, which takes into account total research, federal research, endowment assets, annual giving, National Academy members, faculty awards, doctorates granted, postdoctoral appointees, and undergraduate SAT/ACT range.[93] In 2011, Columbia is ranked #8 in ARWU, SONY PCG-8Z1M battery #10 in QS,[95] and #12 by Times Higher Education in the world.[87] Nationally, the university is ranked #4 by U.S. News & World Report,[83] #7 by ARWU,[94] and #42 by Forbes.[96] Columbia's colleges and schools are also ranked by several independent bodies. For 2011, the College & School of Engineering (undergraduate) is ranked #4 nationally by U.S. News & World Report. SONY PCG-8Y3M battery the Graduate School of Arts #11,[98] the Columbia Business School #3 by The Wall Street Journal[99] the Teachers College #2 by U.S. News & World Report,[100] the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (graduate) #15,[101] the Columbia Law School #4,[102] the College of Physicians and Surgeons #8 for research and #43 for primary care,[103] the Mailman School of Public Health #5, SONY PCG-8Y2M batteryand the School of International and Public Affairs #29. Additionally, Columbia's School of Social Work is ranked #4,[107] its Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation #3,[108] and its Graduate School of Journalism #1. In the last 12 years (1996–2008), 18 Columbia affiliates have won Nobel Prizes.[111] Columbia faculty awarded the Nobel Prize include Richard Axel, Martin Chalfie, Eric Kandel, Tsung-Dao Lee SONY PCG-7Z1M battery, Robert Mundell, Orhan Pamuk, Edmund S. Phelps, Joseph Stiglitz, and Horst L. Stormer.[112] Other awards and honors won by faculty include 30 MacArthur Foundation Award winners,[113] 4 National Medal of Science recipients, 43 National Academy of Sciences Award winners, 20 National Academy of Engineering Award winners,[114] 38 Institute of Medicine of the National Academies Award recipients and 143 American Academy of Arts and Sciences Award winners SONY PCG-6W2M battery. Student life Students For the 2010 academic year, Columbia University's student population was 27,606, with 35% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority and 23% born outside of the United States. Columbia enrolled 7,934 students in undergraduate programs, 5,393 students in graduate programs, and 12,090 students in professional programs SONY PCG-5J5M battery. On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate. Columbia College and Columbia Engineering, formerly known as SEAS, share housing in the on-campus residence halls. First-year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn: Hartley Hall, Wallach Hall (originally Livingston Hall), John Jay Hall, Furnald Hall or Carman Hall SONY PCG-5K2M battery. Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process, wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment-style housing with their friends. The Columbia University School of General Studies and graduate schools have their own apartment-style housing in the surrounding neighborhood SONY PCG-5K1M battery . Columbia University is home to many fraternities, sororities, and co-educational Greek organizations. Approximately 10–15% of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life.[119] There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta Chapter of Alpha Delta Phi. SONY PCG-5J4M battery The InterGreek Council is the self-governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia, the Interfraternity Council, Panhellenic Council, and Multicultural Greek Council. The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community SONY PCG-5J1M battery. The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other, work together and advocate for community needs. Publications It has been suggested that Columbia Political Review be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since July 2012. One of the earliest logos of Columbia University Press Columbia University is home to a rich diversity of undergraduate, graduate, and professional publications. The Columbia Daily Spectator is the nation's second-oldest student newspaper; and The Blue and White SONY PCG-5G2M battery, a monthly literary magazine established in 1890, has recently begun to delve into campus life and local politics in print and on its daily blog, dubbed the Bwog. Political publications include The Current, a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs; the Columbia Political Review, the multi-partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union; and AdHoc, which denotes itself as the "progressive" campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. Arts and literary publications include the Columbia Review, the nation's oldest college literary magazine; Columbia, a nationally regarded literary journal; the Columbia Journal of Literary Criticism; and The Mobius Strip, an online arts and literary magazine. Inside New York[130] is an annual guidebook to New York City, written, edited, and published by Columbia undergraduates Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Through a distribution agreement with Columbia University Press, the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores. It is also sold online in a newly adopted ebook format. Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications. The Journal of Politics & Society,[131] is a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences, published and distributed nationally by the Helvidius Group Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery; Publius is an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually; the Columbia East Asia Review allows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam and is supported by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute; and The Birch, is an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student-run journal of its kind Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery; Columbia Political Review, the undergraduate magazine on politics operated by the Columbia Political Union; Columbia Economics Review, the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department; and the Columbia Science Review is a science magazine that prints general interest articles, faculty profiles, and student research papers Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. The Fed a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper, and the Jester of Columbia,[137] the newly (and frequently) revived campus humor magazine both inject humor into local life. Other publications include The Columbian, the undergraduate colleges' annually published yearbook the Gadfly, a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates; Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery and Rhapsody in Blue, an undergraduate urban studies magazine.[140] Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University include Current Musicology[141] and The Journal of Philosophy. During the spring semester, graduate students in the Journalism School publish The Bronx Beat, a bi-weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx. Teachers College publishes the Teachers College Record Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery, a journal of research, analysis, and commentary in the field of education, published continuously since 1900. Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, Columbia Journalism Review (CJR) examines day-to-day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance. The magazine is published six times a year Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery, and offers a deliberative mix of reporting, analysis, criticism, and commentary. CJR.org, its Web site, delivers real-time criticism and reporting, giving CJR a vital presence in the ongoing conversation about the media. Both online and in print, Columbia Journalism Review is in conversation with a community of people who share a commitment to high journalistic standards in the U.S. and the world Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. Broadcasting Columbia is home to two early pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting, WKCR-FM and CTV. WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-State area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation with Major Edwin Armstrong. The station went operational on July 18, 1939 Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery, from a 400-foot antenna tower in Alpine, New Jersey, broadcasting the very first FM transmission in the world. Initially, WKCR wasn't a radio station, but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications. As membership grew, however, the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting. Armstrong helped the students in their early efforts Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room.[145] The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at 4 Times Square in Midtown Manhattan. Columbia Television (CTV) is the nation's second oldest Student television station and home of CTV News, a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery. Speech and debate The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country.[148] The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Bad Poetry Contest.[149] The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the university.[150] The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia's Model United Nations activities. CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery, trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN and oversees a competitive team, which travels to colleges around the country and to an international conference every year.[151] The competitive team consistently wins best and outstanding delegation awards and is considered one of the top teams in the country. Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M batteryTechnology and entrepreneurship Pupin Hall, the physics building, showing the rooftop observatory The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999. The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus. Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including a business plan competition and a series of seminars. Notable seminar speakers include Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks and Chairman of HDNet Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery, and Blake Ross, creator of Mozilla Firefox. As of 2006, CORE has awarded graduate and undergraduate students with over $100,000 in seed capital. Events are possible through the contributions of various private and corporate groups; previous sponsors include Deloitte & Touche, Citigroup, and i-Compass Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by a Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003. Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer
Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement. SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and Worldwide, made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City. Over the past 20 years, graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies.[156] Mayor Bloomberg has provided over $6.7 million into entrepreneurial programs that partner with Columbia and other universities in New York Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. Professor Chris Wiggins of Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science is working in conjunction with Professors Evan Korth of New York University and Hilary Mason, chief scientist at bit.ly to facilitate the growth of student tech-startups in an effort to transform a traditionally financially-centered New York City into the next Silicon Valley Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Their website hackny.org is a huge gathering ground of ideas and discussions for New York's young entrepreneurial community, the Silicon Alley.[157] On June 14, 2010, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg launched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations within New York's media industry.[158] Situated in the Polytechnic Institute of New York University, the lab is a consortium of Columbia University, New York University Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, and New York City Economic Development Corporation acting to connect companies with universities in new technology research. The Lab is modeled after similar ones at MIT and Stanford. A $250,000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation was used to establish the NYC Media Lab. Each year, the lab will host a range of roundtable discussions between the private sector and academic institutions Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery. The lab will support research projects on topics of content format, next generation search technologies, computer animation for film and gaming, emerging marketing techniques, and new devices development. The lab will also create a media research and development database. Columbia University will coordinate the long-term direction of the media lab as well as the involvement of its faculty and those of other universities. Sony VAIO PCG-8141L batteryAthletics Lawrence A. Wien Stadium Main article: Columbia Lions A member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (Division I-AA FCS), Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League. The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seat Lawrence A. Wien Stadium at Baker Field. One hundred blocks north of the main campus at Morningside Heights Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery, the Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track and rowing. The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus.[160] Columbia University athletics has had a long history, with many accomplishments in various athletic fields Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. In 1870, Columbia played against Rutgers University in the second football game in the history of the sport. Eight years later, Columbia crew won the famed Henley Royal Regatta in the first-ever defeat for an English crew rowing in English waters. In 1900, Olympian and Columbia College student Maxie Long set the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47.8 seconds Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. In 1983, Columbia men's soccer went 18-0 and was ranked first in the nation, but losing to Indiana 1-0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game; nevertheless, the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history.[161] The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery: between 1983 and 1988, the team lost 44 games in a row, which is still the record for the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision. The streak was broken on October 8, 1988, with a 16-13 victory over archrival Princeton. That was the Lions' first victory at Wien Stadium, which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old. Sony VAIO PCG-81114L batteryFormer students include Baseball Hall of Famers Lou Gehrig and Eddie Collins, football Hall of Famer Sid Luckman, Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifter Karyn Marshall. On May 17, 1939 fledgling NBC broadcasted a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers at Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. World Leaders Forum Established in 2003 by university president Lee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for undergraduate and graduate students alike to listen to some of the most prominent world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. The World Leaders Forum is a year-around event series that strives to provide a platform for uninhibited speech among nations and cultures, while educating students about the current problems as well as progress around the globe.[167] Past forum speakers include former President of the United States Bill Clinton, the Prime Minister of India Atal Behari Vajpayee, Former President of Ghana John Agyekum Kufuor Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery, President of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai, Prime Minister of Russia Vladimir Putin, President of the Republic of Mozambique Joaquim Alberto Chissano, President of the Republic of Bolivia Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert, President of the Republic of Romania Ion Iliescu, President of the Republic of Latvia Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, the first female President of Finland Tarja Halonen, President Yudhoyono of Indonesia, President Pervez Musharraf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Iraq President Jalal Talabani, the 14th Dalai Lama Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, President of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, financier George Soros, Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg of New York City, President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina, former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, and Al Gore Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. Other Aerial view of Columbia University The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composer Edward MacDowell in 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States. Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools. Sony VAIO PCG-61112L batteryThere are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL) Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery, Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch. The Columbia University Marching Band tells jokes during the campus tradition of Orgo Night. The Columbia Queer Alliance is the central Columbia student organization that represents the lesbian, gay, transgender, and questioning student population. It is the oldest gay student organization in the world Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery, founded as the Student Homophile League in 1967 by students including lifelong activist Stephen Donaldson. Conversio Virium is the university's student-run BDSM education group. Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC. In the 2005–06 academic year, the Columbia Military Society Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery, Columbia's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates, was renamed the Hamilton Society for "students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition of Alexander Hamilton".[175] The university also houses an independent nonprofit organization, Community Impact, which strives to serve disadvantaged people in the Harlem, Washington Heights Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery, and Morningside Heights communities. From its earliest inception as a single service initiative formed in 1981 by Columbia University undergraduates, Community Impact has grown into Columbia University's largest student service organization. CI provides food, clothing, shelter, education, job training, and companionship for residents in its surrounding communities Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. CI consists of a dedicated corps of about 950 Columbia University student volunteers participating in 25 community service programs, which serve more than 8,000 people each year. Controversies and student demonstrations Protests of 1968 Main article: Columbia University protests of 1968 Playwright Tony Kushner protesting at his 1978 graduation Students initiated a major demonstration in 1968 over two main issues. The first was Columbia's proposed gymnasium in neighboring Morningside Park; this was seen by the protesters to be an act of aggression aimed at the black residents of neighboring Harlem Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. A second issue was the Columbia administration's failure to resign its institutional membership in the Pentagon's weapons research think-tank, the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA). Students barricaded themselves inside Low Library, Hamilton Hall, and several other university buildings during the protests, and New York City police were called onto the campus to arrest or forcibly remove the students Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. The protests achieved two of their stated goals. Columbia disaffiliated from the IDA and scrapped the plans for the controversial gym, building a subterranean physical fitness center under the north end of campus instead. The gym's plans were eventually used by Princeton University for the expansion of its athletic facilities Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. At least 30 Columbia students were suspended by the administration as a result of the protests. Many of the Class of '68 walked out of their graduation and held a countercommencement on Low Plaza with a picnic following at Morningside Park, the place where the protests began.[179] The protests hurt Columbia financially as many potential students chose to attend other universities and some alumni refused to donate money to the school Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Allan Bloom, a professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago, believed that the protest efforts at Columbia were responsible for pushing higher education further toward the liberal left. As a result of the protests, Bloom stated, "American universities were no longer places of intellectual and academic debate, but rather places of 'political correctness' and liberalism." Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L batteryProtests against racism and apartheid Further student protests, including hunger strike and more barricades of Hamilton Hall and the Business School during the late 1970s and early 1980s, were aimed at convincing the university trustees to divest all of the university's investments in companies that were seen as active or tacit supporters of the apartheid regime in South Africa Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery. A notable upsurge in the protests occurred in 1978, when following a celebration of the tenth anniversary of the student uprising in 1968, students marched and rallied in protest of university investments in South Africa. The Committee Against Investment in South Africa (CAISA) and numerous student groups including the Socialist Action Committee Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery, the Black Student Organization and the Gay Students group joined together and succeeded in pressing for the first partial divestment of a U.S. university. The initial (and partial) Columbia divestment,[181] focused largely on bonds and financial institutions directly involved with the South African regime. It followed a year long campaign first initiated by students who had worked together to block the appointment of former United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to an endowed chair at the university in 1977 Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Broadly backed by a diverse array of student groups and many notable faculty members the Committee Against Investment in South Africa held numerous teach-ins and demonstrations through the year focused on the trustees ties to the corporations doing business with South Africa. Trustee meetings were picketed and interrupted by demonstrations culminating in May 1978 in the takeover of the Graduate School of Business Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. Ahmadinejad speech controversy Students protest Ahmadinejad's invitation to speak at Columbia University. The School of International and Public Affairs traditionally extends invitations to many heads of state and heads of government who come to New York City for the opening of the fall session of the United Nations General Assembly. In 2007, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was one of those invited to speak on campus Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Ahmadinejad accepted his invitation and spoke on September 24, 2007, as part of Columbia University's World Leaders Forum.