Qatar, also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in the Middle East, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula(HP Pavilion dv6-3089la battery). Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.

Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by the Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971(HP Pavilion dv6-3088la battery), and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état.[7] The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family(HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea battery), or close confidants of the al- Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.

Qatar has the world's highest per capita GDP and proven reserves of oil and natural gas. Qatar tops the list of World's richest countries by Forbes(HP Pavilion dv6-3077la battery). In 2010, Qatar had the world's highest GDP per capita, while the economy grew by 19.40%, the fastest in the world. The main drivers for this rapid growth are attributed to ongoing increases in production and exports of liquefied natural gas, oil, petrochemicals and related industries. Qatar has the second-highest human development in the Arab World after the United Arab Emirates(HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea battery). In 2009, Qatar was the United States’ fifth-largest export market in the Middle East, trailing behind the U.A.E., Israel, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. With a small citizen population of less than 300,000 people, Qatar workforce comprises expatriates from other Arab nations (20% of population), the Indian subcontinent (India 20%, Nepal 13%, Pakistan 7%, Sri Lanka 5%)(HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea battery), Southeast Asia (Philippines 10%), and other countries (5%).[8] Qatar has attracted an estimated $100 billion in investment, with approximately $60–70 billion coming from the U.S in the energy sector. It is estimated that Qatar will invest over $120 billion in the energy sector in the next ten years(HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea battery).[9]

Etymology

The name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. It is from the Persian word "Gwadar" which means, a port, a bay-port. There are similar places in the region with that name(HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea battery).

In Standard Arabic the name is pronounced [ˈqɑtˤɑr], while in the local dialect it is [ˈɡitˤar].[6] In English-language broadcast media within Qatar—for example, television commercials for Qatar Airways and advertisements concerning economic development in Qatar—the name is pronounced "KA-tar" (not "KAT-ar")(HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa battery).

[edit]History

Main article: History of Qatar

[edit]Pre-history

Zubara fort

Recent discoveries in Wadi Debay’an, a site located a few kilometers south of Zubara, indicate human presence from 7500 years ago - the earliest known date for human occupation in Qatar. Amongst the findings were a wall built of stone, possibly used as a fish trap.[10] Discovery of a 6th millennium BC site at Shagra(HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa battery), in southeastern Qatar revealed the key role the sea (the Persian Gulf) played in the lives of Shagra’s inhabitants. Excavations at Al Khor in northeastern Qatar, Bir Zekrit and Ras Abaruk, and the discovery there of pottery, flint, flint-scraper tools, and painted ceramic vessels indicates Qatar’s connection with the Al-Ubaid civilisation(HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa battery), which flourished in the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq during the period of 5th–4th millennium BC. It is thought that Mesoptamian fisherman working the rich fishing banks off the Arabian coast visited local settlements, bringing pottery with them and exchanging it for fresh meat in an improvised barter-based trade system(HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa battery).[11] The first potsherds of the Ubaid Mesopotamia were found by a Danish expidition in Al Da'asa in 1961, but not identified until later. A second expedition was held in 1973-74 led by Beatrice De Cardi.[12] Contact between the people of Mesopotamia and the eastern Arabian coast (including Qatar) continued over centuries(HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa battery).

In the early 3rd millennium, Sumerians settled on Tarut Island, off the Saudi coast, approximately 100 kilometers north-west of Qatar. Later, from 2450-1700 BC, Dilmun, a peaceful trading civilization, was centered in Bahrain.[13] Evidence that Qatar was part of the complex trading network is found from the presence of Barbar pottery, a product of the Dilmun civilization, in Ras Abrouk(HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo battery).[14]

[edit]Early History

Although the peninsula land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history, the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes.

Islam was spread in the entire Arabian region by the end of the 7th century resulting in the Islamization of the native Arabian pagans. With the spread of Islam in Qatar, the Islamic prophet Muhammad sent his first military envoy(HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx battery), Al Ala Al-Hadrami, to Al-Mundhir Ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi, the ruler of Bahrain (which extended from the coast of Kuwait to the south of Qatar, including Al-Hasa and Bahrain Islands), in the year 628, inviting him to accept Islam as he had invited other kingdoms and empires of his time such as Byzantium and Persia. Mundhir, in response to Muhammad(HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa battery), announced his acceptance of Islam, and the inhabitants of Qatar became Muslim, heralding the beginning of the Islamic era in Qatar. However, it is likely that some settled populations in Qatar did not instantaneously convert. An important seventh-century saint and mystic, named Isaac of Qatar, became a leader in the Syrian church(HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa battery).[15]

The Abbasid era (750–1258) saw the rise of several settlements, including Murwab.

In medieval times, Qatar was more often than not independent[citation needed] and a participant in the great Persian Gulf–Indian Ocean commerce. Many races and ideas were introduced into the peninsula from the sailors of Sindh, East Africa, South and Southeast Asia, as well as the Malay archipelago(HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa battery). Today, the traces of these early interactions with the oceanic world of the Indian Ocean survive in the small minorities of races, peoples, languages and religions, such as the presence of Africans and Shihus.

The Portuguese ruled from 1517 to 1538, when they lost to the Ottomans.[citation needed]

[edit]Emergence as an independent state

Qatar did not emerge as a separate political entity until the mid-19th Century when the British recognized Sheik Mohamed bin Thani(HP Pavilion dv6-3045sa battery).[16]

Under military and political pressure from the Governor of the Ottoman province of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the The Al-Thani shaykhs in Qatar submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871.[17] By the end of that year, Ottoman rule extended from Kuwait to Qatar.[17] The Ottoman government imposed reformist (Tanzimat) measures concerning taxation and land registration to fully integrate these areas into the empire(HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa battery).[17]

In March 1893, at the Battle of Wajbah (10 miles west of Doha), Shaikh Jassim defeated the Ottomans and banished them for good from Qatar.[18] This date is a landmark in Qatari history, one that marks the emergence of modern Qatar as a nation.

The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India(HP Pavilion dv6-3042tx battery); although, the discovery of petroleum and other hydrocarbons in the early 20th century would re-invigorate their interest. During the 19th century, the time of Britain’s formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west(HP Pavilion dv6-3040sa battery).

Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to crush the Qatari rebels, sending a massive naval force to Al Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation of the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty(HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa battery). The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar on 18 December 1878 (for this reason, the date of 18 December is celebrated each year as the Qatar National Day). In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar(HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa battery).

The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatar’s status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. The Al Thanis had taken relatively little part in Persian Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their hegemony as the future ruling family(HP Pavilion dv6-3032tx battery), a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left the nation with a new-found sense of political identity, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.

[edit]20th and 21st centuries

Diwan Al-Emiri

The reach of the British Empire diminished after World War II, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Persian Gulf increased during the 1950s(HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa battery), and the British welcomed Kuwait’s declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically (though not economically) from the Persian Gulf in three years’ time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes(HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa battery), however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On 3 September 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.

In 1991, Qatar played a significant role in the Persian Gulf War, particularly during the Battle of Khafji in which Qatari tanks rolled through the streets of the town providing fire support for Saudi Arabian National Guard units which were fighting against units of the Iraqi Army(HP Pavilion dv6-3030tx battery). Qatar also allowed Coalition troops from Canada to use the country as an airbase to launch aircraft on CAP duty.

Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization(HP Pavilion dv6-3030sa battery), including the endorsement of women's suffrage or right to vote, drafting a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, an outspoken news organization.

Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq[19] in 2003.

In December 2010, Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and will be the first country in the Middle East to host the tournament(HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx battery).

[edit]National Day

Qatar National Day on December 18 is the day Qataris celebrate their national identity and history. On that day, expressions of affection and gratitude are conveyed to the people of Qatar who cooperated in solidarity and vowed allegiance and obedience to Shaikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani as a leader in 1878[citation needed]. (HP Pavilion dv6-3025sa battery)

[edit]Geography

Main article: Geography of Qatar

Desert landscape in Qatar

Map of Qatar

The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (161 km) north into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 27° N, and longitudes 50° and 52° E.

Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid (“Inland Sea”), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Persian Gulf(HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa battery). There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.

The highest point in Qatar is Qurayn Abu al Bawl at 103 metres (338 ft)[20] in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcroppings running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border. The Jebel Dukhan area also contains Qatar’s main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula(HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa battery).

[edit]Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Qatar

Qatar has an unelected, monarchic, emirate-type government. The position of emir is hereditary.[20]

[edit]Council of Ministers

The Emir has the exclusive power to appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, comprise the Council of Ministers, which is the the supreme executive authority in the country.[21] The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation(HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa battery). Laws and decrees proposed by the Council of Ministers are referred to the Advisory Council (Majilis Al Shura) for discussion after which they are submitted to the Emir for ratification.[21]

[edit]Legislative bodies

An Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura has limited legislative authority to draft and approve laws, but the Emir has final say on all matters.[20] No legislative elections have been held since 1970 when there were partial elections to the body(HP Pavilion dv6-3011tx battery).[20]

In 2003, Qatar adopted a new constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of Advisory Council.[22][20] As of 2012, the Council is comprised entirely of members appointed by the Emir.[20]

Elections to the Majlis al-Shurahave have been announced, and then postponed, several times.[22] In 2011, the emir announced that elections to the council would be held in the second half of 2013(HP Pavilion dv6-3006tx battery)

An elected 29-member Central Municipal Council (CMC) has limited consultative authority aimed at improving municipal services.[20] The CMC makes recommendations to the Ministry for Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Disagreement between the CMC and the Ministry can be brought to the Council of Ministers for resolution(HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx battery).[22] Municipal elections are scheduled for every four years.[22] The most recent elections for the council were in May 2011.[20] Before 1999, members of the CMC were appointed by the government.

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main article: Municipalities of Qatar

Map of the municipalities of Qatar, since 2004

Before 2004, Qatar was divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally or rarely translated as governorates or provinces(HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa battery):

Doha (Ad Dawhah) الدوحة

Al Ghuwariyah الغويرية

Al Jumaliyah الجميلية

Al Khawr الخور

Al Wakrah الوكرة

Ar Rayyan الريان

Jariyan al Batnah جريان الباطنة

Madinat ash Shamal الشمال

Umm Salal أم صلال

Mesaieed مسيعيد

Since 2004, Qatar has been divided into seven municipalities.[24] A new municipality, Al Daayen, was created under Resolution No. 13,[25] formed from parts of Umm Salal and Al Khawr; at the same time, Al Ghuwariyah was merged with Al Khawr; Al Jumaliyah was merged with Ar Rayyan; Jarayan al Batnah was split between Ar Rayyan and Al Wakrah; and Mesaieed was merged with Al Wakrah(HP Pavilion dv6-3000 battery).

For statistical purposes, the municipalities are further subdivided into zones (87 in number as of 2004), which are in turn subdivided into blocks.[26]

[edit]Qatari law

Qatar is a civil law jurisdiction.[citation needed] However, Shari'a or Islamic law is applied to aspects of family law, inheritance and certain criminal acts(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery).[27]

[edit]Labor laws

Many cases of ill-treatment of immigrant labour have been observed. Qatar does not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labor, and does not permit labour-unions. Under the provisions of Qatar’s sponsorship law, sponsors have the unilateral power to cancel workers’ residency permits, deny workers’ ability to change employers(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery), report a worker as “absconded” to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country.[28] As a result, sponsors may restrict workers’ movements and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights.[28]

[edit]Criminal Sanctions

As of 2005, certain provisions of the Qatari Criminal Code allowed punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery). The UN Committee Against Torture found that these practices constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.[29][30] Qatar retains the death penalty, mainly for threats against national security.

[edit]Laws governing alcohol and other dietary issues

Alcohol consumption is legal in Qatar, with many restrictions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery). Luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their adult non-Muslim customers.[31][32] Foreign nationals may obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and operates the only liquor stores in the country.[33] Pork is also legally imported through the Qatar Distribution Company(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery), and may be purchased by holders of a liquor permit.

Until recently, restaurants on the Pearl-Qatar (a manmade island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks.[31][32] In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol. No explanation was given for the ban(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).[31][32] Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country’s first election of a royal advisory body and rumours of a financial dispute between the government and the resort’s developers.[34]

[edit]Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Qatar

Qatar was also an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is a member of the Arab League. The country has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery).[20]

Qatar has bilateral relationships with a variety of foreign powers. It has allowed American forces to use an air base to send supplies to Iraq and Afghanistan.[35] It has also signed a defense cooperation agreement with Saudi Arabia,[36] with whom it shares the largest single non-associated gas field in the world. It was the second nation(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery), the first being France, to have publicly announced its recognition of the Libyan opposition's National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya amidst the 2011 Libyan civil war.[37]

The history of Qatar’s alliances provides insight into the basis of their policy. Between 1760 and 1971, Qatar sought formal protection from the high transitory powers of the Ottomans, British, the Al-Khalifa’s from Bahrain(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery), the Persians, and the Wahhabis from Saudi Arabia.[38] It has undoubtedly been a powerless nation between influential nations and always fearful of losing their sovereignty. It was quickly determined that creating permanent alliances is not in Qatar’s best interest and that it could not rest its security in the hands of another; the only thing that is permanent is Qatar’s interests(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery). Qatar sought to secure the growing threat of being in a volatile geographic region, with mistrust and nuclear threats within close proximity, by inviting the US to create a full-functioning military base . Sheikh Hamad’s coup in 1995 reinvigorated its foreign policy, allowing it to step out of Saudi Arabia’s shadow, and unaligned its policies from them, surprising the region. Speculation of a Saudi Arabian-(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery),sponsored coup attempt in the late 1990s to reinstate the ousted Emir’s father, and border disputes, led to obstreperous relations, resulting in Riyadh withdrawing diplomatic representation from 2002 to 2007. Launch of Al-Jazeera certainly did not help; it bred mistrust within the region, and brought into question the motives behind it and Qatar’s road to modernity in relation to the various countries it affected(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery).

In March 2005, a suicide bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking for a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. The bombing was carried out by Omar Ahmed Abdullah Ali, an Egyptian residing in Qatar, who had suspected ties to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula(Sony VAIO VGN-AW235J/B battery).[39][40] According to leaked documents published in The New York Times, Qatar's record of counterterrorism efforts was the "worst in the region" although Qatar had been a generous host to the American military.[41] The cable suggested that Qatar’s security service was "hesitant to act against known terrorists out of concern for appearing to be aligned with the U.S. and provoking reprisals"(Sony VAIO VGN-AW270Y/Q battery).[41]

[edit]Role in international community

Besides causing a stir in the media world, Qatar has also made a name for itself in the international arena, with its attempt to brand itself as a peaceful neutral world power. It has attempted to achieve that goal by acting as a mediator, and promoting peace in the region and beyond(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery).

Mediation

As of 2011, Qatar has engaged in mediation efforts in Western Sahara, Yemen, the Ethiopia-Eritrea conflict, Indonesia, Somalia, and famously in Darfur and Lebanon. In addition, Qatar has involved itself in deep negotiations between the Palestinian authorities, Hamas and Fatah. Qatar’s involvement as a mediator in all of these situations may be vindicated by its lack of ties to any super-national or regional powers(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery), and by the strategy of neutrality it has followed in order to be seen as an unbiased entity in conflicts.

International Organizations and Conferences

Qatar has continued to take on more roles in the international organizational realm. In 1997 Qatar hosted the Middle East and North African summit, where it invited Israeli representation. In 2001, Qatar took the initiative and held a WTO ministerial meeting to further trade negotiations, commonly known as the ‘Doha Round’ (Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery). Most notably, Qatar held an elected seat for two years in the United Nations Security Council from 2005 to 2007, maximizing its exposure and solidifying its presence in the international community.

Qatar has hosted academic, religious, political and economic conferences. The 11th annual Doha Forum recently brought in key thinkers(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ/B battery), professionals of various backgrounds, and political figures from all over the world to discuss democracy, media and information technology, free trade, and water security issues. This year was the first year the forum featured the Middle East Economic Future conference.[42]

[edit]Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Qatar

[edit]Immigrant labor and human trafficking

Qatar is a destination for men and women from South Asia and Southeast Asia who migrate willingly(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery), but are subsequently trafficked into involuntary servitude as domestic workers and labourers, and, to a lesser extent, commercial sexual exploitation. The most common offence was forcing workers to accept worse contract terms than those under which they were recruited. Other offences include bonded labour, withholding of pay, restrictions on movement, arbitrary detention, and physical, mental, and sexual abuse(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery).[20]

According to the Trafficking in Persons Report by the US State Department, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labour. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labour are rarely enforced, and that labour laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centres(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery), pending the completion of legal proceedings[citation needed]. The report places Qatar at tier 3, as one of the countries that neither satisfies the minimum standards, nor demonstrates significant efforts to come into compliance.[43][44]

The government maintains that it is setting the benchmark when it comes to human rights[45] and treatment of labourers.

In common with other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, sponsorship laws exist in Qatar. These laws have been widely described as akin to modern-day slavery(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery).[46] The sponsorship system (kafeel or kafala) exists throughout the GCC, apart from Bahrain, and means that a worker (not a tourist) may not enter the country without having a kafeel; cannot leave without the kafeel`s permission (an exit permit must first be awarded by the sponsor, or kafeel); and the sponsor has the right to ban the employee from entering Qatar within 2–5 years of his first departure(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery). Various governmental sponsors have recently exercised their right to prevent employees from leaving the country, effectively holding them against their will for no good reason. Some individuals after resigning have not been issued with their exit permits, denying them their basic right to leave the country. Many sponsors do not allow the transfer of one employee to another sponsor(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery). This does not apply to special sponsorship of a Qatar Financial Centre-sponsored worker, where it is encouraged and regulated that sponsorship should be uninhibited and assistance should be given to allow for such transfers of sponsorship.

Barwa, a Qatari contracting agency, is constructing a residential area for labourers known as Barwa Al Baraha (also called "Worker's City")(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). The project was launched after a recent scandal in Dubai's labour camps. The project aims to provide a reasonable standard of living as defined by the new Human Rights Legislation.[47] The Barwa Al Baraha will cost around $1.1 billion and will be a completely integrated city in the industrial area in Doha. Along with 4.25 square meters of living space per person, the residential project will provide park(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery)s, recreational areas, malls, and shops for labourers. Phase one of the project was set to be completed by the end of 2008, and the project itself is set to be completed by the middle of 2010.[48]

[edit]Women's rights

Women in Qatar vote and may run for public office. Qatar enfranchised women at the same time as men in connection with the 1999 elections for a Central Municipal Council.[49][22] These elections—the first ever in Qatar—were deliberately held on March 8, 1999, International Women’s Day(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery).[22]

Women hold leadership positions in a number of ministries/supreme councils.

Qatari women are allowed to go out and drive without related male companion. While most Qatari women wear the abaya, there does not seem to be any formal restrictions on what women can wear, although, as in most countries, dressing modestly is generally preferred(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery).

[edit]Freedom of religion

The government uses Sunni law as the basis of its criminal and civil regulations. Some religious tolerance is granted. Foreign nationals are free to affiliate with their faiths other than Islam, e.g. Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Bahai, as long as they are religious in private and do not offend 'public order' or 'morality'(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery).

In March 2008, a Roman Catholic church, Our Lady of the Rosary, was consecrated in Doha. No missionaries were allowed in the community. The church will have no bells, crosses or other Christian symbols on it and its premises.

[edit]Incidents

A Wikileaks report has revealed that letters signed by the deputy prime minister, Abdullah al-Attiyah, and sent to Royal Dutch Shell(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery), ExxonMobil, and a number of other major oil companies, showed that the Qatar government demanded donations of up to $1.7 billion toward the cost of building a medical centre in 2007.[50]

[edit]Economy

Main article: Economy of Qatar

See also: List of tallest buildings in Doha, Qatar

Qatar's capital, Doha

The economic growth of Qatar has been almost exclusively based on its petrol and natural gas industry, which began in 1940.[51] The country has experienced rapid growth over the last several years due to high oil prices(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery), and in 2008 posted its eighth consecutive budget surplus. Economic policy is focused on developing Qatar's non-associated natural gas reserves and increasing private and foreign investment in non-energy sectors, but oil and gas still account for more than 50% of GDP; roughly 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery).

Oil and gas have made Qatar one of the highest per-capita income countries, and one of the world's fastest growing. The World Factbook states that Qatar has the second-highest GDP per capita in the world, after Liechtenstein. Proved oil reserves of 15 billion barrels should enable continued output at current levels for 37 years(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery). Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas are nearly 26 trillion cubic metres, about 14% of the world total and the third largest in the world.

Before the discovery of oil, the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearl hunting. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry crashed(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). However, the discovery of oil, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now, the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state. It relies heavily on foreign labour to grow its economy, to the extent that 94% of its labour is carried out by foreigners(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery). Labour laws in Qatar have improved over recent years, and Qatar is now the only state in the GCC to allow labour unions.

Qatar’s national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil reserves of 15 billion barrels, while gas reserves in the giant North Field (which straddles the border with Saudi Arabia and is almost as large as the peninsula itself) are estimated to be between 80 trillion cubic feet (2.3×1012 m3) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery) to 800 trillion cubic feet (23×1012 m3) (1 trillion cubic feet of gas is equivalent to about 180 million barrels (29×106 m3) of oil). Qataris’ wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World, according to the International Monetary Fund (2010)[52] and the CIA World Factbook(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery).[53] With no income tax, Qatar (along with Bahrain) is one of the countries with the lowest tax rates in the world.Qatar has been ranked as the world's richest country per capita in a new list compiled by US-based Forbes magazine. Blessed with the third-largest natural gas reserves in the world, the Arab Gulf emirate of 1.7 million people is benefitting from a rebound in oil prices(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). Adjusted for purchasing power (PPP), Qatar has an estimated gross domestic product per capita of $88,222.

West Bay in Doha

While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar’s economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a “knowledge economy”. In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery). Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Doha Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery), Doha kicked off an official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October 2007.[54] Its bid was finally eliminated from consideration in June 2008. Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.

The Qatari government hopes that large-scale investment in all social and economic sectors will lead to the development of a strong financial market(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery).

The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with world-class services in investment, margin and no-interest loans, and capital support. These platforms are situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources, specifically its exportation of petroleum(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.

Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise capital to finance projects of more than $130 billion, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial institutions to access nearly $1.0 trillion of investments which stretch across the GCC (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery) (Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf) as a whole over the next decade. Commercial ties between the United States and Qatar have been expanding at a rapid pace over the last five years, with trade volumes growing by more than 340%, from $738 million in 2003 to $3.2 billion in 2009(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). Over the same period, U.S. exports increased 580 percent to $2.7 billion, making the United States the largest import partner for Qatar. US companies look to play key role in the $60 billion dollars that Qatar will invest in roads, infrastructure development, housing and real estate, health/medical and sanitation projects in the next decade(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery).

The new town of Lusail, the largest project ever in Qatar, is under construction.

[edit]Transportation

Main article: Transport in Qatar

Boats as seen from the corniche (waterfront promenade) in Doha

The primary means of transportation in Qatar is by road, due to the very cheap price of petroleum. The country as a result has an advanced road system undergoing vast upgrades in response to the country's rapidly rising population, with several highways undergoing upgrades and new expressways within Doha under construction(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery). A large bus network connects Doha with other towns in the country, and is the primary means of public transportation in the city.

The Salwa International Highway currently connects Doha to the border with Saudi Arabia, and a causeway with both road and rail links to Bahrain at Zubarah is due to begin construction shortly(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery). The causeway will become the largest in the world, and will be the second to connect Bahrain to the Arabian Peninsula.

Currently, no rail networks exist in the country. In November 2009, however, the government signed a $26 billion contract with the German company Deutsche Bahn to construct a railway system over the next 20 years(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). The network will connect the country itself, and will include an international link with neighbouring states as part of a larger rail network being constructed across the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council. A railway link is also under construction between Qatar and Bahrain as part of the Qatar Bahrain Causeway(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery).

Qatar's main airport is the Doha International Airport, which served almost 15,000,000 passengers in 2007. In comparison, the airport served only 2,000,000 passengers in 1998. As a result of the much larger volumes of passengers flying into and through the country today, the New Doha International Airport is currently under construction, and will replace the existing airport in 2012(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).

[edit]Climate

Environmental issues

In 2005, Qatar had the highest per-capita carbon dioxide emissions, at 55.5 metric tons per person.[56] This is almost double the next highest per-capita emitting country, which is Kuwait at 30.7 metric tons (2005) and they are three times those of the United States. By 2007, Qatar’s emission rate increased to 69 tons per person per year(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery).[57] Qatar had the highest per-capita carbon dioxide emissions for the past 18 years. These emissions are largely due to high rates of energy use in Qatar. Major uses of energy in Qatar include air conditioning, natural gas processing, water desalination and electricity production. Between 1995 and 2011 the electricity generating capacity of Qatar will have increased to six times the previous level(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery). The fact that Qataris do not have to pay for either their water or electricity supplies is thought to contribute to their high rate of energy use. They are also one of the highest consumers of water per capita per day, using around 400 litres.[58]

Renee Richer, visiting professor of Biology at Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar[59] lectures(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery):

Social and economic changes are taking place at an alarming rate, putting at risk the natural and cultural resources of Qatar. However, such loss of natural and cultural heritage need not be the case and great economic benefits can be gained from ecologically based development. Qatar is in a unique position, given the financial resources and forward thinking leadership(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery), to move ahead and be amongst the first countries ready to take advantage of the next economic revolution: the green revolution.[60]

[edit]Population

Out of the total population of approximately 1.5 million (May 2008 est.), the make up of ethnic groups is as follows: Qatari (Arab) 20%; other Arab 20%; Indian 20%; Filipino 10%; Nepali 13%; Pakistani 7%; Sri Lankan 5%; other 5%.[8] Arabic, English, Malayalam, Hindi, Tamil, Tagalog, Urdu and Punjabi are the most widely spoken languages(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery).

[edit]Culture

See also: Music of Qatar

Qatari culture (music, art, dress, and cuisine) is similar to that of other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf; see Culture of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf. Arab tribes from Saudi Arabia migrated to Qatar and other places in the gulf; therefore, the culture in the Persian Gulf region varies little from country to country(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery).

Qatar explicitly uses Sharia law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: حنبلى ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (the other three being Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance"(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery), and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgments and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgments on particular matters. Shi'as comprise around 10% of the Muslim population in Qatar(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery).[65]

[edit]Religion

Main article: Religion in Qatar

See also: Islam in Qatar and Christianity in Qatar

Islam is the predominant religion. According to the 2004 census, 77.5% of the population are Muslim, 8.5% are Christian and 14% are "Other".[20] About 5% of the Muslims living in Qatar are Shi'a.[65]

The majority of non-citizens are from South and Southeast Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts, accompanied by family members in some cases(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery).[citation needed] Non-citizens can be Sunni or Shi'a Muslims, Protestant or Catholic Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, or Bahá'ís.

Religion is not a criterion for citizenship, according to the Nationality Law.

The Christian population consists nearly completely of foreigners. Active churches are Mar Thoma Church from Southern India, Arab Evangelicals from Syria and Palestine, and Anglicans,[66] about 50,000 Catholics and Copts from Egypt(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery).[67] No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country,[68] but the government allows churches to conduct Mass. Since 2008, Christians have been allowed to build churches on ground donated by the government.[69]

[edit]Sport

Khalifa International Stadium, home stadium of the Qatar national football team.

Main article: Sport in Qatar

Football is the most popular sport in Qatar, closely followed by cricket. The Qatar under-20 national football team finished second in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship after a 4–0 defeat to Germany in the final(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery).

The Asian Football Confederation's 2011 AFC Asian Cup finals was held in Qatar in January 2011. It was the fifteenth time the tournament has been held, and the second time it has been hosted by Qatar, the other being the 1988 AFC Asian Cup.

Doha, Qatar is also home to Qatar Racing Club a Drag Racing facility. Sheik Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani is very involved in the sport and owner of Al-Anabi Racing(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery).

Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha, Qatar hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open annually.

On 2 December 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[70] Doha is currently bidding to host the 2020 Summer Olympics(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery).[71]

Nasser Al-Attiyah of Qatar won the 2011 Dakar Rally and the Production World Rally Championship in 2006. In addition, he has also won gold medals at the 2002 Asian Games and 2010 Asian Games as part of the Qatari skeet shooting team, as well as a bronze medal in the individual skeet event at the 2010 Games in Guangzhou(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery).

Since 2002 Qatar has hosted the annual Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km, though the time trial usually is a shorter distance. Tour of Qatar is organised by the Qatar Cycling Federation for professional riders in the category of Elite Men(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery).[72]

[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Qatar

Cornell University's Weill Medical College in Qatar

In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Citizens are required to attend government-provided education from kindergarten through high school.[73] Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, a number of leading US universities have opened branch campuses in the Education City(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). These include

Carnegie Mellon University

Cornell University’s Weill Cornell Medical College

Georgetown University School of Foreign Service

Houston Community College System

Northwestern University

Texas A&M University

Virginia Commonwealth University School of the Arts

In 2008, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery), the College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary, also operate campuses in Doha. Other for-profit universities have also established campuses in the city.[74]

In 2009 Qatar Foundation launched a non-profit radio station,QF Radio 93.7 FM [3], which offers a streaming online service providing regular programs about Education, Science, Community Development and the Arts in Qatar, to a global online audience(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery). It also broadcasts to Doha, Qatar on 93.7 FM. The program is produced as 70% in Arabic and 30% in English.

In 2009, the Qatar Foundation launched the World Innovation Summit for Education – WISE – a global forum that brought together education stakeholders, opinion leaders and decision makers from all over the world to discuss educational issues. The first edition was held in Doha from 16 to 18 November 2009(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ER/S Battery), the second from 7 to 9 December 2010. The third edition will be held from 1 to 3 November 2011.

Moreover, in 2007 the American Brookings Institution announced that it was opening the Brookings Doha Center to undertake research and programming on the socio-economic and geo-political issues facing the region(SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery).

In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani created the Supreme Education Council.[75] The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the “Education for a New Era”[76] reform initiative(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery).

The Emir’s second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar’s Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of Western expertise into the education system(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery), particularly at the college level. In addition, The Qatar Foundation has supported the implementation of Arabic language programs in American public schools through the establishment of Qatar Foundation International, a U.S.-based non-profit dedicated to connecting the culture of American and Qatari students(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery).

There are currently a total of 567 schools in operation within Qatar, both in the public and the private sector. A large number of new schools are also under construction, particularly public schools, in order to meet increased demand which arose as a result of the large increase in population that the country has seen of late. There are nine universities in the country, serving 12,480 students(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery).

[edit]Health care

Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC)—affiliated with Cornell University—is the premier non-profit health care provider in Doha, Qatar. Established by the Emiri decree in 1979, HMC manages four highly specialised hospitals and a health care centre: Hamad General Hospital, Rumailah Hospital(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery), Women’s Hospital, Psychiatric Hospital and the Primary Health Care Centres. These hospitals are quite sophisticated by the standards of the region, with most hosting advanced fMRI and other scanning machines. Other private hospitals and polyclinics consist of Sidra Hospital, Al-Ahli Hospital, Doha Clinic, Al-Emadi Hospital, The American Hospital and Tadawi Medical(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). Qatar has among the highest rates in the world for obesity, diabetes and genetic disorders.[77] On the Qatar border, Saudi Arabia has set up the Salwa General Hospital, which is also serving all Qatari patients in good will of GCC.

[edit]Communications

Qatar has a modern telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94VS battery); submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations – two Intelsat (one Atlantic Ocean and one Indian Ocean) and one Arabsat. Callers can call Qatar using submarine cable, satellite, or VoIP (Skype/ Internet calling). However, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94HS battery), the website has been unblocked, and Paltalk has previously been blocked.

Qtel’s ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.

In Qatar, ictQATAR (Supreme Council of Information and Communication Technology) is the government agency regulating telecommunication.

Vodafone Qatar, in partnership with the Qatar Foundation, received the second public mobile networks and services license in Qatar on 28 June 2008 and switched on their mobile network on 1 March 2009. They launched 7 July 2009(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94GS battery), opening their online store first followed by retail and third party distribution locations throughout Doha. However, this was discontinued in 2010.

Al Jazeera (Arabic: الجزيرة al-ğazīrä [aldʒaˈziːra], “The Island”) is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels(Sony VAIO VGN-SR94FS battery).

Print media is going through expansion, with over three English dailies and Arabic titles. Qatar Today is the only monthly business magazine in the country. It is published by Oryx Advertising, which is the largest magazine publisher in Qatar. The group also publishes several titles such as Qatar Al Youm(Sony VAIO VGN-SR93YS battery), the only monthly business magazine in Qatar in Arabic language, Woman Today, the only magazine for working women, and GLAM,[78] the only fashion magazine. In December 2009 Oryx launched T Qatar: The New York Times Style Magazine,[79] which marks the entry of an international magazine into Qatar(Sony VAIO VGN-SR93PS battery).

Doha Stadium Plus is the only dedicated Sports magazine published out of the country. It covers a large variety of sports. It is published by ASPIRE Printing, Publishing and Distribution company. It is published every Wednesday and has been in existence since February, 2006. It brought out a special supplement for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa as well as the 2011 AFC Asian Cup in Doha(Sony VAIO VGN-SR93JS battery), Qatar, in addition to the weekly editions. They relaunched their website on 15 June 2011.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other traditions of celebrating lunar new year, see Lunar New Year.

Chinese New Year

Also called      Lunar New Year, Spring FestivalDell Inspiron 710m battery

Observed by  Chinese communities worldwide[1]

Type        Cultural, Religious

(Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian)

Significance   The first day of the Chinese calendar (lunisolar calendar)

2012 date        January 23Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery

2013 date        February 10

Celebrations  Dragon dances/Lion dances, fireworks, family gathering, family meal, visiting friends and relatives (拜年, bàinián), giving red envelopes, decorating with duilian (對聯, duìlián). Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery

Related to       Lantern Festival, which concludes the celebration of the New Year.

Mongol New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Tibetan New Year (Losar), Japanese New Year (Shōgatsu), Korean New Year (Seollal), Vietnamese New Year (Tết)

Chinese New YearDell INSPIRON 9100 battery

Traditional Chinese      農曆新年

Simplified Chinese        农历新年

Literal meaning     Agrarian Calendar New Year

[show]TranscriptionsDell INSPIRON 9200 battery

Spring Festival

Traditional Chinese      春節

Simplified Chinese        春节

[show]Transcriptions

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery

Chinese New Year is the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays. In China, it is known as "Spring Festival," the literal translation of the Chinese name 春節 (Pinyin: Chūnjié), since the spring season in Chinese calendar starts with lichun, Dell Inspiron 9400 battery the first solar term in a Chinese calendar year. It marks the end of the winter season, analogous to the Western Carnival. The festival begins on the first day of the first month (Chinese: 正月; pinyin: Zhēngyuè) in the traditional Chinese calendar and ends with Lantern Festival which is on the 15th day. Dell Inspiron E1505 battery Chinese New Year's Eve, a day where Chinese families gather for their annual reunion dinner, is known as Chúxī (除夕) or "Eve of the Passing Year." Because the Chinese calendar is lunisolar, Dell Inspiron E1705 battery the Chinese New Year is often referred to as the "Lunar New Year".

Chinese New Year is the longest and most important festivity in the Chinese calendar. The origin of Chinese New Year is itself centuries old and gains significance because of several myths and traditions. Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery Chinese New Year is celebrated in countries and territories with significant Chinese populations, such as Mainland China, Hong Kong[2], Macau, Taiwan, Singapore[3], Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius[4], Philippines[5][6], Vietnam, and also in Chinatowns elsewhere.Dell Latitude D400 battery Chinese New Year is considered a major holiday for the Chinese and has had influence on the lunar new year celebrations of its geographic neighbors.

Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Chinese new year vary widely. Dell STUDIO 1450 battery People will pour out their money to buy presents, decoration, material, food, and clothing. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly cleanse the house, in order to sweep away any ill-fortune and to make way for good incoming luck. Dell Vostro 1400 battery Windows and doors will be decorated with red colour paper-cuts and couplets with popular themes of "good fortune" or "happiness", "wealth", and "longevity". On the Eve of Chinese New Year, supper is a feast with families. Food will include such items as pigs, ducks, Dell Vostro 1500 battery chicken and sweet delicacies. The family will end the night with firecrackers. Early the next morning, children will greet their parents by wishing them a healthy and happy new year, and receive money in red paper envelopes. The Chinese New Year tradition is to reconcile, forget all grudges and sincerely wish peace and happiness for everyone. Dell XPS GEN 2 battery

Although the Chinese calendar traditionally does not use continuously numbered years, outside China its years are often numbered from the reign of the Yellow Emperor. But at least three different years numbered 1 are now used by various scholars, making the year beginning in 2012 CE the "Chinese Year" 4710, Dell XPS M1210 battery 4709, or 4649.[7]

London: Chinatown with Chinese New Year decoration

Contents  [hide]

1 Dates

2 Mythology

3 Public holidayDell XPS M1330 battery

4 Festivities

4.1 Preceding days

4.2 First day

4.3 Second day

4.4 Third day

4.5 Fourth day

4.6 Fifth day

4.7 Seventh day

4.8 Eighth day

4.9 Ninth day

4.10 Tenth dayDell XPS 1340 battery

4.11 Eleventh through twelfth day

4.12 Thirteenth day

4.13 Fifteenth day

5 Cuisine

6 Practices

6.1 Red envelopes

6.2 Gift exchange

6.3 Markets

6.4 Fireworks

6.4.1 Firecracker banDell XPS M1530 battery

6.5 Clothing

6.6 Family portrait

6.7 Symbolism

6.8 Nianhua

6.9 Flowers

6.10 Icons and ornaments

6.11 Spring travel

7 Festivities outside China

7.1 OriginsDell XPS M170 battery

7.2 South East Asia

7.3 Other parts of the world

8 Greetings

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

[edit]DatesDell XPS M1710 battery

Main article: Chinese calendar

Animal    Branch    New Year dates

鼠 Shǔ Rat    子 Zǐ       February 19, 1996          February 7, 2008 January 25, 2020牛 Niú Ox      丑 Chǒu February 7, 1997         January 26, 2009 February 12, 2021虎 Hǔ Tiger 寅 Yín    January 28, 1998  February 14, 2010         February 1, 2022兔 Tù Rabbit      卯 Mǎo  February 16, 1999          February 3, 2011   January 22, 2023龍 Lóng Dragon    辰 Chén         February 5, 2000 January 23, 2012  February 10, 2024Dell Latitude E6400 battery

蛇 Shé Snake        巳 Sì       January 24, 2001 February 10, 2013         January 29, 2025

马 Mǎ Horse         午 Wǔ     February 12, 2002        January 31, 2014  February 17, 2026

羊 Yáng Goat         未 Wèi   February 1, 2003  February 19, 2015          February 7, 2027

猴 Hóu Monkey    申 Shēn January 22, 2004 February 8, 2016  January 27, 2028

雞 Jī Rooster       酉 Yǒu    February 9, 2005 January 28, 2017  February 13, 2029Dell XPS M2010 battery

狗 Gǒu Dog   戌 Xū      January 29, 2006 February 16, 2018         February 3, 2030

豬 Zhū Pig    亥 Hài    February 18, 2007         February 5, 2019  January 23, 2031

Chinese New Year eve in Meizhou on February 2, 2011. Dell Latitude E5400 battery

The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Chinese New Year. The calendar is also used in countries that have adopted or have been influenced by Han culture, notably the Koreans, Japanese and Vietnamese, Dell Latitude E5500 battery

and may have a common ancestry with the similar New Year festivals outside East Asia, such as Iran, and historically, the Bulgars lands.[citation needed]

In the Gregorian calendar, Chinese New Year falls on different dates each year, a date between January 21 and February 20. In the Chinese calendar, Dell XPS M1730 battery

winter solstice must occur in the 11th month, which means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In traditional Chinese Culture, lichun is a solar term marking the start of spring, which occurs about February 4. Dell Latitude E6500 battery

The dates for Chinese New Year from 1996 to 2031 (in the Gregorian calendar) are at the left, along with the year's presiding animal zodiac and its earthly branch. The names of the earthly branches have no English counterparts and are not the Chinese translations of the animals. Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery Alongside the 12-year cycle of the animal zodiac there is a 10-year cycle of heavenly stems. Each of the ten heavenly stems is associated with one of the five elements of Chinese astrology, namely: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The elements are rotated every two years while a yin and yang association alternates every year.Dell XPS M140 battery The elements are thus distinguished: Yang Wood, Yin Wood, Yang Fire, Yin Fire, etc. These produce a combined cycle that repeats every 60 years. For example, the year of the Yang Fire Rat occurred in 1936 and in 1996, 60 years apart.[8]

Many confuse their Chinese birth-year with their Gregorian birth-year. Dell XPS 13 batteryAs the Chinese New Year starts in late January to mid-February, the Chinese year dates from January 1 until that day in the new Gregorian year remain unchanged from the previous Gregorian year. For example, the 1989 year of the snake began on February 6, 1989. Dell XPS 16 batteryThe year 1990 is considered by some people to be the year of the horse. However, the 1989 year of the snake officially ended on January 26, 1990. This means that anyone born from January 1 to January 25, 1990 was actually born in the year of the snake rather than the year of the horse. Dell XPS 1640 battery Many online Chinese Sign calculators do not account for the non-alignment of the two calendars, using Gregorian-calendar years rather than official Chinese New Year dates.

One scheme of continuously numbered Chinese-calendar years assigns 4708 to the year beginning February 3, 2011, Dell XPS 1645 battery but this is not universally accepted; the calendar is traditionally cyclical, not continuously numbered.

[edit]Mythology

Hand-painted Chinese New Year's poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, Lijiang, YunnanDell XPS 1647 battery

According to tales and legends, the beginning of Chinese New Year started with the fight against a mythical beast called the Nian (Chinese: 年; pinyin: Nián). Nian would come on the first day of New Year to eat livestock, crops, and even villagers, especially children. To protect themselvesDell Latitude 131L battery, the villagers would put food in front of their doors at the beginning of every year. It was believed that after the Nian ate the food they prepared, it wouldn’t attack any more people. One time, people saw that the Nian was scared away by a little child wearing red. The villagers then understood that the Nian was afraid of the color red. Hence, Dell Latitude C400 batteryevery time when the New Year was about to come, the villagers would hang red lanterns and red spring scrolls on windows and doors. People also used firecrackers to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. Dell Latitude C500 batteryThe Nian became Hongjun Laozu's mount.[9]

[edit]Public holiday

Chinese New Year is observed as a public holiday in a number of countries and territories where a sizable Chinese population resides. Since Chinese New Year falls on different dates on the Gregorian calendar every year on different days of the week, Dell Latitude C510 batterysome of these governments opt to shift working days in order to accommodate a longer public holiday. Also like many other countries in the world, a statutory holiday is added on the following work day when the New Year falls on a weekend.

Region    DescriptionDell Latitude C540 battery

Mainland China     New Year's Eve and the first two days. (Usually, the Saturday before and the Sunday after Chinese New Year are declared working days, and the 2 additionally gained holidays are added to the official 3 days of holiday, so that people have 7 consecutive days, including weekends, off.) Dell Latitude C600 battery

In Mauritius, the Chinese New Year is celebrated at National level. All Mauritius from all faith and backgrounds enjoy the great Spring Festival celebrations. Mauritians enjoy the Dragon foung Paow alondside the famous 'gato lacire'. Dell Latitude C610 battery

Hong Kong and Macau         The first three days. If one of the first three days is on a Sunday, Chinese New Year's Eve is celebrated as a public holiday. In the year 2010, the first day (February 14) is a Sunday and Chinese New Year's Eve (February 13) is consequently a public holiday. Dell Latitude C640 battery

Taiwan    The New Year's Eve and the first three days.

Christmas Island, Malaysia and Singapore       The first two days. If one of the days falls on a Sunday, the holiday is extended to three days. In 2010, the first day (February 14) is on a Sunday so celebration of the holiday is extended through Tuesday (February 16). Dell Latitude C800 batteryChinese New Year's Eve is usually a half-day holiday in Singapore.

Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines       The first day. If Sunday, it will be moved to Monday. If Friday (in Brunei), it will be moved to Saturday.

Other       A few countries around the world regularly issue postage stamps and numismatic coins to commemorate Chinese New Year. Dell Latitude C810 battery Although Chinese New Year is not institutionalized as public holiday, these countries recognize the significant number of their citizens who are of Chinese origin. The countries and territories that sometimes do so include Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, the United States, Argentina, and other countries. Dell Latitude C840 battery

[edit]Festivities

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) Dell Latitude CPI battery

“     Red couplets and red lanterns are displayed on the door frames and light up the atmosphere. The air is filled with strong Chinese emotions. In stores in Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, and other cities, products of traditional Chinese style have started to lead fashion trend[s]. Buy yourself a Chinese-style coat, get your kids tiger-head hats and shoes, Dell Latitude CPX battery and decorate your home with some beautiful red Chinese knots, then you will have an authentic Chinese-style Spring Festival.     ”

—Xinwen Lianbo, January 2001, quoted by Li Ren, Imagining China in the Era of Global Consumerism and Local Consciousness[10] Dell Latitude D410 battery

[edit]Preceding days

On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, a traditional porridge known as làbāzhōu (臘八粥) is served in remembrance "of an ancient festival, called Là, that occurred shortly after the winter solstice"[11]. Dell Latitude D420 batteryLàyuè (臘月) is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as làròu (臘肉). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Dell Latitude D430 batteryEvery member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends.[12] It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes.

On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their home a thorough cleaning. Dell Latitude D500 battery There is a Cantonese saying "Wash away the dirt on ninyabaat" (年廿八，洗邋遢), but the practice is not restricted to nin'ya'baat (年廿八, the 28th day of month 12). It is believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready for good luck. Dell Latitude D505 battery Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good luck cannot be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window-frames a new coat of red paint; decorators and paper-hangers do a year-end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year[13]. Dell Latitude D510 battery Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing new clothing, shoes, and receiving a hair-cut also symbolize a fresh start. Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts outstanding for the year before the new year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Dell Latitude D520 batteryThus it is a common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members.

In many households where Buddhism or Taoism is prevalent, home altars and statues are cleaned thoroughly, and altars that were adorned with decorations from the previous year are taken down and burned a week before the new year starts, Dell Latitude D600 battery to be replaced with new decorations. Taoists (and Buddhists to a lesser extent) will also "send gods" (送神, sòngshén), an example would be burning a paper effigy of Zao Jun the Kitchen God, the recorder of family functions. Dell Latitude D610 battery This is done so that the Kitchen God can report to the Jade Emperor of the family household's transgressions and good deeds. Families often offer sweet foods (such as candy) in order to "bribe" the deities into reporting good things about the familyDell Latitude D620 battery.

Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a thanksgiving prayer offering to mark the safe passage of the previous year is held. Confusionists take the opportunity to remember the ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Dell Latitude D630 battery

The biggest event of any Chinese New Year's Eve is the Reunion Dinner. A dish consisting of fish will appear on the tables of Chinese families. It is for display for the New Year's Eve dinner. This meal is comparable to Christmas dinner in the West. Dell Latitude D800 battery In northern China, it is customary to make dumplings (jiaozi, 餃子, jiǎozi) after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese tael. By contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao, 年糕, niángāo) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days of the new year. Dell Latitude D810 battery Niángāo [Pinyin] literally means "new year cake" with a homophonous meaning of "increasingly prosperous year in year out".[14] After dinner, some families go to local temples hours before the new year begins to pray for a prosperous new year by lighting the first incense of the year; Dell Latitude D820 battery however in modern practice, many households hold parties and even hold a countdown to the new year. Traditionally, firecrackers were once lit to scare away evil spirits with the household doors sealed, not to be reopened until the new morning in a ritual called "opening the door of fortune" (kāicáimén, 開財門) Dell Latitude D830 battery.[15] Beginning in 1982, the CCTV New Year's Gala was broadcast four hours before the start of the New Year.

[edit]First day

The first day is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and earth, officially beginning at midnightDell Latitude 2100 battery. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers and to make as much of a din as possible to chase off the evil spirits as encapsulated by nian (年) of which the term guo-nian (过年) was derived. Many people, especially Buddhists, Dell Latitude 2110 battery abstain from meat consumption on the first day because it is believed that this will ensure longevity for them. Some consider lighting fires and using knives to be bad luck on New Year's Day, so all food to be consumed is cooked the days before. On this day, Dell Latitude E4300 batteryit is considered bad luck to use the broom.

Most importantly, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time to honor one's elders and families visit the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents. Dell Vostro 1310 battery

For Buddhists, the first day is also the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (better known as the more familiar Budai Luohan), the Buddha-to-be. People also abstain from killing animals.

Some families may invite a lion dance troupe as a symbolic ritual to usher in the Chinese New Year as well as to evict bad spirits from the premises. Dell Vostro 1320 battery Members of the family who are married also give red packets containing cash known as lai see or angpow, a form of blessings and to suppress the aging and challenges associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, Dell Vostro 1510 batterymostly children and teenagers. Business managers also give bonuses through red packets to employees for good luck, smooth-sailing, good health and wealth.

While fireworks and firecrackers are traditionally very popular, some regions have banned them due to concerns over fire hazards. For this reason, Dell Vostro 1520 battery various city governments (e.g., Hong Kong, and Beijing, for a number of years) issued bans over fireworks and firecrackers in certain precints of the city. As a substitute, large-scale fireworks display have been launched by governments in such cities as Hong Kong and Singapore. Dell Vostro 2510 battery

[edit]Second day

Incense is burned at the graves of ancestors as part of the offering and prayer ritual.

The second day of the Chinese New Year, known as kāinián (开年, "beginning of the year")[16], Dell Vostro 1014 battery was when married daughters visited their birth parents, relatives and close friends. (Traditionally, married daughters didn't have the opportunity to visit their birth families frequently.)

During the days of imperial China, "beggars and other unemployed people circulate[d] from family to family, Dell Inspiron 1410 battery carrying a picture [of the God of Wealth] shouting, "Cai Shen dao!" [The God of Wealth has come!]."[17] Householders would respond with "lucky money" to reward the messengers. Dell Vostro 1014N battery Business people of the Cantonese dialect group will hold a 'Hoi Nin' prayer to start their business on the 2nd day of Chinese New Year so they will be blessed with good luck and prosperity in their business for the year. Dell Vostro 1015 battery

Some believe that the second day is also the birthday of all dogs and remember them with special treats.

[edit]Third day

The third day is known as Chìkǒu (赤口), directly translated as "red mouth". Chìkǒu is also called Chìgǒurì (赤狗日). Dell Vostro 1015N battery Chìgǒu means "the God of Blazing Wrath" (熛怒之神). Rural villagers continue with the tradition of offering prayers beside open burning rubbish dump, whereby waste and rubbish are incinerated together with offerings. It is generally accepted that it is not a good day to socialize or visit your relatives and friends.[18][19]. Dell Inspiron 1088 battery Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home.[20] This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one's future told.

[edit]Fourth dayDell Inspiron 1088N battery

In those communities that celebrate Chinese New Year for only two or three days, the fourth day is when corporate "spring dinners" kick off and business returns to normal.

[edit]Fifth day

This day is the God of Wealth's birthday. Dell Vostro A840 battery In northern Mainland China, people eat jiǎozi (simplified Chinese: 饺子; traditional Chinese: 餃子), or dumplings on the morning of Pòwǔ (破五). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers. Dell Vostro A860 battery

It is also common in China that on the 5th day people will shoot off firecrackers in the attempt to get Guan Yu's attention, thus ensuring his favor and good fortune for the new year.[citation needed]

[edit]Seventh dayDell Vostro A860N battery

The seventh day, traditionally known as Rénrì (人日, the common man's birthday), the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity. Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery

For many Chinese Buddhists, this is another day to avoid meat, the seventh day commemorating the birth of Sakra, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology who is analogous to the Jade Emperor.

Chinese New Year's celebrations, Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 N450 batteryon the eighth day, in the Vancouver suburb of Richmond, British Columbia, Canada.

[edit]Eighth day

Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor. However, everybody should be back to work by the eighth day. SONY PCGA-BP1N battery All government agencies and business will stop celebrating by the eighth day. Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year.

[edit]Ninth daySONY PCG-5G2L battery

The ninth day of the New Year is a day for Chinese to offer prayers to the Jade Emperor of Heaven (天公, Tiāngōng) in the Daoist Pantheon. The ninth day is traditionally the birthday of the Jade Emperor. This day is especially important to Hokkiens. Come midnight of the eighth day of the new year, SONY PCG-5G3L battery Hokkiens will offer thanks giving prayers to the Emperor of Heaven. Offerings will include sugarcane as it was the sugarcane that had protected the Hokkiens from certain extermination generations ago. Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, SONY PCG-F305 battery and gold paper is served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person.

[edit]Tenth day

The Jade Emperor's party is also celebrated on this day.

[edit]Eleventh through twelfth daySONY PCG-5J1L battery

Nothing of extreme significance traditionally takes place during the eleventh and twelfth days.

[edit]Thirteenth day

On the 13th day people will eat pure vegetarian food to clean out their stomach due to consuming too much food over the last two weeks. SONY PCG-5J2L battery

This day is dedicated to the General Guan Yu, also known as the Chinese God of War. Guan Yu was born in the Han dynasty and is considered the greatest general in Chinese history. He represents loyalty, strength, truth, and justice. According to history, he was tricked by the enemy and was beheaded. SONY PCG-5K2L battery

Almost every organization and business in China will pray to Guan Yu on this day. Before his life ended, Guan Yu had won over one hundred battles and that is a goal that all businesses in China want to accomplish. In a way, people look at him as the God of Wealth or the God of Success. SONY PCG-5L1L battery

[edit]Fifteenth day

The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as Yuanxiao Festival/Yuánxiāojié (元宵节), aka Shangyuan Festival/Shàngyuánjié (上元节) or the Lantern Festival (otherwise known as Chap Goh Mei Chinese: 十五暝; SONY PCG-6S2L battery pinyin: Shíwǔmíng; literally "the fifteen night" in Fujian dialect). Rice dumplings tangyuan (simplified Chinese: 汤圆; traditional Chinese: 湯圓; pinyin: tāngyuán), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. This day is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, SONY PCG-6S3L battery and families walk the street carrying lighted lanterns.

In Malaysia and Singapore, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking for a love partner, a different version of Valentine's Day.[21] Normally, single women would write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw it in a river or a lake while single men would collect them and eat the oranges. SONY PCG-6V1L battery The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate.

This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities.

[edit]Cuisine

Niangao, Chinese New Year cake

A reunion dinner is held on New Year's Eve where members of the family gather for the celebration. SONY PCG-6W1L battery The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. SONY PCG-7111L batteryMost reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature speciality meats (eg. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (eg. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. SONY PCG-71511M battery In most areas, fish (simplified Chinese: 鱼; traditional Chinese: 魚; pinyin: yú) is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year" (simplified Chinese: 年年有余; traditional Chinese: 年年有餘; pinyin: niánnián yǒu yú) sounds the same as "let there be fish every year." SONY PCG-6W3L battery

In mainland China, many families will banter whilst watching the CCTV New Year's Gala in the hours before midnight.

Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets often contain money in certain numbers that reflect good luck and honorability. SONY PCG-7113L battery Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things.

Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also has similar sounding names with prosperity, SONY PCG-7133L battery good luck, or even counting money.

Food items

Name      Description

Buddha's delight

(simplified Chinese: 罗汉斋; traditional Chinese: 羅漢齋; pinyin: luóhànzhāi)          An elaborate vegetarian dish served by Chinese families on the eve and the first day of the New Year. SONY PCG-7Z1L battery A type of black hair-like algae, pronounced "fat choy" in Cantonese, is also featured in the dish for its name, which sounds like "prosperity". Hakkas usually serve kiu nyuk (Chinese: 扣肉; pinyin: kòuròu) and ngiong teu fu.

Fish Is usually eaten or merely displayed on the eve of Chinese New Year. SONY PCG-7Z2L battery The pronunciation of fish (魚yú) makes it a homophone for "surpluses"(餘yú).

Leek         Is usually served in a dish with rondelles of Chinese sausage or waxed meat during Chinese New Year. The pronunciation of leek (蒜苗/大蒜Suàn miáo/Dà suàn) makes it a homophone for "calculating (money)" (算Suàn). SONY PCG-8Y1L battery The waxed meat is so chosen because it is traditionally the primary method for storing meat over the winter and the meat rondelles resemble coins.