[186] The invitation proved to be highly controversial. Hundreds of demonstrators swarmed the campus on September 24 and the speech itself was televised worldwide. University President Lee C. Bollinger tried to assuage the controversy by letting Ahmadenijad speak Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, but with a negative introduction (given personally by Bollinger). This did not mollify those who were displeased with the fact that the Iranian leader had been invited onto the campus.[187] Columbia students, though, turned out en masse to listen to the speech on the South Lawn. An estimated 2,500 under graduates and graduates came out for the historic occasion Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. During his speech, Ahmadinejad criticized Israel's policies towards the Palestinians; called for research on the historical accuracy of the Holocaust; raised questions as to who initiated the 9/11 attacks; defended Iran's nuclear power program, criticizing the UN's policy of sanctions on his country; and attacked U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery. In response to a question about Iran's treatment of women and homosexuals, he asserted that women are respected in Iran and that "In Iran, we don't have homosexuals like in your country... In Iran, we do not have this phenomenon. I don't know who told you this."[188] The latter statement drew laughter from the audience. The Manhattan District Attorney's Office accused Columbia of accepting grant money from the Alavi Foundation to support faculty "sympathetic" to Iran's Islamic republic. Sony VAIO PCG-51311L batteryROTC controversy Beginning in 1969, during the Vietnam War, the university did not allow the U.S. military to have Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs on campus,[190] though Columbia students could participate in ROTC programs at other colleges and universities. At a forum at the university during the 2008 presidential election campaign, both John McCain and Barack Obama said that the university should consider reinstating ROTC on campus Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. After the debate, the President of the University, Lee C. Bollinger, stated that he did not favor reinstating Columbia's ROTC program, because of the military's anti-gay policies. In November 2008, Columbia's undergraduate student body held a referendum on the question of whether or not to invite ROTC back to campus, and the students who voted were almost evenly divided on the issue Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. ROTC lost the vote (which would not have been binding on the administration, and did not include graduate students, faculty, or alumni) by a fraction of a percentage point. In April 2010 during Admiral Mike Mullen's address at Columbia, President Lee C. Bollinger stated that the ROTC would be readmitted to campus if the admiral's plans for revoking the don't ask, don't tell policy were successful Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. In February 2011 during one of three town-hall meetings on the ROTC ban, former Army staff sergeant Anthony Maschek, a purple heart recipient for injuries sustained during his service in Iraq, was booed and hissed at by some students during his speech promoting the idea of allowing the ROTC on campus.[197] In April 2011 the Columbia University Senate voted to welcome the ROTC program back on campus. Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus and Columbia University President Lee C. Bollinger signed an agreement to reinstate Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) programs at Columbia for the first time in more than 40 years on May 26, 2011. The agreement was signed at a ceremony onboard the USS Iwo Jima, docked in New York for the Navy's annual Fleet Week Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. Traditions For more details on this topic, see Columbia traditions. Orgo Night On the day before the Organic Chemistry exam—which is often on the first day of finals—at precisely the stroke of midnight, the Columbia University Marching Band occupies Butler Library to distract diligent students from studying. After a forty-five minutes or so of jokes and music, the procession then moves out to the lawn in front of Hartley Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery, Wallach and John Jay residence halls to entertain the residents there. The Band then plays at various other locations around Morningside Heights, including the residential quadrangle of Barnard College, where students of the all-women's school, in mock-consternation, rain trash – including notes and course packets – and water balloons upon them from their dormitories above Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. The Band tends to close their Orgo Night performances before Furnald Hall, known among students as the more studious and reportedly "anti-social" residence hall, where the underclassmen in the Band serenade the graduating seniors with an entertaining, though vulgar, mock-hymn to Columbia, composed of quips that poke fun at the various stereotypes about the Columbia student body Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. [edit]Tree-Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies The campus Tree-Lighting Ceremony is a relatively new tradition at Columbia, inaugurated in 1998. It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent and Hamilton Halls on the east end and Dodge and Journalism Halls on the west, just before finals week in early December. The lights remain on until February 28 Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Students meet at the sun-dial for free hot chocolate, performances by various a cappella groups, and speeches by the university president and a guest.[201] Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia's older holiday traditions, the lighting of the Yule Log. The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to the American Revolutionary War Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery, but lapsed before being revived by University President Nicholas Murray Butler in the early 20th century. A troop of students dressed as Continental Army soldiers carry the eponymous log from the sun-dial to the lounge of John Jay Hall, where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols. The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading of A Visit From St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore and Yes, Virginia, There is a Santa Claus by Francis Pharcellus Church Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. The Varsity Show The Varsity Show is an annual musical written by and for students and was established in 1894, making it one of Columbia's oldest traditions. Past writers and directors have included Columbians Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, Lorenz Hart, I.A.L. Diamond, Tom Kitt, and Herman Wouk. The show has one of the largest operating budgets of all university events. Sony VAIO PCG-382L batteryNotable people Main articles: List of Columbia University people and List of Presidents of Columbia University Three United States Presidents, twenty-six foreign Heads of State, nine Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States (including three Chief Justices) and 40 Nobel Prize winners are alumni of Columbia Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. Alumni also have received more than 35 National Book Awards and 112 Pulitzer Prizes.[207] Today,[when?] two United States Senators and 18 Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies hold Columbia degrees, as do three of the 25 richest Americans and 20 living billionaires. Attendees of King's College, Columbia's predecessor, included five Founding Fathers. Sony VAIO PCG-7185L batteryFormer U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school.[215] Other more recent political figures educated at Columbia include U.S President Barack Obama,[216] Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg,[217] former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright,[218] former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan, Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, and U.S. Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr..[220] Dwight D. Eisenhower served as the thirteenth president of Columbia University from 1948 to 1953.[221] The university has also educated 26 foreign Heads of State, including President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, President of East Timor Jose Ramos Horta, President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo, Gaston Eyskens, and T. V. Soong. Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery The author of India's constitution Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was also an alumnus of Columbia. His bust is on display in the Lehman library.[247] Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world. Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia, while some recent business graduates include investor Warren Buffet,[250] former CEO of PBS and NBC Larry Grossman,[251] and chairman of Wal-Mart S. Robson Walton. Sony VAIO PCG-7182L batteryCEO's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley, Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin,[254] Philippe Dauman of Viacom,[255] Ursula Burns of Xerox,[256] and Vikram Pandit of Citigroup.[257] In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder of IBM Herman Hollerith;[258] inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong;[259] inventor of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover;[260] founder of Google China Kai-Fu Lee; Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery scientists Stephen Jay Gould,[262] Robert Millikan, Helium–neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Michael Pupin;[264] chief-engineer of the New York City subway William Barclay Parsons;[265] philosophers Irwin Edman[266] and Robert Nozick;[267] and economist Milton Friedman[268] Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, such as the composers Richard Rodgers,[269] Oscar Hammerstein II, Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery Lorenz Hart,[271] and Art Garfunkel.[272] Four United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia. Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people as Jack Kerouac, one of the pioneers of the Beat Generation, and Langston Hughes, a seminal figure in the Harlem Renaissance, having both attended the university Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov, J.D. Salinger, Upton Sinclair,[277] and the journalist Hunter S. Thompson, who was primarily known for his works in the American magazine Rolling Stone. University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 25 different alumni winning a combined 30 Academy Awards, more than any other school in the world. Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directors Sidney Lumet (12 Angry Men) and Kathryn Bigelow (The Hurt Locker),[280] screenwriters Howard Koch (Casablanca) and Joseph L. Mankiewicz (All About Eve),[282] and actors James Cagney[283] and Ed Harris. Tsinghua University (Chinese: 清华大学, qinghua daxue), is a university in Beijing, China. The school is one of the nine universities of the C9 League Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. It was established in 1911 under the name "Tsinghua Xuetang" or "Tsinghua College" and was renamed the "Tsinghua School" one year later. The university section was founded in 1925 and the name "National Tsinghua University" was adopted in 1928. With a motto of Self-Discipline and Social Commitment, Tsinghua University describes itself as being dedicated to academic excellence Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery, the well-being of Chinese society and to global development. Tsinghua is often ranked as the first or second best university in mainland China in many national and international rankings. History Further information: Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program Since American Secretary of State John Hay suggested that the US $30 million plus Boxer indemnity paid to the United States was excessive, in 1909, President Roosevelt then obtained congressional approval to reduce the Qing Dynasty indemnity payment by US$10.8 million Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery, on the condition that the said fund was to be used as scholarship for Chinese students to study in the United States. Using this fund, the Tsinghua College Chinese: 清華學堂(Qīnghuá Xuétáng) was established in Beijing, China, on 29 April 1911 on the site of a former royal garden belonging to a prince.[5] It was first a preparatory school for students later sent by the government to study in the United States Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. The faculty members for sciences were recruited by the YMCA from the United States and its graduates transferred directly to American schools as juniors upon graduation. In 1925, the school established its College Department and started its research institute on Chinese Study. In 1928, the authority officially changed its name to National Tsing Hua University (NTHU). During the Second World War in 1937 Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery, Tsinghua University along with Peking University and Nankai University, merged to form Changsha Temporary University in Changsha, and later National Southwestern Associated University in Kunming of Yunnan province. After the war, Tsinghua moved back to Beijing and resumed its operation. After the communist revolution at the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, which led to the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery, Tsinghua University's then President Mei Yi-Qi, followed by many[quantify] professors, fled to Taiwan where they established the National Tsing Hua Institute of Nuclear Technology in 1955, which later became National Tsing Hua University of Taiwan. In 1952, the Chinese government regrouped the country's higher education institutions in an attempt to build a Soviet style system, with individual institutions tending to specialise in a certain field of study. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966 Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery, many university students walked out of the classrooms, and some went on to be part of the Red Guards, resulting in the complete shut down of the university. Only until 1978 when the Cultural Revolution ended, the university began to take in students again.[6] Even so, Tsinghua University remained in the top tier schools in China. In many years following this regroup
Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery, the school was commonly referred to as the "MIT of China." But since the 1980s, the university began to incorporate a multidisciplinary system. As a result, several schools were re-incorporated. These included the School of Sciences, School of Business and Management, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Tsinghua Law School, School of Public Policy and Management, and the Academy of Arts and Design Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Present Most national and international university rankings place Tsinghua amongst the best universities in mainland China. Admission to Tsinghua is extremely competitive. Every year, many applicants scoring the highest in the National College Entrance Exams choose Tsinghua. According to a report in 2008, 215 out of 300 students who scored the top 10 in the 30 tested provinces and regions chose Tsinghua and 21 out of the 30 top scorers in each province and region chose the university. Sony VPCW21C7E batteryA majority of selected students are among the brightest high school graduates in the country. Admissions to its graduate schools are also daunting by any measure; for instance, only about 16% of MBA applicants are admitted each year.[11] A recent study shows that Tsinghua University is the undergraduate alma mater that produces the most PhDs in U.S. universities Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery. Tsinghua alumni include the current CPC General secretary, Chinese president Hu Jintao, who graduated with a degree in hydraulic engineering in 1964, and the current Chinese vice president, Xi Jinping, who graduated with a degree in chemical engineering in 1979. Tsinghua has a reputation for hosting some of the most distinguished guest speakers of any university in the world, with international leaders such as Bill Clinton Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery, Tony Blair, Henry Kissinger, Carlos Ghosn, and Henry Paulson, all recently giving lectures to the university community.[13] As of 2003, Tsinghua University had 12 colleges and 48 departments, 41 research institutes, 35 research centers, and 167 laboratories, including 15 national key laboratories. In September 2006, Peking Union Medical College was renamed to Peking Union Medical College, Tsinghua University Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery, although the Peking Union Medical College and Tsinghua University remain two separate institutions.[14] The university offers 51 bachelor's degree programs, 139 master's degree programs and 107 PhD programs. Recently, Tsinghua has become the first Chinese university to offer a Master of Laws program in American law, through a cooperative venture with the Temple University Beasley School of Law Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. The university is a member of LAOTSE, an international network of leading universities in Europe and Asia. Each year, the University celebrates the Intellectual Property Summer Institute in cooperation with Franklin Pierce Law Center of Concord, New Hampshire. It has its own editorial, Tsinghua University Press Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. Department of Mathematical Sciences Tsinghua Department of Mathematical Sciences (Tsinghua DMS) was established in 1927. As one of the premier Departments of Mathematical Sciences in China, Tsinghua DMS is famous for its rigorous academic attitude. Many famous Chinese mathematicians such like Shiing-Shen Chern and Luogeng Hua became well-known to the world from it Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. In 1952, Tsinghua DMS was merged with the Peking University Department of Mathematical Sciences. Then in 1979 it was renamed the "Tsinghua University Department of Applied Mathematics", and renamed again in 1999 to its current title. Tsinghua DMS has three institutes at present, the institute of Elementary Mathematics which has 27 faculties, the Institute of Applied Mathematics and Probability and Statistics which has 27 faculties Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery, and the Institute of Computational Mathematics and Operations Reacher which has 20 faculties. There are currently about 400 undergraduate students and 200 graduate students. School of Economics and Management Tsinghua's School of Economics and Management The Tsinghua School of Economics and Management (SEM) is consistently ranked one of the best among business schools in China. Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery It was the first mainland Chinese institution outside of Hong Kong to have achieved AACSB and EQUIS accreditations for its business and accounting programs. Founded in 1984, SEM was the first economics and management school in China. Its Founding Dean, Professor Zhu Rongji, later became the fifth Premier of the People’s Republic of China. It is the successor to Tsinghua University's Department of Economics, which was established in 1926 Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery. SEM's International MBA program is one of the most prestigious programs in the People's Republic of China. The entirely English program is offered in collaboration with the MIT Sloan School of Management. The school provides more than 100 MBA courses per year. Upon finishing their required courses, students can select from curricula of different tracks Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery (enterprise management, finance and banking, enterprise innovation and management, accounting analysis and management control, e-commerce, international business administration, etc.). After two years of business and leadership education, students obtain a Masters of Business Administration (MBA) degree from Tsinghua University as well as both a certificate from the MIT Sloan School of Management and MIT Sloan affiliate alumni status Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery. Besides the M.I.T.-Tsinghua International MBA program, international students with Chinese-language skills can also choose to apply to the full-time MBA and the part-time MBA.