Jau gok (Chinese: 油角; pinyin: yóujiăo) The main Chinese new year dumpling. It is believed to resemble ancient Chinese gold ingots (simplified Chinese: 金元宝; traditional Chinese: 金元寶; pinyin: jīnyuánbǎo) SONY PCG-8Y2L battery

jiaozi (dumplings) (Chinese: 餃子)    Eaten traditionally in northern China because the preparation is similar to packaging luck inside the dumpling, which is later eaten. The dumpling resembles a silver ingot, or money. The symbolism is prosperity. SONY PCG-8Z2L battery

Mandarin oranges         Mandarin oranges are the most popular and most abundant fruit during Chinese New Year – jin ju (Chinese: 金橘子; pinyin: jīnjúzi) translation: golden tangerine/orange or kam (Chinese: 柑; pinyin: gān) in Cantonese. Also, the name gik (橘 jú) in Teochew dialect is a homophone of "luck" or "fortune" (吉 jí).[22] SONY PCG-8Z1L battery

Melon seed/Kwatji

(Chinese: 瓜子; pinyin: guāzi)    Other variations include sunflower, pumpkin and other seeds. It symbolizes fertility and having many children.

Niángāo (Chinese: 年糕)     Most popular in eastern China (Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai) because its pronunciation is a homophone for "a more prosperous year (年高 lit. year high)". SONY PCG-7112L battery Nian gao is also popular in the Philippines because of its large Chinese population and is known as "tikoy" (Chinese: 甜粿, from Min Nan) there. Known as Chinese New Year pudding, nian gao is made up of glutinous rice flour, wheat starch, salt, water, and sugar. SONY PCG-6W2L battery The colour of the sugar used determines the colour of the pudding (white or brown).

Noodles Families may serve uncut noodles, which represent longevity and long life, though this practice is not limited to the new year. SONY PCG-5K1L battery

Sweets    Sweets and similar dried fruit goods are stored in a red or black Chinese candy box.

Bakkwa

(Chinese: 肉干; pinyin: ròugān) Chinese salty-sweet dried meat, akin to jerky, which is trimmed of the fat, sliced, marinated and then smoked for later consumption or as a gift. SONY PCGA-BP1U battery

Taro cakes (Chinese: 芋頭糕, yùtougāo)  Made from the vegetable taro, the cakes are cut into squares and often fried.

Turnip cakes (Chinese: 蘿蔔糕, luóbogāo)       A dish made of shredded radish and rice flour, usually fried and cut into small squares. SONY PCGA-BP2E battery

Yusheng or Yee sang (simplified Chinese: 鱼生; traditional Chinese: 魚生; pinyin: yúshēng)         Raw fish salad. Eating this salad is said to bring good luck. This dish is usually eaten on the seventh day of the New Year, but may also be eaten throughout the period. SONY PCGA-BP2EA battery

[edit]Practices

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) SONY PCGA-BP2NX battery

[edit]Red envelopes

Red packets for sale in a market in Taipei, Taiwan, before the Year of the Rat

Shoppers at a New Year market in Chinatown, Singapore

Traditionally, Red envelopes or red packets (Cantonese: lai sze or lai see) (利是, 利市 or 利事; Pinyin: lìshì); SONY PCGA-BP2NY battery (Mandarin: 'hóngbāo' (红包); Hokkien: 'ang pow' (POJ: âng-pau); Hakka: 'fung bao'; are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors. It is also common for adults or young couples to give red packets to children. SONY PCGA-BP2V battery

Red packets are also known as 壓歲錢/压岁钱 (yàsuìqián, which was evolved from 壓祟錢/压祟钱, literally, the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit) during this period.[23]

Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundredSONY PCGA-BP3T battery. Per custom, the amount of money in the red packets should be of even numbers, as odd numbers are associated with cash given during funerals (帛金: báijīn). The number 8 is considered lucky (for its homophone for "wealth"), and $8 is commonly found in the red envelopes in the US. SONY PCGA-BP4V batteryThe number six (六, liù) is also very lucky as it sounds like 'smooth' (流, liú), in the sense of having a smooth year. Sometimes chocolate coins are found in the red packets.

Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for example, are odd numbers, and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, SONY PCGA-BP51 battery it is common and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note – with ten or fifty yuan bills used frequently.

The act of requesting for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): 讨紅包 tǎo-hóngbāo, SONY PCGA-BP51A battery要利是. (Cantonese): 逗利是. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be "out of luck" in the new year.

In Taiwan in 2000s, sometimes some employers also give red packets as bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, SONY PCGA-BP52 battery though whether this is appropriate is controversial.[24]

The Japanese have a similar tradition of giving money during the New Year called Otoshidama.

[edit]Gift exchangeSONY PCGA-BP52A battery

In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from elder to younger, small gifts (usually of food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. SONY PCGA-BP71 battery Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, and never pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, candies, or some other small gift.[25]

[edit]Markets

Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. SONY PCGA-BP71A battery These usually open-air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decoration. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree. SONY VGP-BPL1 battery

Hong Kong filmmakers also release Hèsuè (賀歲) films in this time of the year.

[edit]Fireworks

A Chinese man setting off fireworks during Chinese New Year in Shanghai.

Bamboo stems filled with gunpowder that were burnt to create small explosions were once used in ancient China to drive away evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPL2 batteryIn modern times, this method has eventually evolved into the use of firecrackers during the festive season. Firecrackers are usually strung on a long fused string so it can be hung down. Each firecracker is rolled up in red papersSONY VGP-BPL4 battery, as red is auspicious, with gunpowder in its core. Once ignited, the firecracker lets out a loud popping noise and, as they are usually strung together by the hundreds, the firecrackers are known for their deafening explosions that are thought to scare away evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPL5A battery See also Myths above. The burning of firecrackers also signifies a joyful time of year and has become an integral aspect of Chinese New Year celebrations.[26]

[edit]Firecracker ban

The use of firecrackers, although a traditional part of celebration, has over the years led to many unfortunate outcomesSONY VGP-BPS2 battery. There have been reported incidents every year of users of fireworks being blinded, losing body parts, or suffering other grievous injuries, especially during the Chinese New Year season. Hence, many governments and authorities eventually enacted laws completely banning the use of firecrackers privately, SONY VGP-BPS3 battery primarily because of safety issues.

Taiwan – Beginning 2008, firecrackers are banned in urban areas, but still allowed in rural areas.

Mainland China – As of 2008, most urban areas in mainland China permit firecrackers. In the first three days of the traditional New Year, SONY VGP-BPS4 battery it is a tradition that people compete with each other by playing with firecrackers. However, many urban areas banned them in the 1990s. For example, they were banned in Beijing's urban districts from 1993 to 2005SONY VGP-BPS5 battery.[27] In 2004, 37 people were killed in a stampede when four million[28] people gathered for a rumoured Lantern Festival firework display in nearby Miyun.[29] Since the ban was lifted, the firecracker barrage has been tremendous. In Beijing, SONY VGP-BPS5A battery firecrackers are typically not allowed inside the 5th ring road. But this is overlooked by authorities for the holiday, provided there are no government buildings nearby; some residents in major cities look down on street-level fireworks from their tower blocksSONY VGP-BPS8 battery Bans are rare in rural areas.

Vietnam – 1996, fireworks were banned across the country because of its dangers.

Hong Kong – Fireworks are banned for security reasons – some speculate a connection between firework use and the 1967 Leftist Riot. However, SONY VGP-BPS8A battery the government would put on a fireworks display in Victoria Harbour on the second day of the Chinese New Year for the public. Similar displays are also held in many other cities in and outside China.

Singapore – a partial ban on firecrackers was imposed in March 1970 after a fire killed six people and injured 68. SONY VGP-BPL8 battery [30] This was extended to a total ban in August 1972, after an explosion that killed two people[31] and an attack on two police officers attempting to stop a group from letting off firecrackers in February 1972.[32] However, in 2003, the government allowed firecrackers to be set off during the festive season. SONY VGP-BPS9 battery At the Chinese New Year light-up in Chinatown, at the stroke of midnight on the first day of the Chinese New Year, firecrackers are set off under controlled conditions by the Singapore Tourism Board with assistance from demolition experts from the Singapore Armed ForcesSONY VGP-BPS9/S battery. Other occasions where firecrackers are allowed to be set off are determined by the tourism board or other government organizations. However, they are not allowed to be commercially sold.

Malaysia – firecrackers are banned for the similar reasons as in Singapore. However, many Malaysians manage to smuggle them from Thailand to meet their private needs. SONY VGP-BPS9A battery

Indonesia – Firecrackers and fireworks are forbidden in public during the Chinese New Year, especially in areas with significant non-Chinese population in order to avoid any conflict between the two. SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery However, there were some exceptions. The usage of firecrackers is legal in some metropolitan areas such as Jakarta and Medan, where the degree of racial and cultural tolerance is higher.

United States – In 2007, New York City lifted its decade-old ban on firecrackers, allowing a display of 300,000 firecrackers to be set off in Chinatown's Chatham Square. SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery [33] Under the supervision of the fire and police departments, Los Angeles regularly lights firecrackers every New Year's Eve, mostly at temples and the shrines of benevolent associations. The San Francisco Chinese New Year Parade, the largest outside China, is accompanied by numerous firecrackers, both officially sanctioned and illicit. SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery

Australia – Australia, with the exception of the Northern Territory, does not permit the use of fireworks at all, except when used by a licensed pyrotechnician. These rules also require a permit to be sought from local government, SONY VGP-BPL9 battery as well as any relevant local bodies such as maritime or aviation authorities (as relevant to the types of fireworks being used) and hospitals, schools, etc., within a certain range.

Philippines - Despite the rise in firecracker-related injuries in 2009, SONY VGP-BPS10 battery the Department of Health has acknowledged that a total ban on firecrackers in the country will be hard to implement. Davao City, the first city in the country to impose a firecracker ban, has enjoyed injury-free celebrations for at least the last ten years. Their ban has been in effect since 2002. SONY VGP-BPL10 battery

[edit]Clothing

Clothing mainly featuring the color red or bright colors is commonly worn throughout the Chinese New Year because it was once believed that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. SONY VGP-BPS11 battery In addition, people typically wear new clothes from head to toe to symbolize a new beginning in the new year. Wearing new clothes also symbolizes having more than enough things to use and wear in the new year.

[edit]Family portrait

Taking family portrait is an important ceremony after the relatives are gathered. SONY VGP-BPL11 battery The photo is taken at the hall of the house or taken in front of the house. The most senior male head of the family sits in the center.

[edit]Symbolism

See also: Fu character

An inverted character "福 (fú)" is a sign of arriving blessings. SONY VGP-BPL12 battery

As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped fú characters (Chinese: 福, Cantonese and Hakka: Fook, literally "blessings, happiness"), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. SONY VGP-BPS12 battery This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word 倒 (dào) "upside down", is homophonous or nearly homophonous with 到 (dào) "arrive" in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity. SONY VGP-BPS13 battery

Red is the predominant colour used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this colour also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are coloured red. The sound of the Chinese word for “red” ( 紅, hóng) is “hong” in Mandarin (Hakka: Fung; Cantonese: Hoong) which also means “prosperous.” Therefore, red is an auspicious colour and has an auspicious sound. SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery

[edit]Nianhua

Chinese New Year festival in Chinatown, Boston

Nianhua can be a form of Chinese coloured woodblock printing, for decoration during Chinese New Year.[34]

[edit]FlowersSONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery

The following are popular floral decorations for the New Year and are available at new year markets.

Floral Decor  Meaning

Plum Blossom        symbolizes luckyness

Kumquat         symbolizes prosperitySONY VGP-BPS13/B battery

Narcissus        symbolizes prosperity

Bamboo a plant used for any time of year

Sunflower       means to have a good yearSONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery

Eggplant          a plant to heal all of your sickness

Chom Mon Plant  a plant which gives you tranquility

[edit]Icons and ornaments

Icons        Meaning IllustrationsSONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery

Lanterns          These lanterns differ from those of Mid Autumn Festival in general. They will be red in colour and tend to be oval in shape. These are the traditional Chinese paper lanterns. Those lanterns, used on the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year for the Lantern Festival, are bright, colourful, and in many different sizes and shapes. SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery

Decorations   Decorations generally convey a New Year greeting. They are not advertisements. Chinese calligraphy posters show Chinese idioms. Other decorations include a New year picture, Chinese knots, and papercutting and couplets. SONY VGP-BPS21B battery

Dragon dance and Lion dance     Dragon and lion dances are common during Chinese New Year. It is believed that the loud beats of the drum and the deafening sounds of the cymbals together with the face of the dragon or lion dancing aggressively can evict bad or evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPS21 battery Lion dances are also popular for opening of businesses in Hong Kong and Macau.

Fortune gods Cai Shen Ye, Che Kung,etc.

[edit]Spring travel

Scene of the 2009 Chunyun period inside Beijing West Railway Station

Main article: ChunyunSONY VGP-BPS21/S battery

Traditionally, families gather during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year's Eve. Owing to the large number of interprovincial travellers, SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year's Day. This 40-day period is called "chunyun" (simplified Chinese: 春运; traditional Chinese: 春運; pinyin: chūnyùn; literally "transportation during Spring Festival"),SONY VGP-BPS13S battery known as the world's largest annual migration.[35] More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China.

In Taiwan, spring travel is also a major event. The majority of transportation in western Taiwan is north-south direction long distance travel between urbanized north and hometowns in rural south. SONY VGP-BPS13B/S batteryTransportations in eastern Taiwan and that between Taiwan and islands are less convenient. Cross-strait flights between Taiwan and mainland China begin in 2003 as part of Three Links, mostly for "Taiwanese businessmen" to return to Taiwan for new year.[36] SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery

[edit]Festivities outside China

Lion costume for New Year parade, Los Angeles, 1953

[edit]Origins

In 1849, SONY VGP-BPS14 battery with the discovery of gold and the ensuing California Gold Rush, over 50,000 people had come to San Francisco to seek their fortune or just a better way of life. Among those were many Chinese, who had come to work in the gold mines and on the railroad. By the 1860s, SONY VGP-BPL14 batterythe residents of San Francisco's Chinatown were eager to share their culture with their fellow San Francisco residents who may have been unfamiliar with (or hostile towards) it. The organizers chose to showcase their culture by using a favorite American tradition – the parade. SONY VGP-BPS14/B batteryNothing like it had ever been done in their native China.[citation needed] They invited a variety of other groups from the city to participate, and they marched down what today are Grant Avenue and Kearny Street carrying colourful flags, banners, lanterns,SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery and drums and firecrackers to drive away evil spirits. The current San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade traces its lineage back to those early parades, and still incorporates Grant and Kearny Streets into its street festival and parade route, respectively.

[edit]South East AsiaSONY VGP-BPS14B battery

2012 Year of the Dragon stamps issued in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

In Southeast Asia, Chinese New Year is a public holiday and considered to be one of the most important holidays of the year. The biggest celebrations take place in Malaysia (notably in Penang and Klang) and Singapore.[37] SONY VGP-BPS22 battery

Chinese New Year in Singapore is accompanied by various festive activities. One of the main highlights is the Chinatown celebrations. In 2010, this included a Festive Street Bazaar, nightly staged shows at Kreta Ayer Square and a lion dance competition. SONY VGP-BPS22 battery [38] The Chingay Parade also features prominently in the celebrations. It is an annual street parade in Singapore, well known for its colourful floats and wide variety of cultural performances.[39] The highlights of the Parade for 2011 include a Fire Party, SONY VGP-BPS18 batterymulti-ethnic performances and an unprecedented travelling dance competition.[40]

Chinese New Year is considered to be the most important festival for Filipino-Chinese in the Philippines. In 2012, SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery it was the first time that Chinese New Year was declared a special non-working holiday throughout the country.

Chinese New Year is also celebrated by Chinese-Indonesians in Indonesia since 1998 when Suharto stepped down. SONY VGP-BPS22A battery In 2003 the Chinese New Year was declared to be a national day.[41]

[edit]Other parts of the world

The Chinese New Year celebrated in Kolkata

Chinese New Year is also celebrated annually in many western cities with significant Chinese populations. SONY Vaio VGC-LB15 batteryAmong the cities with such parades are San Francisco,[42] Los Angeles,[43] New York City, Boston,[44] Wellington,[45] Toronto, and Vancouver.[46] However, even smaller cities that are historically connected to Chinese immigration, such as Butte, Montana, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/B battery [47] have recently hosted parades. Both London[48] and San Francisco[49] claim to host the largest New Year celebration outside of Asia.

With one of the largest Chinese populations outside of Asia, Sydney also claims to have the largest Chinese New Year Celebrations outside of Asia with over 600,000 people attending the celebrations in Chinatown annually. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/P batteryThe events there span over three weeks including the launch celebration, outdoor markets, evening street food stalls, Chinese top opera performances, dragon boat races, a film festival and multiple parades that incorporate Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese performers. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/W battery The festival also attracts international media coverage, reaching millions of viewers in Asia.[50][51] The festival in Sydney is also unique in that it is organised in partnership with a different Chinese province each year.

In Mauritius, home to a long standing Chinese population, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50DB/W batteryChinese New Year is celebrated and is a public holiday although Mauritians of Chinese origin represents only 2-3% of the population.[52]

Many celebrate the festival in Chinatown, Kolkata, India where a significant community of people of Chinese origin exists.

[edit]GreetingsSONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/P battery

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as 吉祥話 (jíxiánghùa) in Mandarin or 吉利說話( Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as auspicious words or phrases. New Year couplets, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/R battery printed in gold letters on bright red paper, are another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), but did not become widespread until then.[53] Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year. SONY Vaio VGC-BJ51B/W battery

Some of the most common greetings include:

simplified Chinese: 新年快乐; traditional Chinese: 新年快樂; Mandarin Pinyin: Xīnniánkuàilè; Jyutping: san1 nin4 faai3 lok6; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sin-nî khòai-lo̍k; Hakka: Sin Ngen Kai Lok; Taishanese: Slin Nen Fai Lok. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51DB/B battery A more contemporary greeting reflective of Western influences, it literally translates from the greeting "Happy new year" more common in the west. But in northern parts of China, traditionally people say simplified Chinese: 过年好; traditional Chinese: 過年好; SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/N battery pinyin: Guònián Hǎo instead of simplified Chinese: 新年快乐; traditional Chinese: 新年快樂 (Xīnniánkuàile), to differentiate it from the international new year. And 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) can be used from the first day to the fifth day of Chinese New Year. However, 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) is considered very short and therefore somewhat discourteous.SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/P battery

Kung Hei Fat Choi at Lee Theatre Plaza, Hong Kong

simplified Chinese: 恭喜发财; traditional Chinese: 恭喜發財; pinyin: Gōngxǐfācái; Hokkien: Keong hee huat chye (POJ: Kiong-hí hoat-châi); Cantonese: Gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4; Hakka: Kung Hii Fatt Choi, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/W battery which loosely translates to "Congratulations and be prosperous". Often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with "Happy New Year", its usage dates back several centuries. While the first two words of this phrase had a much longer historical significance (legend has it that the congratulatory messages were traded for surviving the ravaging beast of Nian, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52DB/B battery in practical terms it may also have meant surviving the harsh winter conditions), the last two words were added later as ideas of capitalism and consumerism became more significant in Chinese societies around the world. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ53B/W batteryThe saying is now commonly heard in English speaking communities for greetings during Chinese New Year in parts of the world where there is a sizable Chinese-speaking community, including overseas Chinese communities that have been resident for several generations, relatively recent immigrants from Greater China, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ54B/W batteryand those who are transit migrants (particularly students).

Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90HS battery one may then say 歲歲平安 (Suìsuì-píng'ān) immediately, which means "everlasting peace year after year". Suì (歲), meaning "age" is homophonous with 碎 (suì) (meaning "shatter"), in demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90S battery 年年有餘 (niánnián yǒu yú), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word yú that can also refer to 魚 (yú meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91HS battery

"招財進寶 (Zhāocáijìnbǎo)" written as a single character is popular during Chinese New Year.

The most common auspicious greetings and sayings consist of four characters, such as the following: SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91S battery

金玉滿堂Jīnyùmǎntáng - "May your wealth [gold and jade] come to fill a hall"

大展鴻圖Dàzhǎnhóngtú - "May you realize your ambitions"

迎春接福Yíngchúnjiēfú - "Greet the New Year and encounter happiness"SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92HS battery

萬事如意Wànshìrúyì - "May all your wishes be fulfilled"

吉慶有餘Jíqìngyǒuyú - "May your happiness be without limit"

竹報平安Zhúbàopíng'ān - "May you hear [in a letter] that all is well"SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92S battery

一本萬利Yīběnwànlì - "May a small investment bring ten-thousandfold profits"

福壽雙全Fúshòushuāngquán - "May your happiness and longevity be complete"

招財進寶Zhāocáijìnbǎo - "When wealth is acquired, precious objects follow"[54] SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94HS battery

These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94S battery in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come.

Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase (Traditional Chinese:恭喜發財,紅包拿來, Simplified Chinese: 恭喜发财，红包拿来) (Pinyin: gōngxǐfācái, hóngbāo nálái) (Cantonese: 恭喜發財,利是逗來)(Usually English written as Kung Hei Fat Choi or Kung Hei Fat Choy) roughly translated as "Congratulations and be prosperous, SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/W battery now give me a red envelope!".　In the Hakka dialect the saying is more commonly said as 'Gung hee fatt choi, fung bao diu loi' which would be written as 恭喜發財,紅包逗來 – a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying. SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery

Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say 恭喜發財,利是逗來,斗零唔愛 (Cantonese, Kung Hei Fat Choy, Lai See Tau Loy, Tau Ling M Oi), which was recorded in the a pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery children in Hong Kong used the saying: 恭喜發財,利是逗來,伍毫嫌少,壹蚊唔愛 (Cantonese), roughly translated as, "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either." It basically meant that they disliked small change – coins which were called "hard substance" (Cantonese: 硬嘢). SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery Instead, they wanted "soft substance" (Cantonese: 軟嘢), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar bill.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other traditions of celebrating lunar new year, see Lunar New Year.

Chinese New Year

Also called      Lunar New Year, Spring FestivalDell Inspiron 710m battery

Observed by  Chinese communities worldwide[1]

Type        Cultural, Religious

(Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian)

Significance   The first day of the Chinese calendar (lunisolar calendar)

2012 date        January 23Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery

2013 date        February 10

Celebrations  Dragon dances/Lion dances, fireworks, family gathering, family meal, visiting friends and relatives (拜年, bàinián), giving red envelopes, decorating with duilian (對聯, duìlián). Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery

Related to       Lantern Festival, which concludes the celebration of the New Year.

Mongol New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Tibetan New Year (Losar), Japanese New Year (Shōgatsu), Korean New Year (Seollal), Vietnamese New Year (Tết)

Chinese New YearDell INSPIRON 9100 battery

Traditional Chinese      農曆新年

Simplified Chinese        农历新年

Literal meaning     Agrarian Calendar New Year

[show]TranscriptionsDell INSPIRON 9200 battery

Spring Festival

Traditional Chinese      春節

Simplified Chinese        春节

[show]Transcriptions

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery

Chinese New Year is the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays. In China, it is known as "Spring Festival," the literal translation of the Chinese name 春節 (Pinyin: Chūnjié), since the spring season in Chinese calendar starts with lichun, Dell Inspiron 9400 battery the first solar term in a Chinese calendar year. It marks the end of the winter season, analogous to the Western Carnival. The festival begins on the first day of the first month (Chinese: 正月; pinyin: Zhēngyuè) in the traditional Chinese calendar and ends with Lantern Festival which is on the 15th day. Dell Inspiron E1505 battery Chinese New Year's Eve, a day where Chinese families gather for their annual reunion dinner, is known as Chúxī (除夕) or "Eve of the Passing Year." Because the Chinese calendar is lunisolar, Dell Inspiron E1705 battery the Chinese New Year is often referred to as the "Lunar New Year".

Chinese New Year is the longest and most important festivity in the Chinese calendar. The origin of Chinese New Year is itself centuries old and gains significance because of several myths and traditions. Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery Chinese New Year is celebrated in countries and territories with significant Chinese populations, such as Mainland China, Hong Kong[2], Macau, Taiwan, Singapore[3], Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius[4], Philippines[5][6], Vietnam, and also in Chinatowns elsewhere.Dell Latitude D400 battery Chinese New Year is considered a major holiday for the Chinese and has had influence on the lunar new year celebrations of its geographic neighbors.

Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Chinese new year vary widely. Dell STUDIO 1450 battery People will pour out their money to buy presents, decoration, material, food, and clothing. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly cleanse the house, in order to sweep away any ill-fortune and to make way for good incoming luck. Dell Vostro 1400 battery Windows and doors will be decorated with red colour paper-cuts and couplets with popular themes of "good fortune" or "happiness", "wealth", and "longevity". On the Eve of Chinese New Year, supper is a feast with families. Food will include such items as pigs, ducks, Dell Vostro 1500 battery chicken and sweet delicacies. The family will end the night with firecrackers. Early the next morning, children will greet their parents by wishing them a healthy and happy new year, and receive money in red paper envelopes. The Chinese New Year tradition is to reconcile, forget all grudges and sincerely wish peace and happiness for everyone. Dell XPS GEN 2 battery

Although the Chinese calendar traditionally does not use continuously numbered years, outside China its years are often numbered from the reign of the Yellow Emperor. But at least three different years numbered 1 are now used by various scholars, making the year beginning in 2012 CE the "Chinese Year" 4710, Dell XPS M1210 battery 4709, or 4649.[7]

London: Chinatown with Chinese New Year decoration

Contents  [hide]

1 Dates

2 Mythology

3 Public holidayDell XPS M1330 battery

4 Festivities

4.1 Preceding days

4.2 First day

4.3 Second day

4.4 Third day

4.5 Fourth day

4.6 Fifth day

4.7 Seventh day

4.8 Eighth day

4.9 Ninth day

4.10 Tenth dayDell XPS 1340 battery

4.11 Eleventh through twelfth day

4.12 Thirteenth day

4.13 Fifteenth day

5 Cuisine

6 Practices

6.1 Red envelopes

6.2 Gift exchange

6.3 Markets

6.4 Fireworks

6.4.1 Firecracker banDell XPS M1530 battery

6.5 Clothing

6.6 Family portrait

6.7 Symbolism

6.8 Nianhua

6.9 Flowers

6.10 Icons and ornaments

6.11 Spring travel

7 Festivities outside China

7.1 OriginsDell XPS M170 battery

7.2 South East Asia

7.3 Other parts of the world

8 Greetings

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

[edit]DatesDell XPS M1710 battery

Main article: Chinese calendar

Animal    Branch    New Year dates

鼠 Shǔ Rat    子 Zǐ       February 19, 1996          February 7, 2008 January 25, 2020牛 Niú Ox      丑 Chǒu February 7, 1997         January 26, 2009 February 12, 2021虎 Hǔ Tiger 寅 Yín    January 28, 1998  February 14, 2010         February 1, 2022兔 Tù Rabbit      卯 Mǎo  February 16, 1999          February 3, 2011   January 22, 2023龍 Lóng Dragon    辰 Chén         February 5, 2000 January 23, 2012  February 10, 2024Dell Latitude E6400 battery

蛇 Shé Snake        巳 Sì       January 24, 2001 February 10, 2013         January 29, 2025

马 Mǎ Horse         午 Wǔ     February 12, 2002        January 31, 2014  February 17, 2026

羊 Yáng Goat         未 Wèi   February 1, 2003  February 19, 2015          February 7, 2027

猴 Hóu Monkey    申 Shēn January 22, 2004 February 8, 2016  January 27, 2028

雞 Jī Rooster       酉 Yǒu    February 9, 2005 January 28, 2017  February 13, 2029Dell XPS M2010 battery

狗 Gǒu Dog   戌 Xū      January 29, 2006 February 16, 2018         February 3, 2030

豬 Zhū Pig    亥 Hài    February 18, 2007         February 5, 2019  January 23, 2031

Chinese New Year eve in Meizhou on February 2, 2011. Dell Latitude E5400 battery

The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Chinese New Year. The calendar is also used in countries that have adopted or have been influenced by Han culture, notably the Koreans, Japanese and Vietnamese, Dell Latitude E5500 battery

and may have a common ancestry with the similar New Year festivals outside East Asia, such as Iran, and historically, the Bulgars lands.[citation needed]

In the Gregorian calendar, Chinese New Year falls on different dates each year, a date between January 21 and February 20. In the Chinese calendar, Dell XPS M1730 battery

winter solstice must occur in the 11th month, which means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In traditional Chinese Culture, lichun is a solar term marking the start of spring, which occurs about February 4. Dell Latitude E6500 battery

The dates for Chinese New Year from 1996 to 2031 (in the Gregorian calendar) are at the left, along with the year's presiding animal zodiac and its earthly branch. The names of the earthly branches have no English counterparts and are not the Chinese translations of the animals. Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery Alongside the 12-year cycle of the animal zodiac there is a 10-year cycle of heavenly stems. Each of the ten heavenly stems is associated with one of the five elements of Chinese astrology, namely: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The elements are rotated every two years while a yin and yang association alternates every year.Dell XPS M140 battery The elements are thus distinguished: Yang Wood, Yin Wood, Yang Fire, Yin Fire, etc. These produce a combined cycle that repeats every 60 years. For example, the year of the Yang Fire Rat occurred in 1936 and in 1996, 60 years apart.[8]

Many confuse their Chinese birth-year with their Gregorian birth-year. Dell XPS 13 batteryAs the Chinese New Year starts in late January to mid-February, the Chinese year dates from January 1 until that day in the new Gregorian year remain unchanged from the previous Gregorian year. For example, the 1989 year of the snake began on February 6, 1989. Dell XPS 16 batteryThe year 1990 is considered by some people to be the year of the horse. However, the 1989 year of the snake officially ended on January 26, 1990. This means that anyone born from January 1 to January 25, 1990 was actually born in the year of the snake rather than the year of the horse. Dell XPS 1640 battery Many online Chinese Sign calculators do not account for the non-alignment of the two calendars, using Gregorian-calendar years rather than official Chinese New Year dates.

One scheme of continuously numbered Chinese-calendar years assigns 4708 to the year beginning February 3, 2011, Dell XPS 1645 battery but this is not universally accepted; the calendar is traditionally cyclical, not continuously numbered.

[edit]Mythology

Hand-painted Chinese New Year's poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, Lijiang, YunnanDell XPS 1647 battery

According to tales and legends, the beginning of Chinese New Year started with the fight against a mythical beast called the Nian (Chinese: 年; pinyin: Nián). Nian would come on the first day of New Year to eat livestock, crops, and even villagers, especially children. To protect themselvesDell Latitude 131L battery, the villagers would put food in front of their doors at the beginning of every year. It was believed that after the Nian ate the food they prepared, it wouldn’t attack any more people. One time, people saw that the Nian was scared away by a little child wearing red. The villagers then understood that the Nian was afraid of the color red. Hence, Dell Latitude C400 batteryevery time when the New Year was about to come, the villagers would hang red lanterns and red spring scrolls on windows and doors. People also used firecrackers to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. Dell Latitude C500 batteryThe Nian became Hongjun Laozu's mount.[9]

[edit]Public holiday

Chinese New Year is observed as a public holiday in a number of countries and territories where a sizable Chinese population resides. Since Chinese New Year falls on different dates on the Gregorian calendar every year on different days of the week, Dell Latitude C510 batterysome of these governments opt to shift working days in order to accommodate a longer public holiday. Also like many other countries in the world, a statutory holiday is added on the following work day when the New Year falls on a weekend.

Region    DescriptionDell Latitude C540 battery

Mainland China     New Year's Eve and the first two days. (Usually, the Saturday before and the Sunday after Chinese New Year are declared working days, and the 2 additionally gained holidays are added to the official 3 days of holiday, so that people have 7 consecutive days, including weekends, off.) Dell Latitude C600 battery

In Mauritius, the Chinese New Year is celebrated at National level. All Mauritius from all faith and backgrounds enjoy the great Spring Festival celebrations. Mauritians enjoy the Dragon foung Paow alondside the famous 'gato lacire'. Dell Latitude C610 battery

Hong Kong and Macau         The first three days. If one of the first three days is on a Sunday, Chinese New Year's Eve is celebrated as a public holiday. In the year 2010, the first day (February 14) is a Sunday and Chinese New Year's Eve (February 13) is consequently a public holiday. Dell Latitude C640 battery

Taiwan    The New Year's Eve and the first three days.

Christmas Island, Malaysia and Singapore       The first two days. If one of the days falls on a Sunday, the holiday is extended to three days. In 2010, the first day (February 14) is on a Sunday so celebration of the holiday is extended through Tuesday (February 16). Dell Latitude C800 batteryChinese New Year's Eve is usually a half-day holiday in Singapore.

Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines       The first day. If Sunday, it will be moved to Monday. If Friday (in Brunei), it will be moved to Saturday.

Other       A few countries around the world regularly issue postage stamps and numismatic coins to commemorate Chinese New Year. Dell Latitude C810 battery Although Chinese New Year is not institutionalized as public holiday, these countries recognize the significant number of their citizens who are of Chinese origin. The countries and territories that sometimes do so include Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, the United States, Argentina, and other countries. Dell Latitude C840 battery

[edit]Festivities

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) Dell Latitude CPI battery

“     Red couplets and red lanterns are displayed on the door frames and light up the atmosphere. The air is filled with strong Chinese emotions. In stores in Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, and other cities, products of traditional Chinese style have started to lead fashion trend[s]. Buy yourself a Chinese-style coat, get your kids tiger-head hats and shoes, Dell Latitude CPX battery and decorate your home with some beautiful red Chinese knots, then you will have an authentic Chinese-style Spring Festival.     ”

—Xinwen Lianbo, January 2001, quoted by Li Ren, Imagining China in the Era of Global Consumerism and Local Consciousness[10] Dell Latitude D410 battery

[edit]Preceding days

On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, a traditional porridge known as làbāzhōu (臘八粥) is served in remembrance "of an ancient festival, called Là, that occurred shortly after the winter solstice"[11]. Dell Latitude D420 batteryLàyuè (臘月) is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as làròu (臘肉). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Dell Latitude D430 batteryEvery member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends.[12] It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes.

On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their home a thorough cleaning. Dell Latitude D500 battery There is a Cantonese saying "Wash away the dirt on ninyabaat" (年廿八，洗邋遢), but the practice is not restricted to nin'ya'baat (年廿八, the 28th day of month 12). It is believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready for good luck. Dell Latitude D505 battery Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good luck cannot be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window-frames a new coat of red paint; decorators and paper-hangers do a year-end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year[13]. Dell Latitude D510 battery Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing new clothing, shoes, and receiving a hair-cut also symbolize a fresh start. Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts outstanding for the year before the new year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Dell Latitude D520 batteryThus it is a common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members.

In many households where Buddhism or Taoism is prevalent, home altars and statues are cleaned thoroughly, and altars that were adorned with decorations from the previous year are taken down and burned a week before the new year starts, Dell Latitude D600 battery to be replaced with new decorations. Taoists (and Buddhists to a lesser extent) will also "send gods" (送神, sòngshén), an example would be burning a paper effigy of Zao Jun the Kitchen God, the recorder of family functions. Dell Latitude D610 battery This is done so that the Kitchen God can report to the Jade Emperor of the family household's transgressions and good deeds. Families often offer sweet foods (such as candy) in order to "bribe" the deities into reporting good things about the familyDell Latitude D620 battery.

Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a thanksgiving prayer offering to mark the safe passage of the previous year is held. Confusionists take the opportunity to remember the ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Dell Latitude D630 battery

The biggest event of any Chinese New Year's Eve is the Reunion Dinner. A dish consisting of fish will appear on the tables of Chinese families. It is for display for the New Year's Eve dinner. This meal is comparable to Christmas dinner in the West. Dell Latitude D800 battery In northern China, it is customary to make dumplings (jiaozi, 餃子, jiǎozi) after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese tael. By contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao, 年糕, niángāo) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days of the new year. Dell Latitude D810 battery Niángāo [Pinyin] literally means "new year cake" with a homophonous meaning of "increasingly prosperous year in year out".[14] After dinner, some families go to local temples hours before the new year begins to pray for a prosperous new year by lighting the first incense of the year; Dell Latitude D820 battery however in modern practice, many households hold parties and even hold a countdown to the new year. Traditionally, firecrackers were once lit to scare away evil spirits with the household doors sealed, not to be reopened until the new morning in a ritual called "opening the door of fortune" (kāicáimén, 開財門) Dell Latitude D830 battery.[15] Beginning in 1982, the CCTV New Year's Gala was broadcast four hours before the start of the New Year.

[edit]First day

The first day is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and earth, officially beginning at midnightDell Latitude 2100 battery. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers and to make as much of a din as possible to chase off the evil spirits as encapsulated by nian (年) of which the term guo-nian (过年) was derived. Many people, especially Buddhists, Dell Latitude 2110 battery abstain from meat consumption on the first day because it is believed that this will ensure longevity for them. Some consider lighting fires and using knives to be bad luck on New Year's Day, so all food to be consumed is cooked the days before. On this day, Dell Latitude E4300 batteryit is considered bad luck to use the broom.

Most importantly, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time to honor one's elders and families visit the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents. Dell Vostro 1310 battery

For Buddhists, the first day is also the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (better known as the more familiar Budai Luohan), the Buddha-to-be. People also abstain from killing animals.

Some families may invite a lion dance troupe as a symbolic ritual to usher in the Chinese New Year as well as to evict bad spirits from the premises. Dell Vostro 1320 battery Members of the family who are married also give red packets containing cash known as lai see or angpow, a form of blessings and to suppress the aging and challenges associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, Dell Vostro 1510 batterymostly children and teenagers. Business managers also give bonuses through red packets to employees for good luck, smooth-sailing, good health and wealth.