[18] SEM also offers an EMBA program in partnership with INSEAD. The Tsinghua-INSEAD Dual Degree Executive MBA program was initiated in 2006, and is the first program of its kind in China combining international business education with a focus on Asia Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery. The program’s first class was opened in the summer of 2007. The program is taught jointly by the two schools’ faculties and focuses on developing the participants’ leadership skills, building their global mindsets, and honing their managerial talents. Upon successful completion of the program, participants are awarded two degrees: an EMBA degree by Tsinghua University and an MBA for Executives degree by INSEAD. Graduates become alumni of the two schools Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. The main administration building, built in 1950s. There are 8 majors in SEM, namely: management science and engineering, finance, economics, accounting, corporation strategy and policy, marketing, human resources management, and technology economics and management. The school also operates a number of prominent research centers, including: the Research Center for Contemporary Management Sony VPCY11S1E battery, the Research Center for Technological Innovation, the National Entrepreneurship Research Center, the China Center for Financial Research, the National Center for Economic Research, the China Retail Research Center, the China Business Research Center, the Center for China in the World Economy, the Research Center for Contemporary Management and Technological Innovation, and the China Insurance and Risk Management Research Center Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Today both SEM's professional and academic programs are considered one of the premier training grounds for China's business leaders.[20] School of Journalism and Communication The Tsinghua School of Journalism and Communication (TSJC) was established in April 2002. Its predecessor was Communication Studies in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature and its establishment of coincides with the development of media increasingly influencing world affairs in a time of fast-growing globalization Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. The school's research fields include International Communication, Film and Television Studies, New Media Studies, Media Operation and Management, and Business Journalism and are based on comprehensive academic research in journalism and communication theories. The objective of the school is to bring full advantage of Tsinghua University's comprehensive academic structure to Chinese and international media Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery, to construct a first-rate discipline in journalism and communication studies, to cultivate talented professionals in the field and to explore advanced concepts in journalism and communication. The school also offers a two-year graduate program in international business journalism, sponsored by Bloomberg L.P. and the International Center for Journalists (ICFJ) Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery, that trains talented students and media professionals from around the globe in financial media and corporate communication.[21] The school has five research-oriented centers to organize and conduct academic research activities. They are: Center for International Communications Studies, Center for New Media Studies, Center for Film and Television Studies, Center for Media Management Studies and Center for Cultural Industry Studies Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery. The first and present dean of the school is Fan Jingyi, a notable chief editor of People's Daily during the period of 1990s. Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University The Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, was jointly founded by Tsinghua University and the Shenzhen Municipal Government. The school is directly affiliated with Tsinghua University in Beijing. The campus is located in the University Town of Shenzhen since October 18, 2003 Sony VPCZ138GA battery. Rankings Tsinghua University is frequently ranked amongst the best universities in China. It was ranked the 1st in mainland China by Chinese University Ranking Chinese university ranking and ranked 1st in mainland China by Netbig in 2010, 2009, 2008.[23] It was ranked 2nd in mainland China by China's Education Center in 2010, 2009 and 2008,[2] and was ranked 2nd in mainland China by webometrics 2008. Sony VPCZ13M9E/B batteryTsinghua was ranked the 47th worldwide by QS World University Rankings in 2011,[25] 58th worldwide by Times Higher Education World University Rankings in 2010,[26] 36th worldwide in Human Resources & Labor Review's Best World Universities 2010,[27] 49th worldwide by US News and World Report (USNEWS), Sony VPCZ13M9E/X battery 13th worldwide in the category of engineering and IT by USNEWS, 2009,[29] and ranked 151–200 Worldwide in the Academic Ranking of World Universities by Shanghai Jiao Tong University 2010.[30] In 2011, according to University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), it is the 1st university in engineering field based ranking in the world Sony VPCZ13V9E battery. Campus The Old Gate is a symbol of Tsinghua University The campus of Tsinghua University is located in northwest Beijing, in the Haidian district which was designated for universities and other academic institutes. It is located on the former site of Qing Dynasty royal gardens and retains Chinese-style landscaping as well as traditional buildings, but many of its buildings are also in the Western-style, reflecting the American influence in its history Sony VPCZ13V9E/X battery. Along with its rival and neighbor the Peking University, it is known throughout China and the wider world for having one of the most beautiful campuses. Tsinghua University's campus was named one of the most beautiful college campuses in the world by Forbes in 2010;[32] it was the only university in Asia on the list. Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X batteryT. Chuang, a 1914 graduate of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, helped design the campus grounds of the Tsinghua University with influences of American architectural style and architectures.[35] The University's Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology is on a separate campus in a northern suburb of Beijing Sony VPCZ21M9E battery. Entrance to "Gong Zi Ting", the former Qing Prince's Mansion Tsinghua campus scenery A Qing Dynasty Jinchun Garden on Tsinghua University Campus Associated people Main article: People associated with Tsinghua University Tsinghua University has produced many notable graduates, especially in political sphere. These include current General secretary, president Hu Jintao, current vice president Xi Jinping, current chairman of the National People's Congress Wu Bangguo, former premier Zhu Rongji, former first vice premier Huang Ju Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery. Tsinghua also has two Nobel Prize winners, Tsung-Dao Lee and Yang Chen Ning. The latter is currently residing on Tsinghua campus. This is a list of people associated with Tsinghua University in China. Qinghua clique The term Qinghua clique refers to a group of Communist Chinese politicians that have graduated from Tsinghua University. They are members of the fourth generation of Chinese leadership, and are purported to hold reformist and hesitantly pro-democratic ideas Sony VPCZ21V9E battery (a number have studied in the United States following graduation from Tsinghua, and some are said to be influenced by the reform ideals of Hu Yaobang). In the PRC, their ascendance to power began in 2008 at the 17th National Congress of the CPC.[36] Tsinghua graduates who have political prominence are disproportionately greater in number than graduates of other famous universities. Among the nine standing committees at the Politburo, there are four Tsinghua graduates; among the 24 Politburo committee members Sony VPCEH3T9E battery, there are five; and of all the "leaders of the party and the country", there are 10. The Tsinghua clique also referred to a group of Nationalist Chinese politicians who held high power in the Republic of China government and fled to Taiwan with the government during the Chinese Civil War. All of them are deceased Sony VPCEH3N6E battery.
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is an American private research university located in Stanford, California on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha) campus near Palo Alto, the largest contiguous university campus in the United States. It is situated in the northwestern Silicon Valley Sony VGN-AW11M/H battery(without CD), approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose and 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco. Leland Stanford, Governor and Senator of California and leading railroad tycoon, and his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford founded the university in 1891 in honor of their son, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid two months before his 16th birthday. On the university’s opening day, Founding President David Starr Jordan said to Stanford’s Pioneer Class Sony VGN-AW11S/B battery(without CD): “[Stanford] is hallowed by no traditions; it is hampered by none. Its finger posts all point forward.”[8] The university was established as a coeducational and nondenominational institution, but struggled financially after the senior Stanford's 1893 death and after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II Sony VGN-AW11Z/B battery(without CD), Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates' entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would become known as Silicon Valley. By 1970, Stanford was home to a linear accelerator, was one of the original four ARPANET nodes (precursor to the internet), and had transformed itself into a major research university in computer science, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences Sony VGN-AW19/Q battery(without CD). Since 1952, more than 50 Stanford faculty, staff, and alumni have won the Nobel Prize, Stanford has the largest number of Turing award winners (dubbed the "Nobel Prize of Computer Science") for a single institution, and it is one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sony VGN-AW19 battery(without CD) Stanford faculty and alumni have founded many prominent companies including Google, Hewlett-Packard, Cisco Systems, LinkedIn, Gap, Netflix, Nike, Sun Microsystems, Varian Associates, and Yahoo!. Other prominent alumni include foreign heads of state, U.S. President Herbert Hoover, the first female U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, "Father of the Internet" Vint Cerf, and Nobel Prize-winning author John Steinbeck (did not graduate) Sony VGN-AW19 battery(without CD). The university is organized into seven schools, including academic schools of Humanities and Sciences and Earth Sciences as well as professional schools of Business, Education, Engineering, Law, and Medicine. Stanford has a student body of approximately 6,988 undergraduate and 8,400 graduate students.[5] Stanford is a founding member of the Association of American Universities Sony VGN-AW21S/B battery(without CD). For the 2011-2012 year, the university managed a US$16.5 billion endowment, with $25.1 billion in consolidated net assets.[3] Stanford competes in 34 varsity sports and is one of two private universities in the Division I FBS Pacific-12 Conference. Stanford has won 99 NCAA championships (the second-most for a university) Sony VGN-AW21VY/Q battery(without CD), and Stanford's athletic program has won the NACDA Directors' Cup every year since 1995. Stanford athletes have competed in every Olympic Games since 1908, and have won 115 gold medals. In the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, Stanford won more olympic medals than any university in the United States and, in terms of medals won, tied with the country of Japan for 11th place Sony VGN-AW21XY/Q battery(without CD). History Origins Stanford was founded by Leland Stanford, a railroad magnate, United States Senator, and former California governor, and his wife, Jane Stanford. It is named in honor of their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died in 1884 just before his 16th birthday. His parents decided to dedicate a university to their only son, and Leland Stanford told his wife Sony VGN-AW21Z/B battery(without CD), "The children of California shall be our children." The Stanfords visited Harvard's president, Charles Eliot, and asked how much it would cost to duplicate Harvard in California. Eliot replied that he supposed $15 million (in 1884 dollars) would be enough. Leland Stanford, the university's founder, as painted by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier in 1881 and now on display at the Cantor Center Sony VGN-AW31M/H battery(without CD)The university's founding Grant of Endowment from the Stanfords was issued in November 1885. Besides defining the operational structure of the university, it made several specific stipulations: "The Trustees ... shall have the power and it shall be their duty: To establish and maintain at such University an educational system, which will, if followed, fit the graduate for some useful pursuit, and to this end to cause the pupils, as easily as may be, to declare the particular calling, which, in life, they may desire to pursue Sony VGN-AW31S/B battery(without CD); ... To prohibit sectarian instruction, but to have taught in the University the immortality of the soul, the existence of an all-wise and benevolent Creator, and that obedience to His laws is the highest duty of man. To have taught in the University the right and advantages of association and co-operation. To afford equal facilities and give equal advantages in the University to both sexes. To maintain on the Palo Alto estate a farm for instruction in agriculture in all its branches Sony VGN-AW31XY/Q battery(without CD)." The Stanfords chose their horse farm in Santa Clara County as the site of the university, so that the University is sometimes called "the Farm" to this day. The original "inner quad" buildings (1887–91) were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, Francis A. Walker, Charles Allerton Coolidge, and Leland Stanford himself Sony VGN-AW31ZJ/B battery(without CD). Visiting Stanford in 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt said of the campus and the university, "Now I have come to this great institution of learning and I wonder whether you yourselves fully appreciate the mere physical beauty of your surroundings. I was not prepared in the !east (and I thought I was prepared for it) for the beauty of your surroundings Sony VGN-AW41JF/H battery(without CD). You have had these plans of your university made by a great architect, native to our own American soil, who himself had the sense to adapt—not to copy in servile fashion—but to adapt the old Californian architecture to the new university uses, and so we have here a great institution of learning absolutely unique, even in its outward aspect, situated in this beautiful valley with the hills in the background, Sony VGN-AW41JF battery(without CD) under this sky, with these buildings, and if this university does not turn out the right kind of citizenship and the right kind of scholarship, I shall be more than disappointed."[19] An arcade in in Stanford's main quad in the early 20th century In Spring 1891 the Stanfords offered the presidency of their new university to the president of Cornell University, Andrew White, but he declined and recommended David Starr Jordan, the 40-year-old president of Indiana University Bloomington Sony VGN-AW41MF/H battery(without CD). Jordan's educational philosophy was a good fit with the Stanfords' vision of a non-sectarian, co-educational school with a liberal arts curriculum, and he accepted the offer.[20] Jordan arrived at Stanford in June 1891 and immediately set about recruiting faculty for the university's planned October opening. With such a short time frame he drew heavily on his own acquaintance in academia Sony VGN-AW41MF battery(without CD); of the fifteen original professors, most came either from Indiana University or his alma mater Cornell. The 1891 founding professors included Robert Allardice in mathematics, Douglas Houghton Campbell in botany, Charles Henry Gilbert in zoology, George Elliott Howard in history, Oliver Peebles Jenkins in physiology and histology, Charles David Marx in civil engineering Sony VGN-AW41XH/Q battery(without CD), Fernando Sanford in physics and John Maxson Stillman in chemistry. The total initial teaching staff numbered about 35 including instructors and lecturers.[21] For the second (1892-93) school year, Jordan was able to add additional professors including Frank Angell (psychology), Leander M. Hoskins (mechanical engineering), Walter Miller (classics), George C. Price (zoology), and Arly B. Show (history) Sony VGN-AW41XH battery(without CD). Most of these two founding groups of professors remained at Stanford until their retirement and were referred to as the "Old Guard".[22] The university officially opened on October 1, 1891 to 559 students. Herbert Hoover and his future wife Lou Henry Hoover were in the first class; the Hoovers maintained close lifetime ties to the school. Tuition was free until the 1930s Sony VGN-AW41ZF/B battery(without CD). The motto of Stanford University, selected by President Jordan, is "Die Luft der Freiheit weht." Translated from the German, this quotation from Ulrich von Hutten means, "The wind of freedom blows." The motto was controversial during World War I, when anything in German was suspect; at that time the university disavowed that this motto was official. Sony VGN-AW41ZF battery(without CD)Coeducation The school was established as a coeducational institution. However, Jane Stanford soon put a policy in place limiting female enrollment to 500 students because of the large number of women students enrolling. She did not want the school to become "the Vassar of the West" because she felt that would not be an appropriate memorial for her son Sony VGN-CS11S/P battery(without CD). In 1933 the policy was modified to specify an undergraduate male:female ratio of 3:1.[25] The "Stanford ratio" of 3:1 remained in place until the early 1960s. By the late 1960s the "ratio" was about 2:1 for undergraduates, but much more skewed at the graduate level, except in the humanities. As of 2005 the school no longer maintains a gender preference policy and undergraduate enrollment is split nearly evenly between the sexes Sony VGN-CS11S/Q battery(without CD), though males outnumber females about 2:1 at the graduate level, exclusive of Humanities. Early finances When Leland Stanford died in 1893, the continued existence of the university was in jeopardy. A $15 million government lawsuit against Stanford's estate, combined with the Panic of 1893, made it extremely difficult to meet expenses. Most of the Board of Trustees advised a temporary closing until finances could be sorted out Sony VGN-CS11S/W battery(without CD). However, Jane Stanford insisted that the university remain in operation. Faced with the possibility of financial ruin for the University she took charge of financial, administrative, and development matters at the university 1893-1905; from her experience as a mother and housewife, she ran the institution as a household. For the next several years, she paid salaries out of her personal resources Sony VGN-CS11Z/R battery(without CD), even pawning her jewelry to keep the university going. When the lawsuit was finally dropped in 1895, a university holiday was declared. Stanford alumnus George E. Crothers became a close adviser to Jane Stanford following his graduation from Stanford's law school in 1896.[30] Working with his brother Thomas (also a Stanford graduate and a lawyer) Sony VGN-CS11Z/T battery(without CD), Crothers identified and corrected numerous major legal defects in the terms of the university's founding grant and successfully lobbied for an amendment to the California state constitution granting Stanford an exemption from taxation on its educational property—a change which allowed Jane Stanford to donate her stock holdings to the university. Sony VGN-CS13H/P battery(without CD)Edward Alsworth Ross gained fame as a founding father of American sociology; in 1900 Jane Stanford fired him for radicalism and racism, unleashing a major academic freedom case.[32] Jane Stanford's actions were sometimes eccentric. In 1897, she directed the board of trustees "that the students be taught that everyone born on earth has a soul germ, and that on its development depends much in life here and everything in Life Eternal". Sony VGN-CS13H/Q battery(without CD) She forbade students from sketching nude models in life-drawing class, banned automobiles from campus, and did not allow a hospital to be constructed so that people would not form an impression that Stanford was unhealthy. Between 1899 and 1905, she spent $3 million on a grand construction scheme building lavish memorials to the Stanford family, while university faculty and self-supporting students were living in poverty. Sony VGN-CS13H/R battery(without CD) However, in 1901, she transferred $30 million in assets, nearly all her remaining wealth, to the university;[34] upon her death in 1905, she left the university nearly $4 million of her remaining $7 million. In total, the Stanfords donated around $40 million in assets to the university (over $1 billion in 2010 dollars). Sony VGN-CS13H/W battery(without CD)20th century The ruins of Stanford Library after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake The 1906 San Francisco earthquake destroyed parts of the Main Quad (including the original iteration of Memorial Church) as well as the gate that first marked the entrance of the school; rebuilding on a somewhat less grandiose scale began immediately. [edit]Football From 1906 to 1919, in response to the crisis caused by numerous injuries, intercollegiate football was in jeopardy. While some colleges dropped football entirely Sony VGN-CS13T/W battery(without CD), a few, such as the University of California and Stanford University, replaced it with English rugby. From 1906 to 1914, the two schools played rugby as their major sport, but they soon found that the objectionable practices they saw in football were introduced into rugby. Finally, when the football rules were changed, a move developed to return to football, reviving intercollegiate sports and enabling students and alumni to identify with football, an American sport. Sony VGN-CS16T/P battery(without CD)[edit]Hoover Institution The Hoover Institution Library and Archives (official name: Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace) at Stanford was set up in 1920 by Herbert C. Hoover, one of Stanford's first graduates. He had been in charge of American relief efforts in Europe after World War I before his election as President of the United States in 1928 Sony VGN-CS16T/Q battery(without CD). Hoover's express purpose was to collect the records of contemporary history as it was happening. Hoover's helpers frequently risked their lives to rescue documentary and rare printed material, especially from countries under Nazi or Communist rule. Their many successes included the papers of Rosa Luxemburg, the Goebbels diaries, and the records of the Russian secret police in Paris Sony VGN-CS16T/R battery(without CD). Research institutes were also set up under Hoover's influence, though inevitably there were to be clashes between the moving force, Hoover, and the host university. In 1960, W. Glenn Campbell was appointed director and substantial budget increases soon led to corresponding increases in acquisitions and related research projects. Despite student unrest in the 1960s Sony VGN-CS16T/T battery(without CD), the institution continued to thrive and develop closer relations with Stanford. In particular, the Chinese and Russian collections grew considerably. From the 1980s forward the Hoover Institution itself evolved into a conservative think tank, functioning independently from the library and archive. It continues as an integral component of the University Sony VGN-CS16T/W battery(without CD). Post-1945 Biology The biological sciences department evolved rapidly from 1946 to 1972 as its research focus changed, due to the Cold War and other historically significant conditions external to academia. Stanford science went through three phases of experimental direction during that time. In the early 1950s the department remained fixed in the classical independent and self-directed research mode Sony VGN-CS17H/Q battery(without CD), shunning interdisciplinary collaboration and excessive government funding. Between the 1950s and mid-1960s biological research shifted focus to the molecular level. Then, from the late 1960s onward, Stanford's goal became applying research and findings toward humanistic ends. Each phase was preempted by larger social issues, such as the escalation of the Cold War, the launch of Sputnik, and public concern over medical abuses. Sony VGN-CS17H/W battery(without CD)High tech A powerful sense of regional solidarity accompanied the rise of Silicon Valley. From the 1890s, the university's leaders saw its mission as service to the West and shaped the school accordingly. At the same time, the perceived exploitation of the West at the hands of eastern interests fueled booster-like attempts to build self-sufficient indigenous local industry Sony VGN-CS19/P battery(without CD). Thus, regionalism helped align Stanford's interests with those of the area's high-tech firms for the first fifty years of Silicon Valley's development. The distinctive regional ethos of the West during the first half of the 20th century is an ingredient of Silicon Valley's already prepared environment, an ingredient that would-be replicators ignore at their peril. Sony VGN-CS19/Q battery(without CD)During the 1940s and 1950s, Frederick Terman, as dean of engineering and provost, encouraged faculty and graduates to start their own companies. He is credited with nurturing Hewlett-Packard, Varian Associates, and other high-tech firms, until what would become Silicon Valley grew up around the Stanford campus Sony VGN-CS19/R battery(without CD). Terman is often called "the father of Silicon Valley."[40] Terman encouraged William B. Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor, to return to his hometown of Palo Alto. In 1956 he established the Shockley Transistor Laboratory.[41] The spark that set off the explosive boom of “Silicon startups” in Stanford Industrial Park was a personal dispute in 1957 between employees of Shockley Semiconductor and the company’s namesake and founder Sony VGN-CS19/W battery(without CD), Nobel laureate and co-inventor of the transistor William Shockley... (His employees) formed Fairchild Semiconductor immediately following their departure... After several years, Fairchild gained its footing, becoming a formidable presence in this sector. Its founders began to leave to start companies based on their own Sony VGN-CS21S/P battery(without CD), latest ideas and were followed on this path by their own former leading employees... The process gained momentum and what had once began in a Stanford’s research park became a veritable startup avalanche... Thus, over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockley’s former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same... Sony VGN-CS21S/R battery(without CD)Physics In 1962-70 negotiations took place between the Cambridge Electron Accelerator Laboratory (shared by Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology), the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, and the US Atomic Energy Commission over the proposed 1970 construction of the Stanford Positron Electron Asymmetric Ring (SPEAR) Sony VGN-CS21S/T battery(without CD). It would be the first US electron-positron colliding beam storage ring. Paris (2001) explores the competition and cooperation between the two university laboratories and presents diagrams of the proposed facilities, charts detailing location factors, and the parameters of different project proposals between 1967 and 1970. Several rings were built in Europe during the five years that it took to obtain funding for the project Sony VGN-CS21S/V battery(without CD), but the extensive project revisions resulted in a superior design that was quickly constructed and paved the way for Nobel Prizes in 1976 for Burton Richter and in 1995 for Martin Perl.[43] During 1955-85, solid state technology research and development at Stanford University followed three waves of industrial innovation made possible by support from private corporations, mainly Bell Telephone Laboratories Sony VGN-CS21S/W battery(without CD), Shockley Semiconductor, Fairchild Semiconductor, and Xerox PARC. In 1969 the Stanford Research Institute operated one of the four original nodes that comprised ARPANET, predecessor to the Internet.[44] Recent history Since 2000, Stanford has expanded dramatically. In February 2012, Stanford announced the conclusion of the Stanford Challenge. In a period of five years, Stanford raised $6.2 billion dollars, exceeding its initial goal by $2 billion Sony VGN-CS21Z/Q battery(without CD), making it the most successful university fundraising campaign in history.[45] The funds will go towards 103 new endowed faculty appointments, 360 graduate student research fellowships, scholarships and financial aid, and the construction or renovation of 38 campus buildings. It enabled the construction of the world's largest facility dedicated exclusively to stem cell research Sony VGN-CS23G/P battery(without CD), an entirely new campus for the the business school, added dramatically to the law school, a brand-new engineering quad, created a new art and art history building, an on-campus concert hall, a new art museum, and a planned expansion of the medical school, among others.[46] In 2012, Stanford opened the Stanford Center at Peking University, a just-under 400,000-square-foot Sony VGN-CS23G/Q battery(without CD), three-story research center at the heart of Peking University, consistently ranked as the best university in China. The ceremony featured remarks by U.S. Ambassador to China Gary Locke, Stanford President John Hennessy, and Peking University Party Chief Zhu Shanlu. Stanford became the first U.S. university to have its own building on a major Chinese University campus Sony VGN-CS23G/W battery(without CD). The Stanford Center at Peking University Other Stanford programs underwent notable expansion as well, such as the Stanford in Washington Program's creation of the Stanford in Washington Art Gallery in Woodley Park, Washington, D.C., and the Stanford in Florence program's move to Palazzo Capponi, a 15th-century Renaissance palace. Sony VGN-CS23G battery(without CD) The University completed the James H. Clark Center for interdisciplinary research in biology and medicine in 2003, named for benefactor, Co-founder of Netscape, Silicon Graphics and WebMD and former professor of Electrical Engineering James h. Clark. The James H. Clark Center at Stanford University In 2011, Stanford created the first PhD program in Stem Cell Science in the United States. The program will be housed at Stanford Medical School. Sony VGN-CS23H/B battery(without CD)Undergraduate admission selectivity also increased, with the acceptance rate dropping from 13% for the class of 2004 to 6% for the class of 2016. Stanford's reputation, competitive admissions, and strong legacy of entrepreneurship have contributed to the East-West rivalry between Stanford and such institutions as Harvard University, Princeton University and Yale University Sony VGN-CS23H/S battery(without CD). Campus Main entrance to Stanford University Stanford University is located on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha)[6] campus on the San Francisco Peninsula, in the northwest part of the Santa Clara Valley (Silicon Valley) approximately 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco and approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose. The main campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue Sony VGN-CS23H battery(without CD), Junipero Serra Boulevard, and Sand Hill Road. The university also operates at several more remote locations (see below). Stanford's main campus is a census-designated place within unincorporated Santa Clara County, although some of the university land (including the Stanford Shopping Center and the Stanford Research Park) is within the city limits of Palo Alto. The campus also includes much land in unincorporated San Mateo County (including the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and the Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve) Sony VGN-CS23T/Q battery(without CD), as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park (Stanford Hills neighborhood), Woodside, and Portola Valley.[54] The United States Postal Service has assigned Stanford two ZIP codes: 94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P.O. box mail. It lies within area code 650. History of campus development An aerial photograph of the Stanford University campus in 2008 In the summer of 1886, when the campus was first being planned, Stanford brought the president of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Francis Amasa Walker, and prominent Boston landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted westward for consultations Sony VGN-CS23T/W battery(without CD). Olmsted worked out the general concept for the campus and its buildings, rejecting a hillside site in favor of the more practical flatlands. Charles Allerton Coolidge then developed this concept in the style of his late mentor, Henry Hobson Richardson, in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, characterized by rectangular stone buildings linked by arcades of half-circle arches Sony VGN-CS25H/C battery(without CD). The original campus was also designed in the Spanish-colonial style common to California known as Mission Revival. The red tile roofs and solid sandstone masonry are distinctly Californian in appearance and famously complementary to the bright blue skies common to the region, and most of the subsequently erected buildings have maintained consistent exteriors Sony VGN-CS25H/P battery(without CD). Much of this first construction was destroyed by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, but the university retains the Quad, the old Chemistry Building (which is not in use and has been boarded up since the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake),[55] and Encina Hall (the residence of Herbert Hoover, John Steinbeck, and Anthony Kennedy during their times at Stanford) Sony VGN-CS25H/Q battery(without CD). After the 1989 earthquake inflicted further damage, the university implemented a billion-dollar capital improvement plan to retrofit and renovate older buildings for new, up-to-date uses.[56] Landmarks Stanford Main Quad at night Contemporary campus landmarks include the Main Quad and Memorial Church, the Cantor Center for Visual Arts and art gallery, the Stanford Mausoleum and the Angel of Grief, Hoover Tower, the Rodin sculpture garden, the Papua New Guinea Sculpture Garden Sony VGN-CS25H/R battery(without CD), the Arizona Cactus Garden, the Stanford University Arboretum, Green Library and the Dish. Frank Lloyd Wright's 1937 Hanna-Honeycomb House and the 1919 Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House are both listed on the National Historic Register. Stanford Memorial Church Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House Hoover Tower The Dish [edit]Faculty residences One of the benefits of being a Stanford faculty member is the "Faculty Ghetto", where faculty members can live within walking or biking distance of campus. The Faculty Ghetto is composed of land owned entirely by Stanford. Similar to a condominium Sony VGN-CS25H/W battery(without CD), the houses can be bought and sold but the land under the houses is rented on a 99-year lease. Houses in the "Ghetto" appreciate and depreciate, but not as rapidly as overall Silicon Valley values. However, it remains an expensive area in which to own property, and the average price of single-family homes on campus is actually higher than in Palo Alto. Stanford itself enjoys the rapid capital gains of Silicon Valley landowners, although by the terms of its founding the university cannot sell the land Sony VGN-CS25H battery(without CD). [edit]Non-main campus Stanford currently operates or intends to operate in various locations outside of its main campus. On the founding grant but away from the main campus: Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve is a 1,200-acre (490 ha) natural reserve owned by the university and used by wildlife biologists for research, located south of the main campus. SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is a facility located west of main campus and originally owned by Stanford but now operated by the university for the Department of Energy Sony VGN-CS26T/C battery(without CD). It contains the longest linear particle accelerator in the world, 2 miles (3.2 km) on 426 acres (172 ha) of land.[57] Off the founding grant: Hopkins Marine Station, located in Pacific Grove, California, is a marine biology research center owned by the university since 1892. Study abroad locations: unlike typical study abroad programs, Stanford itself operates in locations around the globe; thus, each location, which ranges from Beijing to Cape Town, has Stanford faculty-in-residence and staff in addition to students, creating a "mini Stanford." Sony VGN-CS26T/P battery(without CD)Locations in development: Redwood City: in 2005, the university purchased a small, 35-acre (14 ha) campus in Midpoint Technology Park intended for staff offices, although it remains undeveloped.[59] China: the university is currently building a small campus for researchers and students in collaboration with Peking University. Sony VGN-CS26T/Q battery(without CD)The university also has its own golf course and a seasonal lake (Lake Lagunita, actually an irrigation reservoir), both home to the vulnerable California Tiger Salamander. Lake Lagunita is often dry now, but the university has no plans to artificially fill it.[61] Lake Lagunita in early spring; the Dish is visible in the foothills behind the lake. In 2011, the university also participated in the bidding for applied science campus in New York City but finally abandoned the project at the end of the year. Sony VGN-CS26T/R battery(without CD)Administration and organization Stanford University is a tax-exempt corporate trust owned and governed by a privately appointed 35-member Board of Trustees.[63] Trustees serve five-year terms (not more than two consecutive terms) and meet five times annually.[64] The Stanford trustees also oversee the Stanford Research Park, the Stanford Shopping Center Sony VGN-CS26T/T battery(without CD), the Cantor Center for Visual Arts, Stanford University Medical Center, and many associated medical facilities (including the Lucile Packard Children's Hospital).[63] The Board appoints a President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and prescribe the duties of professors and course of study, manage financial and business affairs, and appoint nine vice presidents. Sony VGN-CS26T/V battery(without CD) John L. Hennessy was appointed the 10th President of the University in October 2000.[66] The Provost is the chief academic and budget officer, to whom the deans of each of the seven schools report.[67] John Etchemendy was named the 12th Provost in September 2000.[68] The university is organized into seven schools: School of Humanities and Sciences, School of Engineering, School of Earth Sciences Sony VGN-CS26T/W battery(without CD), School of Education, Graduate School of Business, Stanford Law School and the Stanford University School of Medicine.[67] The powers and authority of the faculty are vested in the Academic Council, which is made up of tenure and non-tenure line faculty, research faculty, senior fellows in some policy centers and institutes, the president of the university, and some other academic administrators Sony VGN-CS27/C battery(without CD), but most matters are handled by the Faculty Senate, made up of 55 elected representatives of the faculty.[69] The Associated Students of Stanford University (ASSU) is the student government for Stanford University and all registered students are members.[70] Its elected leadership consists of the Undergraduate Senate elected by the undergraduate students, the Graduate Student Council elected by the graduate students Sony VGN-CS27/P battery(without CD), and the President and Vice President elected as a ticket by the entire student body.[70] Stanford is the beneficiary of a special clause in the California Constitution, which explicitly exempts Stanford property from taxation so long as the property is used for educational purposes. Endowment and fundraising The university's endowment, managed by the Stanford Management Company, was valued at $17.2 billion in 2008 and had achieved an annualized rate of return of 15.1% since 1998. Sony VGN-CS27/R battery(without CD) The endowment fell 25% in 2009 as a result of the late-2000s recession, but posted gains of 14.4% in 2010 and 22.4% in 2011, when it was valued at $16.5 billion.[73] Stanford has been the top fundraising university in the United States for several years. It raised $911 million in 2006,[74] $832 million in 2007,[75] $785 million in 2008,[76] $640 million in 2009,[77] $599 million in 2010,[78] and $709 million in 2011. Sony VGN-CS27/W battery(without CD)In 2006 President Hennessy launched a five-year campaign called the Stanford Challenge, which reached its $4.3 billion fundraising goal in 2009, two years ahead of time, but continued fundraising for the duration of the campaign.[80] It concluded on December 31, 2011, having raised a total of $6.23 billion and breaking the previous campaign fundraising record of $3.88 billion held by Yale. Sony VGN-CS27 battery(without CD) Specifically, the campaign raised $253.7 million for undergraduate financial aid, as well as $2.33 billion for its initiative in "Seeking Solutions" to global problems, $1.61 billion for "Educating Leaders" by improving K-12 education, and $2.11 billion for "Foundation of Excellence" aimed at providing academic support for Stanford students and faculty. Funds supported 366 new fellowships for graduate students Sony VGN-CS28/Q battery(without CD), 139 new endowed chairs for faculty, and 38 new or renovated buildings. Over 10,000 volunteers helped in raising 560,000 gifts from more than 166,000 donors.[82] Academics Walkway to the School of Education, near the Quad Stanford University is a large, highly residential research university with a majority of enrollments coming from graduate and professional students.[83] The full-time, four-year undergraduate program is classified as "more selective, lower transfer-in" and has an arts and sciences focus with high graduate student coexistence. Stanford University is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Sony VGN-CS28 battery(without CD)Full-time undergraduate tuition was $38,700 for 2010-2011. The schools of Humanities and Sciences (27 departments), Engineering (9 departments), and Earth Sciences (4 departments) have both graduate and undergraduate programs while the schools of Law, Medicine, and Education and the Graduate School of Business have graduate programs only.[87] Stanford follows a quarter system with Autumn quarter usually starting in late September and Spring Quarter ending in early June Sony VGN-CS31S/P battery(without CD). Faculty and staff Stanford's current community of scholars includes: 17 Nobel Prize laureates; 137 members of the National Academy of Sciences; 95 members of National Academy of Engineering; 62 members of Institute of Medicine; 258 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; 19 recipients of the National Medal of Science; 2 recipients of the National Medal of Technology; 30 members of the National Academy of Education; 43 members of American Philosophical Society; 56 fellows of the American Physics Society (since 1995); 4 Pulitzer Prize winners Sony VGN-CS31S/R battery(without CD); 24 MacArthur Fellows; 7 Wolf Foundation Prize winners; 6 Koret Foundation Prize winners; 2 ACL Lifetime Achievement Award winners; 14 AAAI fellows; 3 Presidential Medal of Freedom winners. Stanford has been affiliated with[clarification needed] over 50 Nobel laureates, as well as 19 recipients (22 if visiting professors and consulting professors included) of the Turing Award, the so-called "Nobel Prize in computer science," comprising one third of the awards given in its 44-year history. The university has 27 ACM fellows Sony VGN-CS31S/T battery(without CD). It is also affiliated with 4 Gödel Prize winners, 4 Knuth Prize recipients, 10 IJCAI Computers and Thought Award winners, and about 15 Grace Murray Hopper Award winners for their work in the foundations of computer science. Student As of 2011, 107 Stanford students or alumni have become Rhodes Scholars.[93] Research centers and institutes View of Hoover Tower from Main Quad. Other Stanford-affiliated institutions include the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (originally the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) and the Stanford Research Institute, a now independent institution which originated at the university, in addition to the Stanford Humanities Center Sony VGN-CS31S/V battery(without CD). Stanford also houses the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, a major public policy think tank that attracts visiting scholars from around the world, and the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, which is dedicated to the more specific study of international relations. Unable to locate a copy in any of its libraries Sony VGN-CS31S/W battery(without CD), the Soviet Union was obliged to ask the Hoover Institution for a microfilm copy of its original edition of the first issue of Pravda (dated March 5, 1917).