While fireworks and firecrackers are traditionally very popular, some regions have banned them due to concerns over fire hazards. For this reason, Dell Vostro 1520 battery various city governments (e.g., Hong Kong, and Beijing, for a number of years) issued bans over fireworks and firecrackers in certain precints of the city. As a substitute, large-scale fireworks display have been launched by governments in such cities as Hong Kong and Singapore. Dell Vostro 2510 battery

[edit]Second day

Incense is burned at the graves of ancestors as part of the offering and prayer ritual.

The second day of the Chinese New Year, known as kāinián (开年, "beginning of the year")[16], Dell Vostro 1014 battery was when married daughters visited their birth parents, relatives and close friends. (Traditionally, married daughters didn't have the opportunity to visit their birth families frequently.)

During the days of imperial China, "beggars and other unemployed people circulate[d] from family to family, Dell Inspiron 1410 battery carrying a picture [of the God of Wealth] shouting, "Cai Shen dao!" [The God of Wealth has come!]."[17] Householders would respond with "lucky money" to reward the messengers. Dell Vostro 1014N battery Business people of the Cantonese dialect group will hold a 'Hoi Nin' prayer to start their business on the 2nd day of Chinese New Year so they will be blessed with good luck and prosperity in their business for the year. Dell Vostro 1015 battery

Some believe that the second day is also the birthday of all dogs and remember them with special treats.

[edit]Third day

The third day is known as Chìkǒu (赤口), directly translated as "red mouth". Chìkǒu is also called Chìgǒurì (赤狗日). Dell Vostro 1015N battery Chìgǒu means "the God of Blazing Wrath" (熛怒之神). Rural villagers continue with the tradition of offering prayers beside open burning rubbish dump, whereby waste and rubbish are incinerated together with offerings. It is generally accepted that it is not a good day to socialize or visit your relatives and friends.[18][19]. Dell Inspiron 1088 battery Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home.[20] This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one's future told.

[edit]Fourth dayDell Inspiron 1088N battery

In those communities that celebrate Chinese New Year for only two or three days, the fourth day is when corporate "spring dinners" kick off and business returns to normal.

[edit]Fifth day

This day is the God of Wealth's birthday. Dell Vostro A840 battery In northern Mainland China, people eat jiǎozi (simplified Chinese: 饺子; traditional Chinese: 餃子), or dumplings on the morning of Pòwǔ (破五). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers. Dell Vostro A860 battery

It is also common in China that on the 5th day people will shoot off firecrackers in the attempt to get Guan Yu's attention, thus ensuring his favor and good fortune for the new year.[citation needed]

[edit]Seventh dayDell Vostro A860N battery

The seventh day, traditionally known as Rénrì (人日, the common man's birthday), the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity. Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery

For many Chinese Buddhists, this is another day to avoid meat, the seventh day commemorating the birth of Sakra, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology who is analogous to the Jade Emperor.

Chinese New Year's celebrations, Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 N450 batteryon the eighth day, in the Vancouver suburb of Richmond, British Columbia, Canada.

[edit]Eighth day

Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor. However, everybody should be back to work by the eighth day. SONY PCGA-BP1N battery All government agencies and business will stop celebrating by the eighth day. Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year.

[edit]Ninth daySONY PCG-5G2L battery

The ninth day of the New Year is a day for Chinese to offer prayers to the Jade Emperor of Heaven (天公, Tiāngōng) in the Daoist Pantheon. The ninth day is traditionally the birthday of the Jade Emperor. This day is especially important to Hokkiens. Come midnight of the eighth day of the new year, SONY PCG-5G3L battery Hokkiens will offer thanks giving prayers to the Emperor of Heaven. Offerings will include sugarcane as it was the sugarcane that had protected the Hokkiens from certain extermination generations ago. Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, SONY PCG-F305 battery and gold paper is served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person.

[edit]Tenth day

The Jade Emperor's party is also celebrated on this day.

[edit]Eleventh through twelfth daySONY PCG-5J1L battery

Nothing of extreme significance traditionally takes place during the eleventh and twelfth days.

[edit]Thirteenth day

On the 13th day people will eat pure vegetarian food to clean out their stomach due to consuming too much food over the last two weeks. SONY PCG-5J2L battery

This day is dedicated to the General Guan Yu, also known as the Chinese God of War. Guan Yu was born in the Han dynasty and is considered the greatest general in Chinese history. He represents loyalty, strength, truth, and justice. According to history, he was tricked by the enemy and was beheaded. SONY PCG-5K2L battery

Almost every organization and business in China will pray to Guan Yu on this day. Before his life ended, Guan Yu had won over one hundred battles and that is a goal that all businesses in China want to accomplish. In a way, people look at him as the God of Wealth or the God of Success. SONY PCG-5L1L battery

[edit]Fifteenth day

The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as Yuanxiao Festival/Yuánxiāojié (元宵节), aka Shangyuan Festival/Shàngyuánjié (上元节) or the Lantern Festival (otherwise known as Chap Goh Mei Chinese: 十五暝; SONY PCG-6S2L battery pinyin: Shíwǔmíng; literally "the fifteen night" in Fujian dialect). Rice dumplings tangyuan (simplified Chinese: 汤圆; traditional Chinese: 湯圓; pinyin: tāngyuán), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. This day is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, SONY PCG-6S3L battery and families walk the street carrying lighted lanterns.

In Malaysia and Singapore, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking for a love partner, a different version of Valentine's Day.[21] Normally, single women would write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw it in a river or a lake while single men would collect them and eat the oranges. SONY PCG-6V1L battery The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate.

This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities.

[edit]Cuisine

Niangao, Chinese New Year cake

A reunion dinner is held on New Year's Eve where members of the family gather for the celebration. SONY PCG-6W1L battery The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. SONY PCG-7111L batteryMost reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature speciality meats (eg. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (eg. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. SONY PCG-71511M battery In most areas, fish (simplified Chinese: 鱼; traditional Chinese: 魚; pinyin: yú) is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year" (simplified Chinese: 年年有余; traditional Chinese: 年年有餘; pinyin: niánnián yǒu yú) sounds the same as "let there be fish every year." SONY PCG-6W3L battery

In mainland China, many families will banter whilst watching the CCTV New Year's Gala in the hours before midnight.

Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets often contain money in certain numbers that reflect good luck and honorability. SONY PCG-7113L battery Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things.

Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also has similar sounding names with prosperity, SONY PCG-7133L battery good luck, or even counting money.

Food items

Name      Description

Buddha's delight

(simplified Chinese: 罗汉斋; traditional Chinese: 羅漢齋; pinyin: luóhànzhāi)          An elaborate vegetarian dish served by Chinese families on the eve and the first day of the New Year. SONY PCG-7Z1L battery A type of black hair-like algae, pronounced "fat choy" in Cantonese, is also featured in the dish for its name, which sounds like "prosperity". Hakkas usually serve kiu nyuk (Chinese: 扣肉; pinyin: kòuròu) and ngiong teu fu.

Fish Is usually eaten or merely displayed on the eve of Chinese New Year. SONY PCG-7Z2L battery The pronunciation of fish (魚yú) makes it a homophone for "surpluses"(餘yú).

Leek         Is usually served in a dish with rondelles of Chinese sausage or waxed meat during Chinese New Year. The pronunciation of leek (蒜苗/大蒜Suàn miáo/Dà suàn) makes it a homophone for "calculating (money)" (算Suàn). SONY PCG-8Y1L battery The waxed meat is so chosen because it is traditionally the primary method for storing meat over the winter and the meat rondelles resemble coins.

Jau gok (Chinese: 油角; pinyin: yóujiăo) The main Chinese new year dumpling. It is believed to resemble ancient Chinese gold ingots (simplified Chinese: 金元宝; traditional Chinese: 金元寶; pinyin: jīnyuánbǎo) SONY PCG-8Y2L battery

jiaozi (dumplings) (Chinese: 餃子)    Eaten traditionally in northern China because the preparation is similar to packaging luck inside the dumpling, which is later eaten. The dumpling resembles a silver ingot, or money. The symbolism is prosperity. SONY PCG-8Z2L battery

Mandarin oranges         Mandarin oranges are the most popular and most abundant fruit during Chinese New Year – jin ju (Chinese: 金橘子; pinyin: jīnjúzi) translation: golden tangerine/orange or kam (Chinese: 柑; pinyin: gān) in Cantonese. Also, the name gik (橘 jú) in Teochew dialect is a homophone of "luck" or "fortune" (吉 jí).[22] SONY PCG-8Z1L battery

Melon seed/Kwatji

(Chinese: 瓜子; pinyin: guāzi)    Other variations include sunflower, pumpkin and other seeds. It symbolizes fertility and having many children.

Niángāo (Chinese: 年糕)     Most popular in eastern China (Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai) because its pronunciation is a homophone for "a more prosperous year (年高 lit. year high)". SONY PCG-7112L battery Nian gao is also popular in the Philippines because of its large Chinese population and is known as "tikoy" (Chinese: 甜粿, from Min Nan) there. Known as Chinese New Year pudding, nian gao is made up of glutinous rice flour, wheat starch, salt, water, and sugar. SONY PCG-6W2L battery The colour of the sugar used determines the colour of the pudding (white or brown).

Noodles Families may serve uncut noodles, which represent longevity and long life, though this practice is not limited to the new year. SONY PCG-5K1L battery

Sweets    Sweets and similar dried fruit goods are stored in a red or black Chinese candy box.

Bakkwa

(Chinese: 肉干; pinyin: ròugān) Chinese salty-sweet dried meat, akin to jerky, which is trimmed of the fat, sliced, marinated and then smoked for later consumption or as a gift. SONY PCGA-BP1U battery

Taro cakes (Chinese: 芋頭糕, yùtougāo)  Made from the vegetable taro, the cakes are cut into squares and often fried.

Turnip cakes (Chinese: 蘿蔔糕, luóbogāo)       A dish made of shredded radish and rice flour, usually fried and cut into small squares. SONY PCGA-BP2E battery

Yusheng or Yee sang (simplified Chinese: 鱼生; traditional Chinese: 魚生; pinyin: yúshēng)         Raw fish salad. Eating this salad is said to bring good luck. This dish is usually eaten on the seventh day of the New Year, but may also be eaten throughout the period. SONY PCGA-BP2EA battery

[edit]Practices

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) SONY PCGA-BP2NX battery

[edit]Red envelopes

Red packets for sale in a market in Taipei, Taiwan, before the Year of the Rat

Shoppers at a New Year market in Chinatown, Singapore

Traditionally, Red envelopes or red packets (Cantonese: lai sze or lai see) (利是, 利市 or 利事; Pinyin: lìshì); SONY PCGA-BP2NY battery (Mandarin: 'hóngbāo' (红包); Hokkien: 'ang pow' (POJ: âng-pau); Hakka: 'fung bao'; are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors. It is also common for adults or young couples to give red packets to children. SONY PCGA-BP2V battery

Red packets are also known as 壓歲錢/压岁钱 (yàsuìqián, which was evolved from 壓祟錢/压祟钱, literally, the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit) during this period.[23]

Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundredSONY PCGA-BP3T battery. Per custom, the amount of money in the red packets should be of even numbers, as odd numbers are associated with cash given during funerals (帛金: báijīn). The number 8 is considered lucky (for its homophone for "wealth"), and $8 is commonly found in the red envelopes in the US. SONY PCGA-BP4V batteryThe number six (六, liù) is also very lucky as it sounds like 'smooth' (流, liú), in the sense of having a smooth year. Sometimes chocolate coins are found in the red packets.

Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for example, are odd numbers, and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, SONY PCGA-BP51 battery it is common and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note – with ten or fifty yuan bills used frequently.

The act of requesting for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): 讨紅包 tǎo-hóngbāo, SONY PCGA-BP51A battery要利是. (Cantonese): 逗利是. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be "out of luck" in the new year.

In Taiwan in 2000s, sometimes some employers also give red packets as bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, SONY PCGA-BP52 battery though whether this is appropriate is controversial.[24]

The Japanese have a similar tradition of giving money during the New Year called Otoshidama.

[edit]Gift exchangeSONY PCGA-BP52A battery

In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from elder to younger, small gifts (usually of food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. SONY PCGA-BP71 battery Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, and never pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, candies, or some other small gift.[25]

[edit]Markets

Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. SONY PCGA-BP71A battery These usually open-air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decoration. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree. SONY VGP-BPL1 battery

Hong Kong filmmakers also release Hèsuè (賀歲) films in this time of the year.

[edit]Fireworks

A Chinese man setting off fireworks during Chinese New Year in Shanghai.

Bamboo stems filled with gunpowder that were burnt to create small explosions were once used in ancient China to drive away evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPL2 batteryIn modern times, this method has eventually evolved into the use of firecrackers during the festive season. Firecrackers are usually strung on a long fused string so it can be hung down. Each firecracker is rolled up in red papersSONY VGP-BPL4 battery, as red is auspicious, with gunpowder in its core. Once ignited, the firecracker lets out a loud popping noise and, as they are usually strung together by the hundreds, the firecrackers are known for their deafening explosions that are thought to scare away evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPL5A battery See also Myths above. The burning of firecrackers also signifies a joyful time of year and has become an integral aspect of Chinese New Year celebrations.[26]

[edit]Firecracker ban

The use of firecrackers, although a traditional part of celebration, has over the years led to many unfortunate outcomesSONY VGP-BPS2 battery. There have been reported incidents every year of users of fireworks being blinded, losing body parts, or suffering other grievous injuries, especially during the Chinese New Year season. Hence, many governments and authorities eventually enacted laws completely banning the use of firecrackers privately, SONY VGP-BPS3 battery primarily because of safety issues.

Taiwan – Beginning 2008, firecrackers are banned in urban areas, but still allowed in rural areas.

Mainland China – As of 2008, most urban areas in mainland China permit firecrackers. In the first three days of the traditional New Year, SONY VGP-BPS4 battery it is a tradition that people compete with each other by playing with firecrackers. However, many urban areas banned them in the 1990s. For example, they were banned in Beijing's urban districts from 1993 to 2005SONY VGP-BPS5 battery.[27] In 2004, 37 people were killed in a stampede when four million[28] people gathered for a rumoured Lantern Festival firework display in nearby Miyun.[29] Since the ban was lifted, the firecracker barrage has been tremendous. In Beijing, SONY VGP-BPS5A battery firecrackers are typically not allowed inside the 5th ring road. But this is overlooked by authorities for the holiday, provided there are no government buildings nearby; some residents in major cities look down on street-level fireworks from their tower blocksSONY VGP-BPS8 battery Bans are rare in rural areas.

Vietnam – 1996, fireworks were banned across the country because of its dangers.

Hong Kong – Fireworks are banned for security reasons – some speculate a connection between firework use and the 1967 Leftist Riot. However, SONY VGP-BPS8A battery the government would put on a fireworks display in Victoria Harbour on the second day of the Chinese New Year for the public. Similar displays are also held in many other cities in and outside China.

Singapore – a partial ban on firecrackers was imposed in March 1970 after a fire killed six people and injured 68. SONY VGP-BPL8 battery [30] This was extended to a total ban in August 1972, after an explosion that killed two people[31] and an attack on two police officers attempting to stop a group from letting off firecrackers in February 1972.[32] However, in 2003, the government allowed firecrackers to be set off during the festive season. SONY VGP-BPS9 battery At the Chinese New Year light-up in Chinatown, at the stroke of midnight on the first day of the Chinese New Year, firecrackers are set off under controlled conditions by the Singapore Tourism Board with assistance from demolition experts from the Singapore Armed ForcesSONY VGP-BPS9/S battery. Other occasions where firecrackers are allowed to be set off are determined by the tourism board or other government organizations. However, they are not allowed to be commercially sold.

Malaysia – firecrackers are banned for the similar reasons as in Singapore. However, many Malaysians manage to smuggle them from Thailand to meet their private needs. SONY VGP-BPS9A battery

Indonesia – Firecrackers and fireworks are forbidden in public during the Chinese New Year, especially in areas with significant non-Chinese population in order to avoid any conflict between the two. SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery However, there were some exceptions. The usage of firecrackers is legal in some metropolitan areas such as Jakarta and Medan, where the degree of racial and cultural tolerance is higher.

United States – In 2007, New York City lifted its decade-old ban on firecrackers, allowing a display of 300,000 firecrackers to be set off in Chinatown's Chatham Square. SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery [33] Under the supervision of the fire and police departments, Los Angeles regularly lights firecrackers every New Year's Eve, mostly at temples and the shrines of benevolent associations. The San Francisco Chinese New Year Parade, the largest outside China, is accompanied by numerous firecrackers, both officially sanctioned and illicit. SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery

Australia – Australia, with the exception of the Northern Territory, does not permit the use of fireworks at all, except when used by a licensed pyrotechnician. These rules also require a permit to be sought from local government, SONY VGP-BPL9 battery as well as any relevant local bodies such as maritime or aviation authorities (as relevant to the types of fireworks being used) and hospitals, schools, etc., within a certain range.

Philippines - Despite the rise in firecracker-related injuries in 2009, SONY VGP-BPS10 battery the Department of Health has acknowledged that a total ban on firecrackers in the country will be hard to implement. Davao City, the first city in the country to impose a firecracker ban, has enjoyed injury-free celebrations for at least the last ten years. Their ban has been in effect since 2002. SONY VGP-BPL10 battery

[edit]Clothing

Clothing mainly featuring the color red or bright colors is commonly worn throughout the Chinese New Year because it was once believed that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. SONY VGP-BPS11 battery In addition, people typically wear new clothes from head to toe to symbolize a new beginning in the new year. Wearing new clothes also symbolizes having more than enough things to use and wear in the new year.

[edit]Family portrait

Taking family portrait is an important ceremony after the relatives are gathered. SONY VGP-BPL11 battery The photo is taken at the hall of the house or taken in front of the house. The most senior male head of the family sits in the center.

[edit]Symbolism

See also: Fu character

An inverted character "福 (fú)" is a sign of arriving blessings. SONY VGP-BPL12 battery

As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped fú characters (Chinese: 福, Cantonese and Hakka: Fook, literally "blessings, happiness"), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. SONY VGP-BPS12 battery This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word 倒 (dào) "upside down", is homophonous or nearly homophonous with 到 (dào) "arrive" in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity. SONY VGP-BPS13 battery

Red is the predominant colour used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this colour also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are coloured red. The sound of the Chinese word for “red” ( 紅, hóng) is “hong” in Mandarin (Hakka: Fung; Cantonese: Hoong) which also means “prosperous.” Therefore, red is an auspicious colour and has an auspicious sound. SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery

[edit]Nianhua

Chinese New Year festival in Chinatown, Boston

Nianhua can be a form of Chinese coloured woodblock printing, for decoration during Chinese New Year.[34]

[edit]FlowersSONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery

The following are popular floral decorations for the New Year and are available at new year markets.