[94] Stanford is home to the John S. Knight Fellowships for Professional Journalist and the Center for Ocean Solutions, which brings together marine science and policy to develop solutions to challenges facing the ocean. It also houses the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design (the "d.school") Sony VGN-CS31Z/Q battery(without CD), a multidisciplinary design school in cooperation with the Hasso Plattner Institute of University of Potsdam that integrates product design, engineering, and business management education. Libraries and digital resources It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article titled Stanford University Libraries. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2012. The Stanford University Libraries and Academic Information Resources (SULAIR) hold a collection of nearly 9 million volumes, 260,000 rare or special books, 1.5 million e-books Sony VGN-CS33H/B battery(without CD), 1.5 million audiovisual materials, 75,000 serials, 6 million microform holdings, and thousands of other digital resources, making it one of the largest and most diverse academic library systems in the world.[95] The main library in the SU library system is Green Library, which also contains various meeting and conference rooms, study spaces, and reading rooms. Meyer Library, a 24-hour library slated for demolition in 2012 Sony VGN-CS33H/Z battery(without CD), holds various student-accessible media resources and has housed one of the largest East Asia collections, whose 540,000 volumes are being transported to an interim location while a new library is rebuilt.[96] Other significant collections include the Lane Medical Library, Terman Engineering Library, Jackson Business Library, Falconer Biology Library, Cubberley Education Library, Branner Earth Sciences Library, Swain Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Library Sony VGN-CS33H battery(without CD), Jonsson Government Documents collection, Crown Law Library, Center for Ocean Solutions Research Library, Stanford Auxiliary Library (SAL), SLAC Library, Hoover library, Miller Marine Biology Library at Hopkins Marine Station, Music Library, and the university's special collections. There are 20 libraries in all. Several academic departments and some residences also have their own libraries Sony VGN-CS36H/C battery(without CD). Digital libraries and text services include digital image collections, the Humanities Digital Information Services group, and the Media Microtext Center. HighWire Press, the university ePublishing platform, produces and hosts some 1,400 journals and receives over 600 billion requests every month.[95] The Stanford University Press also produces over 175 books each year. Sony VGN-CS36H/P battery(without CD)There are 150,000 computers on the Stanford University Network, including clusters of printer-enabled computers in every undergraduate residence (the first residential computing program), as well as high-performance computer clusters for general use throughout the campus.[95] Stanford is a founding and charter member of CENIC, the Corporation for Education Network Initiatives in California Sony VGN-CS36H/Q battery(without CD), the nonprofit organization that provides extremely high-performance Internet-based networking to California's K-20 research and education community. Rankings University rankings National The Center for World University Rankings ranked Stanford third in the world and third nationally in its 2012 CWUR World University Rankings. In 2011, The Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked Stanford 1st in the world for both humanities and social sciences, remarking, "Stanford University knocks Harvard University off the top spot in the arts and humanities subject rankings Sony VGN-CS36H/R battery(without CD). With Pulitzer prizewinners and MacArthur Fellows leading its liberal-arts programme, the relative newcomer (founded in 1891) has proved more than a match for its illustrious Ivy League rival."[104] THES ranked Stanford 2nd best research university in the world in 2011.[105] In 2010, the Times also ranked Stanford 3rd in engineering and technology, 3rd in life sciences, 5th in physical sciences, 2nd in arts & humanities, 1st in social sciences Sony VGN-CS36H/W battery(without CD), and 2nd in clinical, pre-clinical and health sciences; no other university places in the top 5 across all broad disciplines studied.[106] The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) ranked Stanford 2nd in the world in 2011.[107] ARWU ranked Stanford 6th in Natural Sciences and Mathematics, 2nd in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences, 6th in Life and Agriculture Sciences, 13th in Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy Sony VGN-CS36H battery(without CD), and 6th in Social Sciences worldwide. In its subject rankings, ARWU placed Stanford 4th in mathematics, 6th in physics, 3rd in chemistry, 1st in computer science, and 6th in economics and business. The U.S. News and World Report (USNWR) ranks it fifth among large universities for its undergraduate program in 2012.[108] In the 2012 U.S. News graduate school rankings, Stanford also placed in the top 5 for every discipline in which it was ranked Sony VGN-FW11E battery(without CD), except industrial engineering, where it placed 6th, and fine arts, where it placed 36th. Specifically, Stanford was ranked 1st in Business, 4th in Education, 2nd in Engineering, 4th in Medicine, 2nd in Law, 1st in Biological Sciences, 4th in Chemistry, 1st in Computer Science, 4th in Earth Sciences, 2nd in Mathematics, 1st in Physics, 1st in Statistics, 5th in Economics, 2nd in English Sony VGN-FW11M battery(without CD), 1st in History, 1st in Political Science, 1st in Psychology, 5th in Sociology. Within engineering, Stanford placed 1st in aerospace, computer, electrical, environmental, and mechanical engineering; 3rd in civil engineering; and 5th in chemical, material, and bioengineering.[109] The 2011 QS World University Rankings placed Stanford 7th in arts & humanities, 2nd in engineering & technology, 3rd in social sciences, 6th in natural sciences Sony VGN-FW11S battery(without CD), 4th in life sciences, and 11th overall.[110] In specific disciplines, Stanford was ranked 8th in English (5th in the United States), 11th in modern languages (7), 10th in history (8), 8th in philosophy (4), 7th in geography & area studies (4), 5th in linguistics (3), 2nd in computer science (2), 2nd in civil & structural engineering (2), 5th in chemical engineering (3), 2nd in electrical engineering (2) Sony VGN-FW139E/H battery(without CD), 4th in mechanical, aeronautical, & manufacturing engineering, 5th in medicine (3), 5th in biological sciences (3), 5th in chemistry (4), 6th in physics and astronomy (4), 5th in metallurgy (4), 4th in mathematics (3), 6th in environmental sciences (4), 8th in earth and marine sciences (6), 3rd in psychology (2), 6th in sociology (4), 1st in statistics, 7th in politics and international studies (4) Sony VGN-FW21E battery(without CD), 5th in law (3), 3rd in economics (3), and 5th in account and finance. In 2011 Stanford was ranked second in the world according to the Human Resources & Labor Review.[112] Stanford places fourth among national universities by The Washington Monthly,[113] second among "global universities" by Newsweek,[114] and tied for 1st with MIT and Columbia University in the first tier among national universities by the Center for Measuring University Performance. Sony VGN-FW21J battery(without CD) In the MINE ParisTech rankings in 2008 measuring the number of Chief Executive Officers among the Fortune Global 500, Stanford is ranked third in the world. According to Forbes, Stanford has produced the second highest number of billionaires of all universities. Among professional schools, the Stanford Graduate School of Business is ranked 1st, Stanford Law School is ranked 2nd, the Stanford School of Education is ranked 4th, and Stanford Medical School is ranked 4th, according to U.S. News and World Report Sony VGN-FW21L battery(without CD). Forbes ranked the business school at the top in its 2009 "Best Business Schools" list.[119] In the 2010 QS Global 200 Business Schools Report[120] Stanford placed 4th in North America. From a 2010 poll done by The Princeton Review, Stanford is the most commonly named "dream college," both for students and for parents, a title it has held in previous years.[121] A 2003 Gallup poll, which asked about the best colleges in the U.S., found that Stanford is the second-most prestigious university Sony VGN-FW21M battery(without CD) (behind Harvard) in the eyes of the general American public and roughly equal in prestige to Harvard among college-educated people. Bronze statues by Auguste Rodin are scattered through the campus, including these Burghers of Calais. Stanford University is home to the Cantor Center for Visual Arts museum with 24 galleries, sculpture gardens, terraces, and a courtyard first established in 1891 by Jane and Leland Stanford as a memorial to their only child Sony VGN-FW21Z battery(without CD). Notably, the Center possesses the largest collection of Rodin works outside of Paris, France. There are also a large number of outdoor art installations throughout the campus, primarily sculptures, but some murals as well. The Papua New Guinea Sculpture Garden near Roble Hall features handmade wood carvings and "totem poles." Sony VGN-FW25T/B battery(without CD)Stanford has a thriving artistic and musical community. Extracurricular activities include theater groups such as Ram's Head Theatrical Society and the Stanford Shakespeare Society, award-winning a cappella music groups such as the Mendicants, Counterpoint, the Stanford Fleet Street Singers, Harmonics, Mixed Company, Testimony, Talisman, Everyday People, Raagapella Sony VGN-FW26T/B battery(without CD), and a group dedicated to performing the works of Gilbert and Sullivan, the Stanford Savoyards. Beyond these, the music department sponsors many ensembles including five choirs, the Stanford Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Taiko, and the Stanford Wind Ensemble. Stanford's dance community is one of the most vibrant in the country, with an active dance division in the Drama Department and over 30 different dance-related student groups, including the Stanford Band's Dollie dance troupe Sony VGN-FW27/B battery(without CD). Perhaps most distinctive of all is its social and vintage dance community, cultivated by dance historian Richard Powers and enjoyed by hundreds of students and thousands of alumni. Stanford hosts monthly informal dances (called Jammix) and large quarterly dance events, including Ragtime Ball (fall), the Stanford Viennese Ball (winter), and Big Dance (spring). Stanford also boasts a student-run swing performance troupe called Swingtime and several alumni performance groups, including Decadance and the Academy of Danse Libre Sony VGN-FW27/W battery(without CD). The creative writing program brings young writers to campus via the Stegner Fellowships and other graduate scholarship programs. This Boy's Life author Tobias Wolff teaches writing to undergraduates and graduate students. Knight Journalism Fellows are invited to spend a year at the campus taking seminars and courses of their choice Sony VGN-FW27T/H battery(without CD). There is also an extracurricular writing and performance group called the Stanford Spoken Word Collective, which also serves as the school's poetry slam team. Stanford also hosts various publishing courses for professionals. Stanford Professional Publishing Course, which has been offered on campus since the late 1970s, brings together international publishing professionals to discuss changing business models in magazine and book publishing Sony VGN-FW29/B battery(without CD). Student life Many students use bicycles to get around the large campus. [edit]Student body Stanford enrolled 6,887 undergraduate[125] and 8,779 graduate students[126] in the 2010-2011 year. Women comprised 48% of undergraduates and 37% of professional and graduate students.[85] The freshman retention rate for 2010 was 98%, the four-year graduation rate is 78.4%, and the six-year rate is 95%. Sony VGN-FW31M battery(without CD) The relatively low four-year graduation rate is a function of the university's coterminal degree (or "coterm") program, which allows students to earn a Master's degree as an extension of their undergraduate program.[127] Stanford awarded 1,671 undergraduate degrees, 2,068 Master's degrees, 708 doctoral degrees, and 270 professional degrees in 2010.[85] The most popular Bachelor's degrees were in the social sciences, interdisciplinary studies, and engineering Sony VGN-FW32J battery(without CD). For the class of 2014, Stanford received 32,022 applications and accepted 2300 or 7.2%, the lowest in the university's history and among the lowest in the country.[128] For the class of 2015, Stanford received 5,929 single-choice early action applications and accepted 754 of them, for an early admission rate of 12.7%. This application season Stanford received more than 34,200 total applications from both the regular and early rounds. Sony VGN-FW33G/W battery(without CD)The cost of attendance in 2010-2011 is $54,947.[125] Stanford's admission process is need-blind for US citizens and permanent residents; while it is not need-blind for international students, 64% are on need-based aid, with an average aid package of $31,411.[85] In 2010, the university awarded $117 million in financial aid to 3,530 students Sony VGN-FW33GW battery(without CD), with an average aid package of $40,593.[85] total external and internal aid (including jobs and optional loans) amounted to $172.3 million to undergraduate students.[125] 80% of students are on some form of financial aid.[125] Stanford's no-loan policy waives tuition, room, and board for families with incomes below $60,000, and families with incomes below $100,000 are not required to pay tuition Sony VGN-FW41E/H battery(without CD) (those with incomes up to $150,000 will have tuition significantly reduced).[85][130] 17% of students receive Pell Grants,[125] a common measure of low-income students at a college. 15% of the undergraduates are first-generation students.[131] [edit]Dormitories and student housing Eighty-nine percent of undergraduate students live in on-campus university housing. First-year students are required to live on campus Sony VGN-FW41J/H battery(without CD), and all undergraduates are guaranteed housing for all four undergraduate years.[85][132] According to the Stanford Housing Assignments Office, undergraduates live in 80 different houses, including dormitories, co-ops, row houses, fraternities and sororities.[133] At Manzanita Park, 118 mobile homes were installed as "temporary" housing from 1969 to 1991 Sony VGN-FW41M/H battery(without CD), but it is now the site of modern dorms Castano, Kimball, and Lantana.[134] Most student residences are located just outside the campus core, within ten minutes (on foot or bike) of most classrooms and libraries. Some are for freshmen only; others give priority to sophomores, others to both freshmen and sophomores; some are for upperclass students only, and some are open to all four classes Sony VGN-NS11M/S battery(without CD). Most residences are co-ed; seven are all-male fraternities, three are all-female sororities, and there is also one all-female non-sorority house, Roth House. In most residences, men and women live on the same floor, but a few dorms are configured for men and women to live on separate floors (single-gender floors), including all Wilbur dorms except for Arroyo and Okada. Sony VGN-NS11S/S battery(without CD) Beginning in 2009–10, the University's housing plan anticipates that all freshmen desiring to live in all-freshman dorms will be accommodated. In the 2009–10 year, almost two-thirds of freshmen will be housed in Stern and Wilbur Halls. The one-third who requested four-class housing will be located in other dormitories throughout campus, including Florence Moore (FloMo). Sony VGN-NS12M/W battery(without CD) In April 2008, Stanford unveiled a new pilot plan to test out gender-neutral housing in five campus residences, allowing males and females to live in the same room. This was after concerted student pressure, as well as the institution of similar policies at peer institutions such as Wesleyan, Oberlin, Clark, Dartmouth, Brown, and UPenn. Sony VGN-NS15G/S battery(without CD)Several residences are considered theme houses. The Academic, Language and Culture Houses include EAST (Education And Society Theme), Hammarskjöld (International Theme), Haus Mitteleuropa (Central European Theme), La Casa Italiana (Italian Language and Culture), La Maison Française (French Language and Culture House), Slavianskii Dom (Slavic/East European Theme House), Storey (Human Biology Theme House) Sony VGN-NS15H/S battery(without CD), and Yost (Spanish Language and Culture).Cross-Cultural Theme Houses include Casa Zapata (Chicano/Latino Theme in Stern Hall), Muwekma-tah-ruk (American Indian/Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Theme), Okada (Asian-American Theme in Wilbur Hall), and Ujamaa (Black/African-American Theme in Lagunita Court) Sony VGN-NS21M/P battery(without CD). Focus Houses include Freshman-Sophomore College (Freshman Focus), Branner Hall (Community Service), Kimball (Arts & Performing Arts), Crothers (Global Citizenship), and Toyon (Sophomore Priority).[138] Theme houses predating the current "theme" classification system are Columbae (Social Change Through Nonviolence, since 1970),[139] and Synergy (Exploring Alternatives, since 1972). Sony VGN-NS21M/W battery(without CD)Another famous style of housing at Stanford is the co-ops. These houses feature cooperative living, where residents and eating associates each contribute work to keep the house running, such as cooking meals or cleaning shared spaces. The co-ops on campus are Chi Theta Chi, Columbae, Enchanted Broccoli Forest (EBF), Hammarskjöld (which is also the International Theme House), Kairos, Terra, and Synergy. Sony VGN-NS21S/S battery(without CD)At any time, around 50 percent of the graduate population lives on campus. Now that construction has concluded on the new Munger graduate residence, this percentage has probably increased. First-year graduate students are guaranteed housing Sony VGN-NS21S/W battery(without CD). Traditions Vintage Stanford University postcard Full Moon on the Quad: A student gathering in the Main Quad of the university. Traditionally, seniors exchange kisses with freshmen, although students of all four classes (as well as the occasional graduate student or stranger) have been known to participate.[citation needed] Sunday Flicks: A weekly Sunday night film screening in Memorial Auditorium Sony VGN-NS21Z/S battery(without CD). Usually, students are very loud and crazy during the screenings, and can be seen flying paper airplanes or simply throwing wads of newspaper at each other. Flicks ran into significant financial trouble in 2006 and after an ASSU bail-out became free for all students.[citation needed] Steam-tunnelling: The act of exploring the steam tunnels under the Stanford campus. Fountain-hopping: The act of running from one fountain on campus to another, or simply leaping/swimming around in any of Stanford's many fountains (such as the so-called Claw fountain in White Plaza). Sony VGN-NS25G/P battery(without CD)Big Game events: The events in the week leading up to the Big Game vs. UC Berkeley, including Gaieties (a musical written, composed, produced, and performed by the students of Ram's Head Theatrical Society), The Bearial (in which the Stanford Band performs a funeral-like procession and pierces a stuffed-animal bear on the tip of the Stanford Claw fountain) Sony VGN-NS25G/S battery(without CD), and an hourly train whistle that counts down the hours until Big Game, orchestrated by the Stanford Axe Committee.[citation needed] Primal scream: Performed by stressed students at midnight during Dead Week (the week prior to finals).[citation needed] Midnight Breakfast: During Winter quarter dead week, Stanford faculty serves breakfast to students in several locations on campus (you might see a vice-provost refilling orange juice, etc.) Sony VGN-NS31M/P battery(without CD)Viennese Ball: a formal ball with waltzes that was initially started in the 1970s by students returning from the now-closed Stanford in Vienna overseas program.[143] It is now open to all students. The Stanford Powwow: Organized by the Stanford American Indian Organization since 1971 and held every Mother's Day weekend Sony VGN-NS31M/W battery(without CD). Mausoleum Party: An annual Halloween Party at the Stanford Mausoleum, which contains the corpses of Leland Stanford, Jr. and his parents. A 20-year tradition, the Mausoleum party was on hiatus from 2002 to 2005[145] due to a lack of funding from the alumni,[146] but was revived in 2006. In 2008, it was hosted in Old Union rather than at the actual Mausoleum, because rain prohibited generators from being rented. Sony VGN-NS31S/S battery(without CD) In 2009, after fundraising efforts by the Junior Class Presidents and the ASSU Executive, the event was able to return to the Mausoleum despite facing budget cuts earlier in the year. Stanford Charity Fashion Show: A large student-run diversity fashion show showcasing student, local, and international designers that was started in 1991 by the Asian American Students' Association Sony VGN-NW130J/T battery(without CD). Senior Pub Night: On most Thursdays during the school year, seniors gather at a bar in Palo Alto or San Francisco. The location rotates week to week, and chartered buses are organized to take the seniors safely between the bar and campus. Uncommon Man/Uncommon Woman: Stanford does not award honorary degrees, but in 1953 the University created the degree of Uncommon Man/Uncommon Woman for individuals who give rare and extraordinary service to the University Sony VGN-NW21EF/S battery(without CD). The University's highest honor, the degree is not given at prescribed intervals, but only when appropriate to recognize extraordinary service. Recipients include Herbert Hoover, Bill Hewlett, Dave Packard, Lucile Packard, and John Gardner.