Floral Decor  Meaning

Plum Blossom        symbolizes luckyness

Kumquat         symbolizes prosperitySONY VGP-BPS13/B battery

Narcissus        symbolizes prosperity

Bamboo a plant used for any time of year

Sunflower       means to have a good yearSONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery

Eggplant          a plant to heal all of your sickness

Chom Mon Plant  a plant which gives you tranquility

[edit]Icons and ornaments

Icons        Meaning IllustrationsSONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery

Lanterns          These lanterns differ from those of Mid Autumn Festival in general. They will be red in colour and tend to be oval in shape. These are the traditional Chinese paper lanterns. Those lanterns, used on the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year for the Lantern Festival, are bright, colourful, and in many different sizes and shapes. SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery

Decorations   Decorations generally convey a New Year greeting. They are not advertisements. Chinese calligraphy posters show Chinese idioms. Other decorations include a New year picture, Chinese knots, and papercutting and couplets. SONY VGP-BPS21B battery

Dragon dance and Lion dance     Dragon and lion dances are common during Chinese New Year. It is believed that the loud beats of the drum and the deafening sounds of the cymbals together with the face of the dragon or lion dancing aggressively can evict bad or evil spirits. SONY VGP-BPS21 battery Lion dances are also popular for opening of businesses in Hong Kong and Macau.

Fortune gods Cai Shen Ye, Che Kung,etc.

[edit]Spring travel

Scene of the 2009 Chunyun period inside Beijing West Railway Station

Main article: ChunyunSONY VGP-BPS21/S battery

Traditionally, families gather during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year's Eve. Owing to the large number of interprovincial travellers, SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year's Day. This 40-day period is called "chunyun" (simplified Chinese: 春运; traditional Chinese: 春運; pinyin: chūnyùn; literally "transportation during Spring Festival"),SONY VGP-BPS13S battery known as the world's largest annual migration.[35] More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China.

In Taiwan, spring travel is also a major event. The majority of transportation in western Taiwan is north-south direction long distance travel between urbanized north and hometowns in rural south. SONY VGP-BPS13B/S batteryTransportations in eastern Taiwan and that between Taiwan and islands are less convenient. Cross-strait flights between Taiwan and mainland China begin in 2003 as part of Three Links, mostly for "Taiwanese businessmen" to return to Taiwan for new year.[36] SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery

[edit]Festivities outside China

Lion costume for New Year parade, Los Angeles, 1953

[edit]Origins

In 1849, SONY VGP-BPS14 battery with the discovery of gold and the ensuing California Gold Rush, over 50,000 people had come to San Francisco to seek their fortune or just a better way of life. Among those were many Chinese, who had come to work in the gold mines and on the railroad. By the 1860s, SONY VGP-BPL14 batterythe residents of San Francisco's Chinatown were eager to share their culture with their fellow San Francisco residents who may have been unfamiliar with (or hostile towards) it. The organizers chose to showcase their culture by using a favorite American tradition – the parade. SONY VGP-BPS14/B batteryNothing like it had ever been done in their native China.[citation needed] They invited a variety of other groups from the city to participate, and they marched down what today are Grant Avenue and Kearny Street carrying colourful flags, banners, lanterns,SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery and drums and firecrackers to drive away evil spirits. The current San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade traces its lineage back to those early parades, and still incorporates Grant and Kearny Streets into its street festival and parade route, respectively.

[edit]South East AsiaSONY VGP-BPS14B battery

2012 Year of the Dragon stamps issued in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

In Southeast Asia, Chinese New Year is a public holiday and considered to be one of the most important holidays of the year. The biggest celebrations take place in Malaysia (notably in Penang and Klang) and Singapore.[37] SONY VGP-BPS22 battery

Chinese New Year in Singapore is accompanied by various festive activities. One of the main highlights is the Chinatown celebrations. In 2010, this included a Festive Street Bazaar, nightly staged shows at Kreta Ayer Square and a lion dance competition. SONY VGP-BPS22 battery [38] The Chingay Parade also features prominently in the celebrations. It is an annual street parade in Singapore, well known for its colourful floats and wide variety of cultural performances.[39] The highlights of the Parade for 2011 include a Fire Party, SONY VGP-BPS18 batterymulti-ethnic performances and an unprecedented travelling dance competition.[40]

Chinese New Year is considered to be the most important festival for Filipino-Chinese in the Philippines. In 2012, SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery it was the first time that Chinese New Year was declared a special non-working holiday throughout the country.

Chinese New Year is also celebrated by Chinese-Indonesians in Indonesia since 1998 when Suharto stepped down. SONY VGP-BPS22A battery In 2003 the Chinese New Year was declared to be a national day.[41]

[edit]Other parts of the world

The Chinese New Year celebrated in Kolkata

Chinese New Year is also celebrated annually in many western cities with significant Chinese populations. SONY Vaio VGC-LB15 batteryAmong the cities with such parades are San Francisco,[42] Los Angeles,[43] New York City, Boston,[44] Wellington,[45] Toronto, and Vancouver.[46] However, even smaller cities that are historically connected to Chinese immigration, such as Butte, Montana, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/B battery [47] have recently hosted parades. Both London[48] and San Francisco[49] claim to host the largest New Year celebration outside of Asia.

With one of the largest Chinese populations outside of Asia, Sydney also claims to have the largest Chinese New Year Celebrations outside of Asia with over 600,000 people attending the celebrations in Chinatown annually. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/P batteryThe events there span over three weeks including the launch celebration, outdoor markets, evening street food stalls, Chinese top opera performances, dragon boat races, a film festival and multiple parades that incorporate Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese performers. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/W battery The festival also attracts international media coverage, reaching millions of viewers in Asia.[50][51] The festival in Sydney is also unique in that it is organised in partnership with a different Chinese province each year.

In Mauritius, home to a long standing Chinese population, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50DB/W batteryChinese New Year is celebrated and is a public holiday although Mauritians of Chinese origin represents only 2-3% of the population.[52]

Many celebrate the festival in Chinatown, Kolkata, India where a significant community of people of Chinese origin exists.

[edit]GreetingsSONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/P battery

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as 吉祥話 (jíxiánghùa) in Mandarin or 吉利說話( Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as auspicious words or phrases. New Year couplets, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/R battery printed in gold letters on bright red paper, are another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), but did not become widespread until then.[53] Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year. SONY Vaio VGC-BJ51B/W battery

Some of the most common greetings include:

simplified Chinese: 新年快乐; traditional Chinese: 新年快樂; Mandarin Pinyin: Xīnniánkuàilè; Jyutping: san1 nin4 faai3 lok6; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sin-nî khòai-lo̍k; Hakka: Sin Ngen Kai Lok; Taishanese: Slin Nen Fai Lok. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51DB/B battery A more contemporary greeting reflective of Western influences, it literally translates from the greeting "Happy new year" more common in the west. But in northern parts of China, traditionally people say simplified Chinese: 过年好; traditional Chinese: 過年好; SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/N battery pinyin: Guònián Hǎo instead of simplified Chinese: 新年快乐; traditional Chinese: 新年快樂 (Xīnniánkuàile), to differentiate it from the international new year. And 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) can be used from the first day to the fifth day of Chinese New Year. However, 過年好 (Guònián Hǎo) is considered very short and therefore somewhat discourteous.SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/P battery

Kung Hei Fat Choi at Lee Theatre Plaza, Hong Kong

simplified Chinese: 恭喜发财; traditional Chinese: 恭喜發財; pinyin: Gōngxǐfācái; Hokkien: Keong hee huat chye (POJ: Kiong-hí hoat-châi); Cantonese: Gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4; Hakka: Kung Hii Fatt Choi, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/W battery which loosely translates to "Congratulations and be prosperous". Often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with "Happy New Year", its usage dates back several centuries. While the first two words of this phrase had a much longer historical significance (legend has it that the congratulatory messages were traded for surviving the ravaging beast of Nian, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52DB/B battery in practical terms it may also have meant surviving the harsh winter conditions), the last two words were added later as ideas of capitalism and consumerism became more significant in Chinese societies around the world. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ53B/W batteryThe saying is now commonly heard in English speaking communities for greetings during Chinese New Year in parts of the world where there is a sizable Chinese-speaking community, including overseas Chinese communities that have been resident for several generations, relatively recent immigrants from Greater China, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ54B/W batteryand those who are transit migrants (particularly students).

Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90HS battery one may then say 歲歲平安 (Suìsuì-píng'ān) immediately, which means "everlasting peace year after year". Suì (歲), meaning "age" is homophonous with 碎 (suì) (meaning "shatter"), in demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90S battery 年年有餘 (niánnián yǒu yú), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word yú that can also refer to 魚 (yú meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts. SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91HS battery

"招財進寶 (Zhāocáijìnbǎo)" written as a single character is popular during Chinese New Year.

The most common auspicious greetings and sayings consist of four characters, such as the following: SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91S battery

金玉滿堂Jīnyùmǎntáng - "May your wealth [gold and jade] come to fill a hall"

大展鴻圖Dàzhǎnhóngtú - "May you realize your ambitions"

迎春接福Yíngchúnjiēfú - "Greet the New Year and encounter happiness"SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92HS battery

萬事如意Wànshìrúyì - "May all your wishes be fulfilled"

吉慶有餘Jíqìngyǒuyú - "May your happiness be without limit"

竹報平安Zhúbàopíng'ān - "May you hear [in a letter] that all is well"SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92S battery

一本萬利Yīběnwànlì - "May a small investment bring ten-thousandfold profits"

福壽雙全Fúshòushuāngquán - "May your happiness and longevity be complete"

招財進寶Zhāocáijìnbǎo - "When wealth is acquired, precious objects follow"[54] SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94HS battery

These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94S battery in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come.

Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase (Traditional Chinese:恭喜發財,紅包拿來, Simplified Chinese: 恭喜发财，红包拿来) (Pinyin: gōngxǐfācái, hóngbāo nálái) (Cantonese: 恭喜發財,利是逗來)(Usually English written as Kung Hei Fat Choi or Kung Hei Fat Choy) roughly translated as "Congratulations and be prosperous, SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/W battery now give me a red envelope!".　In the Hakka dialect the saying is more commonly said as 'Gung hee fatt choi, fung bao diu loi' which would be written as 恭喜發財,紅包逗來 – a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying. SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery

Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say 恭喜發財,利是逗來,斗零唔愛 (Cantonese, Kung Hei Fat Choy, Lai See Tau Loy, Tau Ling M Oi), which was recorded in the a pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery children in Hong Kong used the saying: 恭喜發財,利是逗來,伍毫嫌少,壹蚊唔愛 (Cantonese), roughly translated as, "Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either." It basically meant that they disliked small change – coins which were called "hard substance" (Cantonese: 硬嘢). SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery Instead, they wanted "soft substance" (Cantonese: 軟嘢), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar bill.

Estonia i/ɨsˈtoʊniə/ (Estonian: Eesti), officially the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariik), is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation (Dell 1691P battery) (338.6 km).[8] Across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia covers 45,227 km2 (17,462 sq mi), and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. The Estonians are a Finnic people, and the official language, Estonian, is closely related to Finnish(Dell 310-6321 battery).

Estonia is a democratic parliamentary republic divided into 15 counties. The capital and largest city is Tallinn. With a population of 1.34 million, it is one of the least-populous members of the European Union, Eurozone and NATO. Estonia has the highest GDP per person among former Soviet republics(SONY PCG-5G2L battery).[9] Estonia is listed as a "High-Income Economy" by the World Bank and as an "advanced economy" by the International Monetary Fund; the country is an OECD member. The United Nations lists Estonia as a developed country with a Human Development Index of "Very High".[5] The country is also ranked highly for press freedom, economic freedom, democracy and political freedom and education(SONY PCG-5G3L battery).

Etymology

One theory is that the modern name of Estonia originated from the Aesti described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania (ca. 98 AD).

On the other hand, ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, close to the Danish, German, Dutch, Swedish and Norwegian term Estland for the country. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia.[citation needed] (SONY PCG-F305 battery)

Esthonia was a common alternate English spelling prior to independence.

[edit]History

Main article: History of Estonia

[edit]Prehistory

Main article: Ancient Estonia

Human settlement in Estonia became possible 11,000 to 13,000 years ago, when the ice from the last glacial era melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago at the beginning of the 9th millennium BC(SONY PCG-5J1L battery).

Tools made by Kunda culture, the Estonian History Museum

Iron Age artefacts of a hoard from Kumna.[13]

Evidence has been found of hunting and fishing communities existing around 6500 BC near the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. Bone and stone artefacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and in southern Finland. The Kunda culture belongs to the middle stone age, or Mesolithic period(SONY PCG-5J2L battery).

The end of the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of the economy and culture. Between the 1st to 5th centuries AD resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the Roman Empire reached Estonia(SONY PCG-5K2L battery).

The first mention of the people inhabiting present-day Estonia is by the Roman historian Tacitus, who in his book Germania (ca. AD 98) describes the Aesti tribe. Tacitus mentions their term for amber in an apparently Latinised form, glesum (cf. Latvian glīsas). This is the only word of their language recorded from antiquity. In spite of this point(SONY PCG-5L1L battery), the Aestii are generally considered the ancestors of the later Baltic peoples.

A more troubled and war-ridden middle Iron Age followed with external dangers coming both from the Baltic tribes, who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several Scandinavian sagas refer to retaliatory campaigns against Estonia. Estonian pirates conducted similar raids against the Vikings(SONY PCG-6S2L battery). The "pagan raiders" who sacked the Swedish town of Sigtuna during the early Middle Ages, in 1187, were Estonians.[17]

In the 1st centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the province (Estonian: kihelkond) and the land (Estonian: maakond). The province comprised several elderships or villages(SONY PCG-6S3L battery). Nearly all provinces had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the king or elder. By the 13th century the following major lands had developed in Estonia: Revala, Harjumaa, Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, Läänemaa, Alempois, Sakala, Ugandi, Jogentagana, Soopoolitse, Vaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Järvamaa and Virumaa(SONY PCG-6V1L battery).[18]

Estonia retained a pagan religion centred around a deity called Tharapita. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior god of Oeselians (inhabitants of Saaremaa island), also well known to Vironian tribes in northern Estonia.

[edit]Middle Ages

Main articles: Livonian Crusade, Northern Crusades, and Terra Mariana(SONY PCG-6W1L battery)

Medieval Livonia

Kuressaare castle in Saaremaa

At the beginning of the 13th century, Lembitu of Lehola, a chieftain of Sakala sought to unify the Estonian people and thwart Danish and Germanic conquest during the Livonian Crusade. He managed to assemble an army of 6,000 Estonian men from different counties, but he was killed during the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in September 1217(SONY PCG-7111L battery).[19]

In 1228, in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade, to the 1560s, Estonia became part of Terra Mariana, established on 2 February 1207[20] as a principality of the Holy Roman Empire[21] and proclaimed by pope Innocent III in 1215 as a subject to the Holy See.[22] The southern parts of the country were conquered by Livonian Brothers of the Sword (SONY PCG-71511M battery)who joined the Teutonic Order in 1237 and became its branch known as Livonian Order. The Duchy of Estonia was formed in the northern parts of the country[23] as a direct dominion of the King of Denmark from 1219 until 1346 when it was sold to the Teutonic order and became part of the Ordenstaat.[24] In 1343(SONY PCG-6W3L battery), the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa rebelled against the German rule in the St. George's Night Uprising, which was put down by 1345.

Reval (known as Tallinn since 1918) gained Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century.

After the Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435(SONY PCG-7113L battery), the Livonian Confederation agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.[25] The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia attempted unsuccessful invasions in 1481 and 1558.

The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War (1558–82). The wars had reduced the Estonian population from about 250–300,000 people before the Livonian War to 120–140,000 in the 1620s(SONY PCG-7133L battery).[26]

[edit]Reformation and Swedish Estonia

Main articles: Swedish Estonia, Duchy of Livonia, Dorpat Voivodeship, and Parnawa Voivodeship

Estonian capital Tallinn in the first half of the 17th century.

The Swedish Empire following the Treaty of Roskilde of 1658. The dark green shows Sweden proper represented in the Riksdag of the Estates, while the other shades of green stand for different dominions and possessions(SONY PCG-7Z1L battery).

The Reformation in Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483–1546) and his 95 Theses. The Reformation resulted in great change in the Baltic region. Ideas entered the Livonian Confederation very quickly and by the 1520s they were well known. Language, education, religion, and politics were greatly transformed. The Church services were now given in the local vernacular, instead of Latin, as was previously used(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery).[27] During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control. Southern Estonia in 1560s formed an autonomous Duchy of Livonia in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under joint control of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy, containing two voivodeships of present-day Estonia: Dorpat Voivodeship (Tartu region) and Parnawa Voivodeship (Pärnu region) (SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). In 1629, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia, a division which persisted until the early 20th century.

In 1631, the Swedish king Gustaf II Adolf forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained(SONY PCG-8Y2L battery). King Charles XI withdrew large noble estates to the Swedish Crown effectively turning serfs to taxpaying farmers. In 1632, a printing press and university were established in the city of Dorpat (known as Tartu since 1918). This period is known in Estonian history as "the Good Old Swedish Time. (SONY PCG-8Z2L battery)"

The steady growth of the population continued until the outbreak of the plague in 1657. The Great Famine of 1695–97 killed some 70,000 people – almost 20% of the population.[26]

[edit]Russian Empire

Main articles: Governorate of Estonia and Autonomous Governorate of Estonia

Following the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia during the Great Northern War(1700–21), the Swedish empire lost Estonia to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad(SONY PCG-8Z1L battery). However, the upper classes and the higher middle class remained primarily Baltic German. The war devastated the population of Estonia, but it recovered quickly. Although the rights of peasants were initially weakened, serfdom was abolished in 1816 in the province of Estonia and in 1819 in Livonia. After the Russian revolution of 1917, Tallinn remained under Soviet control until 24 February 1918(SONY PCG-7112L battery), when Estonian independence was declared.

[edit]Declaration of independence

Main articles: Occupation of Estonia by the German Empire, United Baltic Duchy, Estonian War of Independence, and Vaps Movement

Estonian Declaration of Independence

As a result of the abolition of serfdom and the availability of education to the native Estonian-speaking population, an active Estonian nationalist movement developed in the 19th century(SONY PCG-6W2L battery). It began on a cultural level, resulting in the establishment of Estonian language literature, theatre and professional music and led on to the formation of the Estonian national identity and the Age of Awakening. Among the leaders of the movement were Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Jakob Hurt and Carl Robert Jakobson(SONY PCG-5K1L battery).

Declaration of independence in Pärnu on 23 February in 1918. One of the first images of the Republic.

Significant accomplishments were the publication of the national epic, Kalevipoeg, in 1862, and the organization of the first national song festival in 1869. In response to a period of Russification initiated by the Russian empire in the 1890s, Estonian nationalism took on more political tones(SONY PCGA-BP2E battery), with intellectuals first calling for greater autonomy, and later, complete independence from the Russian Empire.

Following the Bolshevik takeover of power in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917 and German victories against the Russian army, between the Russian Red Army's retreat and the arrival of advancing German troops, the Committee of Elders of the Maapäev issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence[28] in Pärnu on 23 February and in Tallinn on 24 February 191(SONY VGP-BPL2 battery)8.