[153] Birthday Showers: Students get thrown in the shower by their friends at midnight on their birthdays Sony VGN-NW21JF battery(without CD). A Capella groups perform in student residences during New Student Orientation and throughout the year. Some of the most notable original songs include those by humor-focused Fleet Street Singers, such as "Everyone Pees in the Shower" and "Prayer to the God of Partial Credit." [154] The Game: The Game is a treasure hunt put on by dorm staff usually in the spring and summer quarters Sony VGN-NW21MF/W battery(without CD). Secret Snowflake: Students are given three dares by anonymous residents within their dorm. These students have to perform these dares (one a night for three nights) in front of the whole dorm. These dare can range from tame activities (e.g. singing "Like a Virgin" in a wedding dress) to extreme (e.g. nudity, stunts). This week of dares is carried out near the end of fall quarter before Christmas Break. Sony VGN-NW21MF battery(without CD)Valentine's Day Serenade: In the freshmen dorms, all of the guys in the dorm wake up all of the girls very early in the morning on Valentine's Day. Each girl is given a single rose and is then brought to the dorm lounge where all of the guys serenade the girls with a love song. Assassins: Participating students are assigned a target to "kill" with a water gun Sony VGN-NW21ZF battery(without CD). A "kill" is only valid if no other person witnesses the "kill" and the target is "killed" outside of his/her dorm room and bathroom. Over a period of weeks, targets are eliminated until only one assassin victoriously remains.[citation needed] Former campus traditions include the Big Game bonfire on Lake Lagunita (a seasonal lake usually dry in the fall), which is now inactive because of the presence of endangered salamanders in the lake bed Sony VGN-NW31EF/W battery(without CD). [edit]Greek life Fraternities and sororities have been active on the Stanford campus since 1891, when the University first opened. In 1944, University President Donald Tresidder banned all Stanford sororities due to extreme competition.[155] However, following Title IX, the Board of Trustees lifted the 33-year ban on sororities in 1977. Sony VGN-NW31JF battery(without CD)Stanford is now home to 29 Greek organizations, including 13 sororities and 16 fraternities, representing 13% of undergraduates. In contrast to many universities, nine of the ten housed Greek organizations live in University-owned houses, the exception being Sigma Chi, which owns its own house (but not the land) on The Row Sony VGN-NW320F/B battery(without CD). Six chapters are members of the African American Fraternal and Sororal Association, 11 chapters are members of the Interfraternity Council, 6 chapters belong to the Intersorority Council, and 6 chapters belong to the Multicultural Greek Council.[157] Stanford is home to three unhoused historically NPHC (National Pan-Hellenic Council or "Divine Nine") three sororities (Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta Sony VGN-NW320F/TC battery(without CD), and Sigma Gamma Rho) and three unhoused NPHC fraternities (Alpha Phi Alpha, Kappa Alpha Psi, and Phi Beta Sigma). These fraternities and sororities operate under the AAFSA (African American Fraternal Sororal Association) at Stanford. Seven historically NPC (National Panhellenic Conference) sororities, four of which are unhoused (Alpha Phi, Alpha Epsilon Phi, Chi Omega, and Kappa Kappa Gamma) Sony VGN-NW35E/B battery(without CD) and three of which are housed (Delta Delta Delta, Kappa Alpha Theta, and Pi Beta Phi) call Stanford home. These sororities operate under the Stanford Inter-sorority Council (ISC). Eleven historically NIC (National Interfraternity Conference) fraternities are also represented at Stanford, including four unhoused fraternities (Alpha Epsilon Pi, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Delta Tau Delta, and Sigma Phi Epsilon), and seven housed fraternities (Kappa Alpha Order, Kappa Sigma, Phi Kappa Psi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi Sony VGN-NW35E/P battery(without CD), Sigma Nu, and Theta Delta Chi). These fraternities operate under the Stanford Inter-fraternity Council (IFC). There are also four unhoused MGC (Multicultural Greek Council) sororities on campus (Alpha Kappa Delta Phi, Lambda Theta Nu, Sigma Psi Zeta, and Sigma Theta Psi), as well as two unhoused MGC fraternities (Gamma Zeta Alpha and Lambda Phi Epsilon). Lambda Phi Epsilon is recognized by the National Interfraternity Conference (NIC). Sony VGN-NW35E/W battery(without CD)[edit]Student groups Stanford offers its students the opportunity to engage in over 650 groups.[159] Groups are often, though not always, partially funded by the University via allocations directed by the student government organization, the ASSU. These funds include "special fees", which are decided by a Spring Quarter vote by the student body. Groups span from Athletic/Recreational, Careers/Pre-professional, Community Service, Ethnic/Cultural Sony VGN-NW35E battery(without CD), Fraternities/Sororities, Health/Counseling, Media/Publications, Music/Dance/Creative Arts, Political/Social Awareness to Religious/Philosophical. Groups include (but are not limited to): The Stanford Daily is an independent organization located on campus, and is the daily newspaper serving Stanford University. It has been published since the University was founded in 1892. The Stanford Axe Committee is the official guardian of the Stanford Axe and the rest of the time assists the Stanford Band as a supplementary spirit group Sony VGN-NW380F/S battery(without CD). The Stanford Pre-Business Association[160] is the largest business-focused undergraduate organization. It plays an instrumental role in establishing an active link between the industry, alumni, and student communities. The Stanford solar car project, where students build a solar-powered car every 2 years and race it in either the North American Solar Challenge or the World Solar Challenge Sony VGN-NW380F/T battery(without CD). Stanford Astronomical Society organizes viewings of meteor showers, lunar eclipses, and other astronomical events. The Stanford Kite Flying Society[161] (founded 2008), a group of undergraduates dedicated to flying kites. Society "meetings" are usually on Wilbur Field when it is windy out. The Pilipino American Student Union (PASU),[162] a culture-oriented community service and social activism group. Also integral to PASU is a traditional performing arts arm called Kayumanggi Sony VGN-SR11M battery(without CD). Stanford Finance is a pre-professional organization aimed at mentoring students who want to enter a career in finance, through mentors and internships. Leland Quarterly[163] is Stanford's literary magazine. It publishes the creative writing, essays, and art of Stanford students on a "Stanford quarterly" basis (autumn, winter, and spring) and also runs features of arts and literary figures and events on campus Sony VGN-SR12G/B battery(without CD). KZSU Stanford 90.1 FM is the student-run radio station which features freeform music programming, sports commentary, and news segments. BASES, the Business Association of Stanford Entrepreneurial Students is one of the largest professional organizations in Silicon Valley, with over 5,000 members. Its goal is to support the next generation of entrepreneurs Sony VGN-SR12G/P battery(without CD). The Stanford Robber Barons are Stanford's only sketch comedy group, and perform original material for free every quarter on campus. They regularly host events, and have performed at the Laugh Factory and at the SF SketchFest. The Stanford Fleet Street Singers is an all-male Acappella group specializing in comedic original compositions, jazz, and Stanford fight songs Sony VGN-SR12G/S battery(without CD). Because Fleet Street maintains Stanford songs as a regular part of its performing repertoire, Stanford University used the group as ambassadors during the University's centennial celebration and commissioned an album, entitled Up Toward Mountains Higher (1999), of Stanford songs which were sent to alumni around the world Sony VGN-SR21M/S battery(without CD). The Stanford Martial Arts Program (SMAP) is an umbrella organization for 11 different martial arts groups on campus: Aikido, Capoeira, Eskrima, Judo, Jujitsu, Kenpo Karate, Muay Thai, Wing Chun, JKA Shotokan, Taekwondo, and Wushu. The Stanford Women In Business (SWIB)[164] is an on-campus business organization consisting of over a board of 40 and 100 active members Sony VGN-SR25G/B battery(without CD). Each year, SWIB organizes over 25 events and workshops, hosts a winter and spring conference, and provides mentorship and spring quarter internships. The Claw Magazine,[165] named after the fountain in White Plaza, is an undergraduate publication that features humor, artwork, investigative reporting, and fiction. Free Stanford forum,[166] Everything about life at Stanford University. Campus, careers, education, visa, faq and more. Interesting insights at Stanford University Sony VGN-SR25G/P battery(without CD). Athletics Main article: Stanford Cardinal Stanford participates in the NCAA's Division I-A and is a member of the Pacific-12 Conference. Stanford has consistently won the NACDA Directors' Cup, The University of North Carolina won the award for best Division I collegiate athletics program in its inaugural year. Since then, Stanford University has won it seventeen straight years Sony VGN-SR25G/S battery(without CD), winning seventeen out of the eighteen years it has been offered.[167] It also participates in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation for indoor track (men and women), fencing (men and women), water polo (men and women), women's gymnastics, women's lacrosse, men's gymnastics, and men's volleyball Sony VGN-SR25M/B battery(without CD). The women's field hockey team is part of the NorPac Conference.[168] Stanford's traditional sports rival is the University of California, Berkeley, its neighbor to the north in the East Bay. Stanford offers 36 varsity sports (18 female, 15 male, one coed), 19 club sports and 37 intramural sports—about 800 students participate in intercollegiate sports. The university offers about 300 athletic scholarships Sony VGN-SR25S/B battery(without CD). The new Stanford Stadium, site of home football games. The winner of the annual "Big Game" between the Cal and Stanford football teams gains custody of the Stanford Axe. The first "Big Game", played at Haight Street Park in San Francisco on March 19, 1892, established football on the west coast. Stanford won 14 to 10 in front of 8 thousand spectators. Stanford's football team played in the first Rose Bowl in 1902 Sony VGN-SR25T/P battery(without CD). However, the violence of the sport at the time, coupled with the post-game rioting of drunken spectators, led San Francisco to bar further "Big Games" in the city in 1905. In 1906, David Starr Jordan banned football from Stanford. The 1906–1914 "Big Game" contests featured rugby instead of football. Stanford football was resumed in 1919.[169] Stanford won back-to-back Rose Bowls in 1971 and 1972 Sony VGN-SR25T/S battery(without CD). Stanford has played in 12 Rose Bowls, most recently in 2000. Stanford's Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy in 1970. Club sports, while not officially a part of Stanford athletics, are numerous at Stanford. Sports include archery, badminton, cheerleading, cricket, cycling, equestrian, hurling, ice hockey, judo, kayaking, men's lacrosse, polo, racquetball, rugby union, squash, skiing, taekwondo, tennis, triathlon and Ultimate Sony VGN-SR26/B battery(without CD). The men's Ultimate team won national championships in 1984 and 2002,[170] the women's Ultimate team in 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2006, and 2007,[171] the women's rugby team in 1999, 2005, 2006 and 2008. The cycling team won the 2007 Division I USA Cycling Collegiate Road National Championships. Until 1930, Stanford did not have a "mascot" name for its athletic teams. In that year, the athletic department adopted the name "Indians." Sony VGN-SR26/P battery(without CD) In 1972, "Indians" was dropped after a complaint of racial insensitivity was lodged by Native American students. The Leland Stanford Junior University Marching Band rallies football fans with arrangements of "All Right Now" and other contemporary music. The Stanford sports teams are now officially referred to as the Stanford Cardinal, referring to the deep red color, not the cardinal bird. Cardinal, and later cardinal and white has been the university's official color since the 19th century. The Band's mascot Sony VGN-SR26/S battery(without CD), "The Tree", has become associated with the school in general. Part of the Leland Stanford Junior University Marching Band (LSJUMB), the tree symbol derives from the El Palo Alto redwood tree on the Stanford and City of Palo Alto seals. Stanford hosts an annual U.S. Open Series tennis tournament, the Bank of the West Classic, at Taube Stadium. Cobb Track, Angell Field, and Avery Stadium Pool are considered world-class athletic facilities Sony VGN-SR28/B battery(without CD). Stanford Stadium hosted Super Bowl XIX on January 20, 1985, in which the San Francisco 49ers defeated the Miami Dolphins by a score of 38–16 and several group stage matches in the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Stanford has won the award for the top ranked collegiate athletic program—the NACDA Director's Cup, formerly known as the Sears Cup—every year for the past seventeen years. Stanford has had at least one NCAA team champion every year since the 1976-77 school year Sony VGN-SR28/J battery(without CD). NCAA achievements: Stanford has earned 103 National Collegiate Athletic Association national team titles[173] since its establishment, second most behind the University of California, Los Angeles, and 467 individual National championships, the most by any university.[174] The 103rd championship was won by the 2011-2012 Stanford Women's Water Polo team Sony VGN-SR28/Q battery(without CD). Olympic achievements: According to the Stanford Daily, "Stanford has been represented in every summer Olympiad since 1908."[175] As of 2004, Stanford athletes had won 182 Olympic medals at the summer games; "In fact, in every Olympiad since 1912, Stanford athletes have won at least one and as many as 17 gold medals."[176] Stanford athletes won 24 medals at the 2008 Summer Games—8 gold, 12 silver and 4 bronze Sony VGN-SR29VN/S battery(without CD). Notable alumni Main article: List of Stanford University people Stanford alumni have started many companies[178] including Hewlett-Packard (William Hewlett and David Packard), Cisco Systems (Sandra Lerner and Leonard Bosack), Nvidia (Jen-Hsun Huang), SGI, VMware, MIPS Technologies, Yahoo! (Chih-Yuan Yang and David Filo), Google (Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page), Wipro Technologies (Azim Premji), Nike (Phil Knight) Sony VGN-SR29XN/S battery(without CD), Gap (Doris F. Fisher), Logitech, Instagram, and Sun Microsystems (Vinod Khosla). The Sun in Sun Microsystems originally stood for "Stanford University Network." Former Japanese Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama,[182] former U.S. President Herbert Hoover, former U.S. Secretary of State Warren Christopher, former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo and former Honduras President Ricardo Maduro are alumni Sony VGN-SR31M/S battery(without CD). NBA guards Landry Fields, NFL quarterbacks Frankie Albert, John Brodie, Jim Plunkett, Trent Edwards, John Elway and Andrew Luck, NFL receivers Gordon Banks, Ed McCaffrey and Doug Baldwin, NFL Fullback Jon Ritchie, runner Ryan Hall, MLB starting pitcher Mike Mussina, MLB left-fielder Carlos Quentin, MLB infielder Jed Lowrie, Grand Slam winning tennis players John McEnroe Sony VGN-SR33H/B battery(without CD) (did not graduate) (singles and doubles) and (doubles) Bob and Mike Bryan, professional golfers Tom Watson and Tiger Woods (did not graduate), New Zealand Football and Tottenham Hotspur Defender Ryan Nelsen, Olympic swimmers Jenny Thompson, Summer Sanders and Pablo Morales, Olympic figure skater Debi Thomas, Olympic water polo players Tony Azevedo and Brenda Villa Sony VGN-SR33H/P battery(without CD), Olympic softball player Jessica Mendoza, Olympic volleyball player Kerri Walsh, Heisman finalist Toby Gerhart, and actress Reese Witherspoon (did not graduate) are alumni. Actors Jennifer Connelly, Sigourney Weaver, and Ben Savage and political commentator Rachel Maddow are prominent graduates. The president of Yale University, Rick Levin earned a Bachelor of Arts from Stanford, while the presidents of MIT and Caltech, Rafael Reif and Jean-Lou Chameau, respectively, earned Ph.D.s there Sony VGN-SR33H/S battery(without CD).
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. ( SONY PCG-5G2L battery) Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747( SONY PCG-5G3L battery), then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896.[6] The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies.[7] [8] Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination[9] and today imposes no religious requirements on its students. ( SONY PCG-F305 battery) The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, and the Westminster Choir College of Rider University.[11] Princeton has been associated with 35 Nobel Laureates, 17 National Medal of Science winners, and three National Humanities Medal winners. On a per-student basis, Princeton has the largest university endowment in the world( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). History Main article: History of Princeton University Sculpture by J. Massey Rhind (1892), Alexander Hall, Princeton University New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University, in 1746 in order to train ministers. The college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1756, the college moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal house of William III of England( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). Following the untimely deaths of Princeton's first five presidents, John Witherspoon became President in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the college's focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college. ( SONY PCG-5K2L battery) Witherspoon's presidency constituted a long period of stability for the college, interrupted by the American Revolution and particularly the Battle of Princeton, during which British soldiers briefly occupied Nassau Hall; American forces, led by George Washington, fired cannon on the building to rout them from it. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the college's sole building( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17, 1754.[14] During the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the country's capital for four months. Over the centuries and through two redesigns following major fires, (1802 and 1855) Nassau Hall's role shifted from an all-purpose building, comprising office, dormitory, library, and classroom space( SONY PCG-6S2L battery); to classroom space exclusively; to its present role as the administrative center of the University. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, when that same class replaced them with tigers.[15] Nassau Hall's iconic bell rang after the halls construction however the fire of 1802 melted the bell( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855. James McCosh took office as the college's president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. During his two decades of service, he overhauled the curriculum, oversaw an expansion of inquiry into the sciences, and supervised the addition of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic style to the campus. ( SONY PCG-6V1L battery) McCosh Hall is named in his honor.[15] In 1879, the first thesis for PhD was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the college officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides. During this year, the college also underwent large expansion and officially became a university( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). In 1900, the Graduate school was established. In 1902, Woodrow Wilson graduate of the Class of 1879 is elected the 13th president of the University.[18] Under Woodrow Wilson, Princeton introduced the preceptorial system in 1905, a then-unique concept that augmented the standard lecture method of teaching with a more personal form in which small groups of students, or precepts, could interact with a single instructor, or preceptor, in their field of interest( SONY PCG-7111L battery). In 1906, Lake Carnegie was created by Andrew Carnegie.[17] A collection of Historical photographs of the building of the lake is housed at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library on Princeton's campus. You can search the collection here. Albert Einstein with Thomas Mann in Princeton, 1938 On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College is dedicated. In 1914, the Palmer Stadium construction is completed. In 1919 the School of Architecture was established. In 1933, Albert Einstein becomes a lifetime member of the Institute for Advanced Study with an office on the Princeton campus( SONY PCG-71511M battery). Coeducation at Princeton University Main article: Coeducation at Princeton University In 1969, Princeton University first admitted women as undergraduates. In 1887, the university had actually maintained and staffed a sister college, Evelyn College for Women, in the town of Princeton on Evelyn and Nassau streets. It was closed after roughly a decade of operation. After abortive discussions with Sarah Lawrence College to relocate the women's college to Princeton and merge it with the University in 1967( SONY PCG-6W3L battery), the administration decided to admit women and turned to the issue of transforming the school's operations and facilities into a female-friendly campus. The administration had barely finished these plans in April 1969 when the admissions office began mailing out its acceptance letters( SONY PCG-7113L battery). Its five-year coeducation plan provided $7.8 million for the development of new facilities that would eventually house and educate 650 women students at Princeton by 1974. Ultimately, 148 women, consisting of 100 freshmen and transfer students of other years, entered Princeton on September 6, 1969 amidst much media attention. (Princeton enrolled its first female graduate student( SONY PCG-7133L battery), Sabra Follett Meserve, as a PhD candidate in Turkish history in 1961. A handful of undergraduate women had studied at Princeton from 1963 on, spending their junior year there to study "critical languages" in which Princeton's offerings surpassed those of their home institutions. They were considered regular students for their year on campus, but were not candidates for a Princeton degree.) ( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) As a result of a 1979 lawsuit by Sally Frank, Princeton's eating clubs were required to go coeducational in 1991, after Tiger Inn's appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied. Campus Fine Hall, the home of the Department of Mathematics. It is the tallest building on campus, although its height above sea level is not higher than the University Chapel, significantly uphill from Fine. ( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) The main campus sits on about 500 acres (2.0 km2) split between two municipalities, the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township. The James Forrestal Campus is split between nearby Plainsboro and South Brunswick. The University also owns some property in West Windsor Township.[4] The campuses are situated about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). The first building on campus was Nassau Hall, completed in 1756, and situated on the northern edge of campus facing Nassau Street.[15] The campus expanded steadily around Nassau Hall during the early and middle 19th century. The McCosh presidency (1868–88) saw the construction of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic and Romanesque Revival styles( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery); many of them are now gone, leaving the remaining few to appear out of place.[23] At the end of the 19th century Princeton adopted the Collegiate Gothic style for which it is known today.[24] Implemented initially by William Appleton Potter[24] and later enforced by the University's supervising architect, Ralph Adams Cram,[25] the Collegiate Gothic style remained the standard for all new building on the Princeton campus through 1960( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery). A flurry of construction in the 1960s produced a number of new buildings on the south side of the main campus, many of which have been poorly received.[28] Several prominent architects have contributed some more recent additions, including Frank Gehry (Lewis Library), I.M. Pei (Spelman Halls),[30] Demetri Porphyrios (Whitman College, a Collegiate Gothic project), ( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery) Robert Venturi (Frist Campus Center, among several others), and Rafael Viñoly (Carl Icahn Laboratory). A group of 20th-century sculptures scattered throughout the campus forms the Putnam Collection of Sculpture. It includes works by Alexander Calder (Five Disks: One Empty), Jacob Epstein (Albert Einstein), Henry Moore (Oval With Points), Isamu Noguchi (White Sun), and Pablo Picasso (Head of a Woman). ( SONY PCG-7112L battery) Richard Serra's The Hedgehog and The Fox is located between Peyton and Fine halls next to Princeton Stadium and the Lewis Library.[35] At the southern edge of the campus is Lake Carnegie, a man-made lake named for Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie financed the lake's construction in 1906 at the behest of a friend who was a Princeton alumnus. ( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) Carnegie hoped the opportunity to take up rowing would inspire Princeton students to forsake football, which he considered "not gentlemanly."[37] The Shea Rowing Center on the lake's shore continues to serve as the headquarters for Princeton rowing. Cannon Green Buried in the ground at the center of the lawn south of Nassau Hall is the "Big Cannon," which was left in Princeton by British troops as they fled following the Battle of Princeton( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). It remained in Princeton until the War of 1812, when it was brought to New Brunswick.[39] In 1836 the cannon was returned to Princeton and placed at the eastern end of town. It was removed to the campus under cover of night by Princeton students in 1838 and buried in its current location in 1840( SONY VGP-BPS2 battery). A second "Little Cannon" is buried in the lawn in front of nearby Whig Hall. This cannon, which may also have been captured in the Battle of Princeton, was stolen by students of Rutgers University in 1875. The theft ignited the Rutgers-Princeton Cannon War. A compromise between the presidents of Princeton and Rutgers ended the War and forced the return of the Little Cannon to Princeton. ( SONY VGP-BPS3 battery) The protruding cannons are occasionally painted scarlet by Rutgers students who continue the traditional dispute. In years when the Princeton football team beats the teams of both Harvard University and Yale University in the same season, Princeton celebrates with a bonfire on Cannon Green. This occurred most recently in 2006, ending a twelve-year drought. ( SONY VGP-BPS4 battery) Buildings Nassau Hall Main article: Nassau Hall Nassau Hall from the front. Nassau Hall is the oldest building on campus. Begun in 1754 and completed in 1756,[15] it was the first seat of the New Jersey Legislature in 1776,[45] was involved in the battle of Princeton in 1777,[15] and was the seat of the Congress of the Confederation (and thus capitol of the United States) from June 30, 1783 to November 4, 1783. ( SONY VGP-BPS5 battery) It now houses the office of the university president and other administrative offices, and remains the symbolic center of the campus.[47] The front entrance is flanked by two bronze tigers, a gift of the Princeton Class of 1879.[15] Commencement is held on the front lawn of Nassau Hall in good weather.[48] In 1966, Nassau Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places. ( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery) Residential colleges Princeton has six undergraduate residential colleges, each housing approximately 500 freshmen, sophomores, some juniors and seniors, and a handful of junior and senior resident advisers. Each college consists of a set of dormitories, a dining hall, a variety of other amenities—such as study spaces, libraries( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery), performance spaces, and darkrooms—and a collection of administrators and associated faculty. Two colleges, Wilson College and Forbes College (formerly Princeton Inn College), date to the 1970s; three others, Rockefeller, Mathey, and Butler Colleges, were created in 1983 following the Committee on Undergraduate Residential Life (CURL) report( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery), which suggested the institution of residential colleges as a solution to an allegedly fragmented campus social life. The construction of Whitman College, the university's sixth residential college, was completed in 2007. Rockefeller and Mathey are located in the northwest corner of the campus; Princeton brochures often feature their Collegiate Gothic architecture. Like most of Princeton's Gothic buildings, they predate the residential college system and were fashioned into colleges from individual dormitories( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). Wilson and Butler, located south of the center of the campus, were built in the 1960s. Wilson served as an early experiment in the establishment of the residential college system. Butler, like Rockefeller and Mathey, consisted of a collection of ordinary dorms (called the "New New Quad") before the addition of a dining hall made it a residential college( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). Widely disliked for their edgy modernist design, the dormitories on the Butler Quad were demolished in 2007. Butler is now reopened as a four year residential college, housing both under- and upperclassmen. Forbes is located on the site of the historic Princeton Inn, a gracious hotel overlooking the Princeton golf course( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). The Princeton Inn, originally constructed in 1924, played regular host to important symposia and gatherings of renowned scholars from both the university and the nearby Institute for Advanced Study for many years.[50] Forbes currently houses over 400 undergraduates and a number of resident graduate students in its residential halls. Butler and most of Forbes are in a different municipality( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery), Princeton Township, from the rest of the main campus, which is in Princeton Borough. In 2003, Princeton broke ground for a sixth college named Whitman College after its principal sponsor, Meg Whitman, who graduated from Princeton in 1977. The new dormitories were constructed in the Collegiate Gothic architectural style and were designed by architect Demetri Porphyrios( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). Construction finished in 2007, and Whitman College was inaugurated as Princeton's sixth residential college that same year. The precursor of the present college system in America was originally proposed by university president Woodrow Wilson in the early 20th century. For over 800 years, however, the collegiate system had already existed in Britain at Oxford University and Cambridge University( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). Wilson's model was much closer to Yale's present system, which features four-year colleges. Lacking the support of the trustees, the plan languished until 1968. That year, Wilson College was established to cap a series of alternatives to the eating clubs. Fierce debates raged before the present residential college system emerged. The plan was first attempted at Yale( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery), but the administration was initially uninterested; an exasperated alum, Edward Harkness, finally paid to have the college system implemented at Harvard in the 1920s, leading to the oft-quoted aphorism that the college system is a Princeton idea that was executed at Harvard with funding from Yale. Princeton has one graduate residential college, known simply as the Graduate College, located beyond Forbes College at the outskirts of campus( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery). The far-flung location of the G.C. was the spoil of a squabble between Woodrow Wilson and then-Graduate School Dean Andrew Fleming West. Wilson preferred a central location for the College; West wanted the graduate students as far as possible from the campus. Ultimately, West prevailed. ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) The Graduate College is composed of a large Collegiate Gothic section crowned by Cleveland Tower, a local landmark that also houses a world-class carillon. The attached New Graduate College departs in its design from Collegiate Gothic; it is reminiscent of the former dormitories of Butler College, the newest of the five pre-Whitman residential colleges( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). McCarter Theatre Main article: McCarter Theatre McCarter Theater The Tony-award-winning McCarter Theatre was built by the Princeton Triangle Club, a student performance group, using club profits and a gift from Princeton University alumnus Thomas McCarter. Today, the Triangle Club performs its annual freshmen revue and spring musicals in McCarter( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). McCarter is also recognized as one of the leading regional theaters in the United States. Art Museum Main article: Princeton University Art Museum The Princeton University Art Museum was established in 1882 to give students direct, intimate, and sustained access to original works of art that complement and enrich instruction and research at the university. This continues to be a primary function, along with serving as a community resource and a destination for national and international visitors( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery). Numbering over 72,000 objects, the collections range from ancient to contemporary art and concentrate geographically on the Mediterranean regions, Western Europe, China, the United States, and Latin America. There is a collection of Greek and Roman antiquities, including ceramics, marbles, bronzes, and Roman mosaics from faculty excavations in Antioch( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Medieval Europe is represented by sculpture, metalwork, and stained glass. The collection of Western European paintings includes examples from the early Renaissance through the 19th century, with masterpieces by Monet, Cézanne, and Van Gogh, and features a growing collection of 20th-century and contemporary art, including iconic paintings such as Andy Warhol's Blue Marilyn( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). One of the best features of the museums is its collection of Chinese art, with important holdings in bronzes, tomb figurines, painting, and calligraphy. Its collection of pre-Columbian art includes examples of Mayan art, and is commonly considered to be the most important collection of Pre-Columbian art outside of Latin America( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery). The museum has collections of old master prints and drawings and a comprehensive collection of over 27,000 original photographs. African art and Northwest Coast Indian art are also represented. The Museum also oversees the outdoor Putnam Collection of Sculpture. University Chapel Main article: Princeton University Chapel Princeton University Chapel The Princeton University Chapel is located on the north side of campus, near Nassau Street. It was built between 1924 and 1928, at a cost of US$2.3 million, ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery) approximately US$31.1 million in 2011 dollars. Ralph Adams Cram, the University's supervising architect, designed the Chapel, which he viewed as the crown jewel for the Collegiate Gothic motif he had championed for the campus.[53] At the time of its construction, it was the second largest university chapel in the world, after King's College Chapel, Cambridge. ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) It underwent a two-year, US$10 million restoration campaign between 2000 and 2002.[55] Measured on the exterior, the Chapel is 277 feet (84 m) long, 76 feet (23 m) wide at its transepts, and 121 feet (37 m) high.[56] The exterior is Pennsylvania sandstone, with Indiana limestone used for the trim.[57] The interior is mostly limestone and Aquia Creek sandstone( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). The design evokes an English church of the Middle Ages.[58] The extensive iconography, in stained glass, stonework, and wood carvings, has the common theme of connecting religion and scholarship.[53] The Chapel seats almost 2,000.[59] It hosts weekly ecumenical Christian services,[60] daily Roman Catholic mass,[61] and several annual special events( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery). Apartment facilities Princeton university has several apartment facilities for graduate students and their dependents. They are Butler Apartments, Lawrence Apartments, and Stanworth Apartments.[62] Sustainability Published in 2008, Princeton's Sustainability Plan highlights three priority areas for the University's Office of Sustainability: reduction of greenhouse gas emissions( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery); conservation of resources; and research, education, and civic engagement.[63] Princeton has committed to reducing its carbon dioxide emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 without the purchase of offsets.[64] The University published its first Sustainability Progress Report in November 2009.[65] The University has adopted a green purchasing policy and recycling program that focuses on paper products( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery), construction materials, lightbulbs, furniture, and electronics.[66] Its dining halls have set a goal to purchase 20% sustainable food products.[67] The student organization "Greening Princeton" seeks to encourage the University administration to adopt environmentally friendly policies on campus. ( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery) Organization The Trustees of Princeton University, a 40-member board, is responsible for the overall direction of the University. It approves the operating and capital budgets, supervises the investment of the University's endowment and oversees campus real estate and long-range physical planning. The trustees also exercise prior review and approval concerning changes in major policies( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery), such as those in instructional programs and admission, as well as tuition and fees and the hiring of faculty members. With an endowment of US$17.1 billion, Princeton University is among the wealthiest universities in the world. Ranked in 2010 as the third largest endowment in the United States, the university has the greatest per-student endowment in the world (over US$2 million for undergraduates). ( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery) Such a significant endowment is sustained through the continued donations of its alumni and is maintained by investment advisers.[70] Some of Princeton's wealth is invested in its art museum, which features works by Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, Jackson Pollock, and Andy Warhol among other prominent artists( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery). Academics The courtyard of East Pyne Undergraduates fulfill general education requirements, choose among a wide variety of elective courses, and pursue departmental concentrations and interdisciplinary certificate programs. Required independent work is a hallmark of undergraduate education at Princeton. Students graduate with either the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) or the Bachelor of Science in engineering (B.S.E.) ( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). The graduate school offers advanced degrees spanning the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. Doctoral education is available in all disciplines.[71] It emphasizes original and independent scholarship whereas master's degree programs in architecture, engineering, finance, and public affairs and public policy prepare candidates for careers in public life and professional practice( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). Undergraduate Undergraduate courses in the humanities are traditionally either seminars or lectures held 2 or 3 times a week with an additional discussion seminar that is called a "precept." To graduate, all A.B. candidates must complete a senior thesis and, in most departments, one or two extensive pieces of independent research that are known as "junior papers." ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery) Juniors in some departments, including architecture and the creative arts, complete independent projects that differ from written research papers. A.B. candidates must also fulfill a three or four semester foreign language requirement and distribution requirements with a total of 31 classes. B.S.E. candidates follow a parallel track with an emphasis on a rigorous science and math curriculum( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery), a computer science requirement, and at least two semesters of independent research including an optional senior thesis. All B.S.E. students must complete at least 36 classes. A.B. candidates typically have more freedom in course selection than B.S.E. candidates because of the fewer number of required classes. Nonetheless, in the spirit of a liberal arts education( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery), both enjoy a comparatively high degree of latitude in creating a self-structured curriculum. Undergraduates agree to adhere to an academic integrity policy called the Honor Code, established in 1893. Under the Honor Code, faculty do not proctor examinations; instead, the students proctor one another and must report any suspected violation to an Honor Committee made up of undergraduates( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). The Committee investigates reported violations and holds a hearing if it is warranted. An acquittal at such a hearing results in the destruction of all records of the hearing; a conviction results in the student's suspension or expulsion.[72] The signed pledge required by the Honor Code is so integral to students' academic experience that the Princeton Triangle Club performs a song about it each fall( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). Out-of-class exercises fall under the jurisdiction of the Faculty-Student Committee on Discipline.[75] Undergraduates are expected to sign a pledge on their written work affirming that they have not plagiarized the work.[76] Admissions and financial aid Princeton's undergraduate program is highly selective, admitting 7.86% of undergraduate applicants in the 2011–12 admissions cycle (for the Class of 2016). ( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery) In September 2006, the university announced that all applicants for the Class of 2012 would be considered in a single pool. In this way, the early decision program was effectively ended.[78] In February 2011, following decisions by the University of Virginia and Harvard University to reinstate their early admissions programs, Princeton announced it would institute an early action program( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery), starting with applicants for the Class of 2016.[79] In 2011, the Business Journal rated Princeton as the most selective college in the Eastern United States in terms of admission selectivity.[80] In 2001, expanding on earlier reforms, Princeton became the first university to eliminate loans for all students who qualify for financial aid.[81] All demonstrated need is met with combinations of grants and campus jobs. In addition, all admissions are need-blind. ( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery) U.S. News & World Report and Princeton Review both cite Princeton as the university that has the fewest of graduates with debt even though 60% of incoming students are on some type of financial aid.[83] Kiplinger magazine ranks Princeton as the best value among private universities, noting that the average graduating debt is US$4,957, "about one fifth the average debt of students who borrow at all private schools." ( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery) Grade deflation policy In 2004, Nancy Weiss Malkiel, the Dean of the College, implemented a grade deflation policy to curb the number of A-range grades undergraduates received. Malkiel's argument was that an A was beginning to lose its meaning as a larger percentage of the student body received them.[85] While the number of A's has indeed decreased under the policy( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery), many argue that this is hurting Princeton students when they apply to jobs or graduate school.[85] Malkiel has said that she sent pamphlets to inform institutions about the policy so that they consider Princeton students equally,[85] but students argue that Princeton graduates can apply to other institutions that know nothing about it( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). They argue further that as other schools purposefully inflate their grades,[86] Princeton students' GPAs will look low by comparison. Further, studies have shown that employers prefer high grades even when they are inflated.[87] It is expected to remain in place even after Malkiel steps down at the end of the 2010–2011 school year. The policy deflates grades only relative to their previous levels( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery); indeed, as of 2009, or five years after the policy was instituted, the average graduating GPA saw a marginal decrease, from 3.46 to 3.39.[88] Graduate This watercolor shows Cleveland Tower as seen from just outside Procter Hall at the Old Graduate College in the noon autumn sun. Princeton offers postgraduate research degrees in many fields in the social sciences, engineering, natural sciences, and humanities. Although Princeton offers professional graduate degrees in engineering, architecture, and finance, it has no medical school( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery), law school, or business school like other research universities.[89] The university's most famous professional school is the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, founded in 1930 as the School of Public and International Affairs and renamed in 1948 after university president (and US President) Woodrow Wilson( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery). Libraries The university's library system houses over eleven million holdings[90] including six million bound volumes.[91] The main university library, Firestone Library, which houses almost four million volumes, is one of the largest university libraries in the world[92] and among the largest "open stack" libraries in existence. Its collections include the Blickling homilies( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). In addition to Firestone library, many individual disciplines have their own libraries, including architecture, art history, East Asian studies, engineering, geology, international affairs and public policy, Near Eastern studies, and psychology. Seniors in some departments can register for enclosed carrels in the main library for workspace and the private storage of books and research materials( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). In February 2007, Princeton became the 12th major library system to join Google's ambitious project to scan the world's great literary works and make them searchable over the Web.[93] Rankings From 2001 to 2010, Princeton University was ranked either first or second among national universities by U.S. News & World Report (USNWR), holding the No. 1 spot for 8 of those 10 years. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery) After being at second place in 2008-9, Princeton returned to the number one spot in 2010, tying with Harvard University.[102] It has been ranked eighth among world universities by Shanghai Jiao Tong University,[103] and fifth among top 50 for Natural Sciences by THES.[104] In the 2011 Times Higher Education World University Rankings Princeton was ranked 5th in the world( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). In the 2011 QS World University Rankings[106] it was ranked 13th overall in the world, making it 9th among US universities. Its three highest subject rankings were: 6th in Arts & Humanities, 7th in Natural Sciences, and 11th in Social Sciences. Globally it dropped two places from its position of 8th in the THE-QS World University Rankings of 2009 ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery) (in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings).[107] In 2009 the university had been ranked third in North America, behind Harvard and Yale. Clio Hall In the "America's Best Colleges" rankings by Forbes in 2008, Princeton University was ranked first among all national colleges and universities. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery) The Forbes ranking also takes into consideration national awards won by students and faculty, as well as number of alumni in the 2008 "Who's Who in America" register.[110] Princeton Graduate School programs are also highly ranked among universities in the United States.[111] In the 2009 U.S. News & World Report "Graduate School Rankings", all fourteen of Princeton's doctoral programs evaluated were ranked in their respective top 20, 7 of them in the top 5, and 4 of them in the top spot( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery) (Mathematics, Economics, History, Political Science).[112] In Princeton Review's rankings of "softer" aspects of students' college experience, Princeton University was ranked first in "Students Happy with Financial Aid" and third in "Happiest Students", behind Clemson and Brown Universities.[113] The university's individual academic departments have been highly ranked in their respective fields. The Department of Psychology has been ranked fifth in the nation( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery) and its individual graduate programs have received high national rankings as well. The behavioral neuroscience program[115] has been ranked sixth and the social psychology program[116] has been ranked seventh. The Department of History is currently ranked first in the world. Princeton University also participates in the (NAICU)'s University and College Accountability Network (U-CAN) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery). Princeton University has an IBM BlueGeneL supercomputer, called Orangena, which was ranked as the 89th fastest computer in the world in 2005 (LINPACK performance of 4713 compared to 12250 for other U.S. universities and 280600 for the top-ranked supercomputer, belonging to the U.S. Department of Energy) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery). Student life and culture Cuyler, Class of 1903, and Walker Halls are Princeton dormitories with Collegiate Gothic architecture. University housing is guaranteed to all undergraduates for all four years. More than 98 percent of students live on campus in dormitories.[119] Freshmen and sophomores must live in residential colleges, while juniors and seniors typically live in designated upperclassman dormitories( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). The actual dormitories are comparable, but only residential colleges have dining halls. Nonetheless, any undergraduate may purchase a meal plan and eat in a residential college dining hall. Recently, upperclassmen have been given the option of remaining in their college for all four years. Juniors and seniors also have the option of living off-campus( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery), but high rent in the Princeton area encourages almost all students to live in university housing. Undergraduate social life revolves around the residential colleges and a number of coeducational eating clubs, which students may choose to join in the spring of their sophomore year. Eating clubs, which are not officially affiliated with the university( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery), serve as dining halls and communal spaces for their members and also host social events throughout the academic year. Princeton's six residential colleges host a variety of social events and activities, guest speakers, and trips. The residential colleges also sponsor trips to New York for undergraduates to see ballets, operas, Broadway shows, sports events( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery), and other activities. The eating clubs, located on Prospect Avenue, are co-ed organizations for upperclassmen. Most upperclassmen eat their meals at one of the ten eating clubs. Additionally, the clubs serve as evening and weekend social venues for members and guests. Princeton hosts two Model United Nations conferences, PMUNC[120] in the fall for high school students and PICSim[121] in the spring for college students( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery). It also hosts the Princeton Invitational Speech and Debate tournament each year at the end of November. Princeton also runs Princeton Model Congress, an event that is held once a year in mid-November. The 4-day conference has high school students from around the country as participants( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery). Although the school's admissions policy is need blind, Princeton, based on the proportion of students who receive Pell Grants, was ranked as a school with little economic diversity among all national universities ranked by U.S. News & World Report.[122] While Pell figures are widely used as a gauge of the number of low-income undergraduates on a given campus( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery), the rankings article cautions "the proportion of students on Pell Grants isn't a perfect measure of an institution's efforts to achieve economic diversity," but goes on to say that "still, many experts say that Pell figures are the best available gauge of how many low-income undergrads there are on a given campus( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery)." Traditions Arch Sings – Late-night concerts that feature one or several of Princeton's thirteen undergraduate a cappella groups. The free concerts take place in one of the larger arches on campus. Most are held in Blair Arch or Class of 1879 Arch. Bonfire – Ceremonial bonfire that takes place in Cannon Green behind Nassau Hall. It is held only if Princeton beats both Harvard University and Yale University at football in the same season( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). The most recent bonfire was lit November 17, 2006, after a twelve-year drought. Bicker – Selection process for new-members that is employed by selective eating clubs. Prospective members, or bickerees, are required to perform a variety of activities at the request of current members. Cane Spree – An athletic competition between freshmen and sophomores that is held in the fall. The event centers on cane wrestling( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery), where a freshman and a sophomore will grapple for control of a cane. This commemorates a historic freshman uprising against a university tradition that only sophomores and upperclassmen were permitted to carry canes, in which freshman attempted to rob sophomores of their canes in defiance of the rule( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). The Clapper or Clapper Theft – The act of climbing to the top of Nassau Hall to steal the bell clapper, which rings to signal the start of classes on the first day of the school year. For safety reasons, the clapper has now been removed permanently. Class Jackets (Beer Jackets) – Each graduating class designs a Class Jacket that features its class year. The artwork is almost invariably dominated by the school colors and tiger motifs( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). Communiversity – An annual street fair with performances, arts and crafts, and other activities that attempts to foster interaction between the university community and residents of the Princeton. Dean's Date – The Tuesday at the end of each semester when all written work is due. This day signals the end of reading period and the beginning of final examinations( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery). Traditionally, undergraduates gather outside McCosh Hall before the 5:00 pm deadline to cheer on fellow students who have left their work to the very last minute.[123] FitzRandolph Gates – At the end of Princeton's graduation ceremony, the new graduates process out through the main gate of the university as a symbol of the fact that they are leaving college. According to tradition, anyone who exits campus through the FitzRandolph Gates before his or her own graduation date will not graduate( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery). Gilding the Lily – Promotion ceremony at the 25th reunion of a class. Alumnae of the University (aka "Tiger Lilies") enjoy the courting of male classmates, amid song and much drink (see Newman's Day). Traditional chants include: "In Princeton Town the Youth abound, and do young Tigers make. Women return as Gilded Lilies, the men as Frosted Flakes"( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). Holder Howl – The midnight before Dean's Date, students from Holder Hall and elsewhere gather in the Holder courtyard and take part in a minute-long, communal primal scream to vent frustration from studying with impromptu, late night noise making. Houseparties – Formal parties that are held simultaneously by all of the eating clubs at the end of the spring term( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). Ivy stones -Class memorial stones placed on the exterior walls of academic buildings around the campus. Lawnparties – Parties that feature live bands that are held simultaneously by all of the eating clubs at the start of classes and at the conclusion of the academic year. Locomotive – Chant traditionally used by Princetonians to acknowledge a particular year or class( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). It goes: "HIP!! HIP!! Rah! Rah! Rah! TIGER! TIGER! TIGER! SIS! SIS! SIS! BOOM! BOOM! BOOM! Ahhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh PRINCETON! PRINCETON! PRINCETON!"[125] Following it are three chants of the class that is being acknowledged. It is commonly heard at Opening Exercises in the fall as alumni and current students welcome the freshman class, as well as the P-rade in the spring at Princeton Reunions( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery). Newman's Day – Students attempt to drink 24 beers in the 24 hours of April 24. According to the New York Times, "the day got its name from an apocryphal quote attributed to Paul Newman: '24 beers in a case, 24 hours in a day. Coincidence? I think not.'"[126] Newman had spoken out against the tradition, however. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery) Nude Olympics – Annual nude and partially nude frolic in Holder Courtyard that takes place during the first snow of the winter. Started in the early 1970s, the Nude Olympics went co-ed in 1979 and gained much notoriety with the American press. For safety reasons, the administration banned the Olympics in 2000 to the chagrin of students( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). Prospect 11 – The act of drinking a beer at all eleven eating clubs on The Street[disambiguation needed] in a single night. P-rade – Traditional parade of alumni and their families. They process through campus by class year during Reunions. Reunions – Massive annual gathering of alumni held the weekend before graduation. Athletics Princeton supports organized athletics at three levels: varsity intercollegiate, club intercollegiate, and intramural( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery). It also provides "a variety of physical education and recreational programs" for members of the Princeton community. According to the athletics program's mission statement, Princeton aims for its students who participate in athletics to be "'student athletes' in the fullest sense of the phrase."[129] Most undergraduates participate in athletics at some level. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery) Princeton's colors are orange and black. The school's athletes are known as Tigers, and the mascot is a tiger. The Princeton administration considered naming the mascot in 2007, but the effort was dropped in the face of alumni opposition. Varsity Main article: Princeton Tigers Princeton vs. Lehigh football, September 2007 Princeton is an NCAA Division I school. Its athletic conference is the Ivy League. Princeton hosts 38 men's and women's varsity sports. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery) The largest varsity sport is rowing, with almost 150 athletes.[38] Princeton's football team has a long and storied history. Princeton played against Rutgers University in the first intercollegiate football game in the U.S. on Nov 6, 1869. By a score of 6–4, Rutgers won the game, which was played by rules similar to modern rugby.[132] Today Princeton is a member of the Football Championship Subdivision of NCAA Division I. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) As of the end of the 2010 season, Princeton had won 26 national football championships, more than any other school. The men's basketball program is noted for its success under Pete Carril, the head coach from 1967 to 1996. During this time, Princeton won 13 Ivy League titles and made 11 NCAA tournament appearances. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery) Carril introduced the Princeton offense, an offensive strategy that has since been adopted by a number of college and professional basketball teams.[136] Carril's final victory at Princeton came when the Tigers beat UCLA, the defending national champion, in the opening round of the 1996 NCAA tournament, ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery) in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the tournament.[137] Recently Princeton tied the record for the fewest points in a Division I game since the institution of the three-point line in 1986–87, when the Tigers scored 21 points in a loss against Monmouth University on Dec 14, 2005.[138] The men's water polo team is currently a dominant force in the Collegiate Water Polo Association( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery), having reached the Final Four in two of the last three years. Similarly, the men's lacrosse program enjoyed a period of dominance 1992–2001, during which time it won six national championships.[139] Club and intramural In addition to varsity sports, Princeton hosts about 35 club sports teams.[130] Princeton's rugby team is organized as a club sport. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery) Each year, nearly 300 teams participate in intramural sports at Princeton.[141] Intramurals are open to members of Princeton's faculty, staff, and students, though a team representing a residential college or eating club must consist only of members of that college or club. Several leagues with differing levels of competitiveness are available( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). Songs Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games is Princeton Cannon Song, the Princeton University fight song. Bob Dylan wrote "Day of The Locusts" about his experience of receiving an honorary doctorate from the University. It is a reference to the negative experience he had and it mentions the cicada infestation of Princeton( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). "Old Nassau" "Old Nassau" has been Princeton University's anthem since 1859. Its words were written that year by a freshman, Harlan Page Peck, and published in the March issue of the Nassau Literary Review (the oldest student publication at Princeton and also the second oldest undergraduate literary magazine in the country) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). The words and music appeared together for the first time in Songs of Old Nassau, published in April 1859. Before the Langlotz tune was written, the song was sung to Auld Lang Syne's melody, which also fits. However, Old Nassau does not only refer to the university's anthem. It can also refer to Nassau Hall, the building that was built in 1756 and named after William III of the House of Orange-Nassau( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). When built, it was the largest college building in North America. It served briefly as the capitol of the United States when the Continental Congress convened there in the summer of 1783. By metonymy, the term can refer to the university as a whole. Finally, it can also refer to a chemical reaction that is dubbed "Old Nassau reaction" because the solution turns orange and then black( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). Notable alumni and faculty The Princeton University Class of 1879, which included Woodrow Wilson, Mahlon Pitney, Daniel Barringer, and Charles Talcott. Main article: List of Princeton University people U.S. Presidents James Madison and Woodrow Wilson graduated from Princeton, as did Michelle Obama, the current First Lady of the United States. Former Chief Justice of the United States Oliver Ellsworth was an alumnus( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery), as are current U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justices Samuel Alito, Elena Kagan, and Sonia Sotomayor. Notable graduates of Princeton's School of Engineering and Applied Science include Amazon CEO and founder Jeff Bezos, Google executive Eric Schmidt and Lisa P. Jackson, administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). Actor Jimmy Stewart graduated from Princeton. Writers F. Scott Fitzgerald and Eugene O'Neill attended but did not graduate; Will Stanton graduated with an English degree. Notable graduate alumni include Richard Feynman, John Nash, Alan Mathison Turing and David Petraeus. Notable faculty members include Paul Krugman, Joyce Carol Oates, Peter Singer, and Andrew Wiles. Notable former faculty members include Ben Bernanke( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), Joseph Henry, Toni Morrison, John P. Lewis and Woodrow Wilson, who served as president of the University 1902–1910. Albert Einstein, though on the faculty at the Institute for Advanced Study rather than at Princeton, came to be associated with the university through frequent lectures and visits on the campus( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery). 508 Princetonia The asteroid 508 Princetonia is named for Princeton University by R. S. Dugan, which he found during his time at Königstuhl Observatory with Max Wolf in Heidelberg, Germany.[145] He discovered it in 1903 while working on his PhD from Heidelberg University. The asteroid is located in the main asteroid belt and is about 88 miles (142 km) in diameter according to IRAS data( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).
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