After winning the Estonian War of Independence against both Soviet Russia and the German Freikorps and Baltische Landeswehr volunteers, (the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed on 2 February 1920). The Republic of Estonia was recognised (de jure) by Finland on 7 July 1920, Poland on 31 December 1920, Argentina on 12 January 1921 and by the Western Allies on 26 January 1921(SONY VGP-BPL4 battery).

Estonia maintained its independence for twenty-two years. Initially a parliamentary democracy, the parliament (Riigikogu) was disbanded in 1934, following political unrest caused by the global economic crisis. Subsequently the country was ruled by decree by Konstantin Päts, who became President in 1938, the year parliamentary elections resumed(SONY VGP-BPL5A battery).

[edit]World War II

Main article: Estonia in World War II

The fate of Estonia in World War II was decided by the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol of August 1939. World War II casualties of Estonia, estimated at around 25% of the population, were among the highest in Europe. War and occupation deaths have been estimated at 90,000(SONY VGP-BPS2 battery). These include the Soviet deportations in 1941, the German deportations and Holocaust victims.[29] World War II began with the invasion and subsequent partition of an important regional ally of Estonia – Poland, by a joint operation of Nazi Germany and Soviet Union(SONY VGP-BPS3 battery).

[edit]Soviet invasion and occupation

Main article: Occupation of the Baltic states

1940 Soviet map of the Estonian SSR

The fate of the Republic of Estonia before World War II was decided by the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact of August 1939 after Joseph Stalin gained Adolf Hitler's agreement to divide Eastern Europe into "spheres of special interest" according to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol(SONY VGP-BPS4 battery).[30][31]

On 24 September 1939, warships of the Red Navy appeared off Estonian ports and Soviet bombers began a patrol over Tallinn and the nearby countryside.[32] The Estonian government was forced to give their assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases and station 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for "mutual defence"(SONY VGP-BPS5 battery).[33] On 12 June 1940, the order for a total military blockade on Estonia was given to the Soviet Baltic Fleet.[34]

On 14 June 1940, while world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade on Estonia went into effect, two Soviet bombers downed the Finnish passenger airplane "Kaleva" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki(SONY VGP-BPS5A battery).[35] On 16 June 1940, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia.[36] The Red Army exited from their military bases in Estonia on 17 June.[37] The following day, some 90,000 additional troops entered the country. In the face of overwhelming Soviet force, the Estonian government capitulated on 17 June 1940 to avoid bloodshed.[38]

The military occupation of Estonia was complete by 21 June 1940(SONY VGP-BPS8 battery).[39]

Most of the Estonian Defence Forces surrendered according to the orders of the Estonian Government believing that resistance was useless and were disarmed by the Red Army.[40][41] Only the Estonian Independent Signal Battalion stationed in Tallinn at Raua Street showed resistance to Red Army and Communist Militia called "People's Self-Defence"[42] on 21 June 1940(SONY VGP-BPS8A battery).[43] As the Red Army brought in additional reinforcements supported by six armoured fighting vehicles, the battle lasted several hours until sundown. Finally the military resistance was ended with negotiations and the Independent Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed(SONY VGP-BPL8 battery).[44] There were 2 dead Estonian servicemen, Aleksei Männikus and Johannes Mandre, and several wounded on the Estonian side and about 10 killed and more wounded on the Soviet side.[45][46] The Soviet militia that participated in the battle was led by Nikolai Stepulov(SONY VGP-BPS9 battery).[47]

In 6 August 1940, Estonia was illegally annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR.[48] The provisions in the Estonian constitution requiring a popular referendum to decide on joining a supra-national body were ignored. Instead the vote to join the Soviet Union was taken by those elected in the sham elections held in the previous month(SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). Additionally those who had failed to do their "political duty" of voting Estonia into the USSR, specifically those who had failed to have their passports stamped for voting, were condemned to death by Soviet tribunals.[49] The repressions followed with the mass deportations carried out by the Soviets in Estonia on 14 June 1941. Many of the country's political and intellectual leaders were killed or deported to remote areas of the USSR by the Soviet authorities in 1940–1941(SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). Repressive actions were also taken against thousands of ordinary people.

When the German Operation Barbarossa started against the Soviet Union, about 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the Red Army. Fewer than 30% of them survived the war. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD(SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery).[50]

Many countries, including the UK and US, did not recognise the annexation of Estonia by the USSR. Such countries recognised Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in many countries in the name of their former governments. These diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence(SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery).[51]

Contemporary Russian politicians deny that the Republic of Estonia was illegally annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. They state that the Soviet troops had entered Estonia in 1940 following the agreements and with the consent of the government of the Republic of Estonia, regardless of how their actions can be interpreted today(SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). They maintain that the USSR was not in a state of war and was not waging any combat activities on the territory of Estonia; therefore there could be no occupation. The official Soviet and current Russian version claims that Estonians voluntarily gave up their statehood. Freedom fighters of 1944–1976 are labeled "bandits" or "nazis". The Russian position is not recognised internationally(SONY VGP-BPL9 battery).[52]

[edit]German occupation

Main articles: Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany, Germanisation, The Holocaust, Reichskommissariat Ostland, and Generalplan Ost

Jüri Uluots

After Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the Wehrmacht was able to reach Estonia within days. The German Army crossed the Estonian southern border on 7 July. The Red Army retreated behind the Pärnu River – Emajõgi line on 12 July(SONY VGP-BPS10 battery). At the end of July the Germans resumed their advance in Estonia working in tandem with the Estonian Forest Brothers. Both German troops and Estonian partisans took Narva on 17 August and the Estonian capital Tallinn on 28 August. After the Soviets were driven out from Estonia German troops disarmed all the partisan groups(SONY VGP-BPL10 battery).[53]

Although initially the Germans were perceived by most Estonians as liberators from the USSR and its repressions, and hopes were raised for the restoration of the country's independence, it was soon realised that they were but another occupying power. The Germans used Estonia's resources for the war effort; for the duration of the occupation Estonia and was incorporated into the German province of Ostland(SONY VGP-BPS11 battery).

This led many Estonians, unwilling to side with the Nazis, to join the Finnish Army to fight against the Soviet Union. The Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 (Estonian: soomepoisid) was formed out of Estonian volunteers in Finland. Although many Estonians were recruited into the German armed forces (including Estonian Waffen-SS) (SONY VGP-BPL11 battery), the majority did so only in 1944 when the threat of a new invasion of Estonia by the Red Army had become imminent and it was clear that Nazi Germany could not win the war.[54]

By January 1944, the front was pushed back by the Red Army almost all the way to the former Estonian border. Narva was evacuated. Jüri Uluots, the last legitimate prime minister of the Republic of Estonia (SONY VGP-BPL12 battery) (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia) prior to its fall to the Soviet Union in 1940, delivered a radio address that appealed to all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service (Before this, Jüri Uluots had opposed Estonian mobilization.) The call drew support from all across the country(SONY VGP-BPS12 battery): 38,000 volunteers jammed registration centres.[55]

Several thousand Estonians who had joined the Finnish Army came back across the Gulf of Finland to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war Estonia would be able to attract Western support for the cause of Estonia's independence from the USSR and thus ultimately succeed in achieving independence(SONY VGP-BPS13 battery).[56]

[edit]Soviet Estonia

Main articles: Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, Occupation of the Baltic states, and Estonian Government in Exile

The Soviet forces reconquered Estonia in the autumn of 1944 after fierce battles in the northeast of the country on the Narva river, on the Tannenberg Line (Sinimäed), in Southeast Estonia, on the Emajõgi river, and in the West Estonian Archipelago(SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery).

In the face of the country being re-occupied by the Red Army, tens of thousands of Estonians (including a majority of the education, culture, science, political and social specialists) (estimates as many as 80,000) chose to either retreat with the Germans or flee to Finland or Sweden. On 12 January 1949(SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery), the Soviet Council of Ministers issued a decree "on the expulsion and deportation" from Baltic states of "all kulaks and their families, the families of bandits and nationalists", and others.[57]

More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been deported from the Baltic in 1940–1953. In addition, at least 75,000 were sent to Gulag(SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). More than 10% of the entire adult Baltic population was deported or sent to Soviet labor camps.[57] In response to the continuing insurgency against Soviet rule,[58] more than 20,000 Estonians were forcibly deported either to labor camps or Siberia (see Gulag).[59] Within the few weeks that followed, almost all of the remaining rural households were collectivized(SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery).

After World War II, as part of the goal to more fully integrate Baltic countries into the Soviet Union, mass deportations were concluded in the Baltic countries and the policy of encouraging Soviet immigration to the Baltic states continued.[60] In addition to the human and material losses suffered due to war, thousands of civilians were killed and tens of thousands of people deported from Estonia by the Soviet authorities until Joseph Stalin's death in 1953(SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery).

Half of the deported perished, the other half were not allowed to return until the early 1960s (years after Stalin's death).[citation needed] The various repressive activities of Soviet forces in 1940–1941 and after reoccupation sparked a guerrilla war against the Soviet authorities in Estonia which was waged into the early 1950s by "forest brothers" (metsavennad) (SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery) consisting mostly of Estonian veterans of both the German and Finnish armies as well as some civilians.[61] Material damage caused by the world war and the following Soviet era significantly slowed Estonia's economic growth, resulting in a wide wealth gap in comparison with neighboring Finland and Sweden(SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery).[62]

Militarization was another aspect of the Soviet regime. Large parts of the country, especially the coastal areas were closed to all but the Soviet military. Most of the sea shore and all sea islands (including Saaremaa and Hiiumaa) were declared "border zones". People not actually resident there were restricted from traveling to them without a permit(SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). A notable closed military installation was the city of Paldiski which was entirely closed to all public access. The city had a support base for the Soviet Baltic Fleet's submarines and several large military bases, including a nuclear submarine training centre complete with a full-scale model of a nuclear submarine with working nuclear reactors(SONY VGP-BPS21 battery). The Paldiski reactors building passed into Estonian control in 1994 after the last Soviet troops left the country.[63][64] Immigration was another effect of Soviet occupation. Hundreds of thousands of migrants were relocated to Estonia from other parts of Soviet Union to assist industrialization and militarization, contributing an increase of about half a million people within 45 years(SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery).[65]

[edit]Post-independence

Main articles: Singing Revolution and Baltic Way

The US, UK, France, Italy and the majority of other Western democracies considered the annexation of Estonia by the USSR illegal. They retained diplomatic relations with the representatives of the independent Republic of Estonia, never de jure recognised the existence of the Estonian SSR(SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery), and never recognised Estonia as a legal constituent part of the Soviet Union.[66] Estonia's return to independence became possible as the Soviet Union faced internal regime challenges, loosening its hold on the outer empire. As the 1980s progressed, a movement for Estonian autonomy started. In the initial period of 1987–1989(SONY VGP-BPS13S battery), this was partially for more economic independence, but as the Soviet Union weakened and it became increasingly obvious that nothing short of full independence would do, the country began a course towards self-determination.

Estonia joined the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.

In 1989, during the "Singing Revolution", in a landmark demonstration for more independence(SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery), called the Baltic Way, a human chain of more than two million people was formed, stretching through Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. All three nations had similar experiences of occupation and similar aspirations for regaining independence. The Estonian Sovereignty Declaration was issued on 16 November 1988[67] and formal independence declared on 20 August 1991(SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery), reconstituting the pre-1940 state, during the Soviet military coup attempt in Moscow. The Soviet Union recognised the independence of Estonia on 6 September 1991. The first country to diplomatically recognize Estonia's reclaimed independence was Iceland. The last Russian troops left on 31 August 1994(SONY VGP-BPS14 battery).

The 2004 enlargement of the European Union was the largest single expansion of the European Union (EU), both in terms of territory and population, however not in terms of gross domestic product (wealth). Estonia was amongst a group of ten countries which were incorporated into the EU on 1 May 2004. The Treaty of Accession 2003 was signed on 16 April 2003(SONY VGP-BPL14 battery).

[edit]Territorial history timeline

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Estonia, Protected areas of Estonia, Climate of Estonia, and Fauna of Estonia

Satellite image of Estonia

View from the highest point of Estonia at Suur Munamägi.

Estonia's land border with Latvia runs 267 kilometers; the Russian border runs 290 kilometers. From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty(SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery), extended beyond the Narva River in the northeast and beyond the town of Pechory (Petseri) in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2,300 square kilometers (888 sq mi), was incorporated into Russia by Stalin at the end of World War II. For this reason the borders between Estonia and Russia are not still defined today(SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery).

Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea immediately across the Gulf of Finland from Finland on the level northwestern part of the rising East European platform between 57.3° and 59.5° N and 21.5° and 28.1° E. Average elevation reaches only 50 meters (164 ft) and the country's highest point is the Suur Munamägi in the southeast at 318 meters (1,043 ft) (SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). There is 3,794 kilometers (2,357 mi) of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 1,500. Two of them are large enough to constitute separate counties: Saaremaa and Hiiumaa.[68][69] A small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali is found on Saaremaa, Estonia(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery).

Estonia is situated in the northern part of the temperate climate zone and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate. Estonia has four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from 16.3 °C (61.3 °F) on the Baltic islands to 18.1 °C (64.6 °F) inland in July, the warmest month, and from −3.5 °C (25.7 °F) (SONY VGP-BPS22 battery)on the Baltic islands to −7.6 °C (18.3 °F) inland in February, the coldest month. The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5.2 °C (41.4 °F).[70] The average precipitation in 1961–1990 ranged from 535 to 727 mm (21.1 to 28.6 in) per year.[71]

Snow cover, which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia, usually lasts from mid-December to late March. Estonia has over 1,400 lakes(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). Most are very small, with the largest, Lake Peipus, (Peipsi in Estonian) being 3,555 km2 (1,373 sq mi). There are many rivers in the country. The longest of them are Võhandu (162 km/101 mi), Pärnu (144 km/89 mi), and Põltsamaa (135 km/84 mi).[68] Estonia has numerous fens and bogs(SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery).

Phytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests(SONY VGP-BPS22A battery).

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main articles: Counties of Estonia, Municipalities of Estonia, Boroughs of Estonia, Small boroughs of Estonia, and Populated places in Estonia

Old town in Haapsalu

Main street in Pärnu

Town Hall in Tartu

Kuressaare Castle in winter

The Republic of Estonia is divided into fifteen counties (Maakonnad) which are the administrative subdivisions of the country. The first documented mentioning of Estonian political and administrative subdivisions comes from the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, written in the 13th century during the Northern Crusades(SONY Vaio VGC-LB15 battery).[72]

A maakond (county) is the biggest administrative subdivision. The county government (Maavalitsus) of each county is led by a county governor (Maavanem), who represents the national government at the regional level. Governors are appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/B battery). Several changes were made to the borders of counties after Estonia became independent, most notably the formation of Valga County (from parts of Võru, Tartu and Viljandi counties) and Petseri County (area acquired from Russia with the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty).

During the Soviet rule, Petseri County was annexed and ceded to the Russian SFSR in 1945 where it became one the Pskovs districts(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/P battery). Counties were again re-established on 1 January 1990 in the borders of the Soviet-era regions. Because of the numerous differences between the current and historical (pre-1940, and sometimes pre-1918) layouts, the historical borders are still used in ethnology, representing cultural and linguistic differences better(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50B/W battery).

Estonia is divided into 15 counties (maakond). Each county is further divided into municipalities (omavalitsus), which is also the smallest administrative subdivision of Estonia. There are two types of municipalities: an urban municipality – linn (town), and a rural municipality – vald (parish). There is no other status distinction between them(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ50DB/W battery). Each municipality is a unit of self-government with its representative and executive bodies. The municipalities in Estonia cover the entire territory of the country.

A municipality may contain one or more populated places. Tallinn is divided into eight districts (linnaosa) with limited self-government (Haabersti, Kesklinn (centre), Kristiine, Lasnamäe, Mustamäe, Nõmme, Pirita and Põhja-Tallinn) (SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/P battery).

Municipalities range in size from Tallinn with 400,000 inhabitants to Ruhnu with as few as 60. As over two-thirds of the municipalities have a population of under 3,000, many of them have found it advantageous to co-operate in providing services and carrying out administrative functions(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51B/R battery). There have also been calls for an administrative reform to merge smaller municipalities together.

As of March 2008, there are a total of 227 municipalities in Estonia, 33 of them being urban and 193 rural.

[edit]Politics

Main articles: Politics of Estonia, List of political parties in Estonia, and Elections in Estonia(SONY Vaio VGC-BJ51B/W battery)

Politics of Estonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic in which the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government and of a multi-party system. The political culture is very stable in Estonia, where the power is held between two to three parties, that have been in politics for a long time(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ51DB/B battery). This situation is similar to other countries in Northern Europe. The current prime minister of Estonia, Andrus Ansip, is the second longest-serving prime minister in Europe.

[edit]Parliament

Main article: Riigikogu

The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in Toompea Castle.

The Parliament of Estonia (Estonian: Riigikogu) or the legislative branch is elected by people for a four year term by proportional representation. Estonia is a parliamentary representative democratic republic(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/N battery). The Estonian political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1992 constitutional document. The Estonian parliament has 101 members and influences the governing of the state primarily by determining the income and the expenses of the state (establishing taxes and adopting the budget). At the same time the parliament has the right to present statements(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/P battery), declarations and appeals to the people of Estonia, ratify and denounce international treaties with other states and international organisations and decide on the Government loans.[73]

The Riigikogu elects and appoints several high officials of the state, including the President of the Republic. In addition to that, the Riigikogu appoints, on the proposal of the President of Estonia, the Chairman of the National Court, the Chairman of the Board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52B/W battery), the Legal Chancellor and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces. A member of the Riigikogu has the right to demand explanations from the Government of the Republic and its members. This enables the members of the parliament to observe the activities of the executive power and the above mentioned high officials of the state(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ52DB/B battery).

[edit]Government

Main articles: Government of Estonia, Prime Minister of Estonia, and President of Estonia

Stenbock House, the seat of the Government of Estonia on Toompea Hill

The Government of Estonia (Estonian: Vabariigi Valitsus) or the executive branch is formed by the Prime Minister of Estonia, nominated by the president and approved by the parliament(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ53B/W battery). The government exercises executive power pursuant to the Constitution of Estonia and the laws of the Republic of Estonia and consists of 12 ministers, including the prime minister. The prime minister also has the right to appoint other ministers, whom he or she will assign with a subject to deal with and who will not have a ministry to control, becoming a minister without portfolio who currently is the Minister of Regions(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ54B/W battery).

The prime minister has the right to appoint a maximum of 3 such ministers, as the limit of ministers in one government is 15. It is also known as the cabinet. The cabinet carries out the country's domestic and foreign policy, shaped by parliament; it directs and co-ordinates the work of government institutions and bears full responsibility for everything occurring within the authority of executive power(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90HS battery). The government, headed by the Prime Minister, thus represents the political leadership of the country and makes decisions in the name of the whole executive power.

Estonia has pursued the development of the e-state and e-government. Internet voting is used in elections in Estonia(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ90S battery).[74] The first Internet voting took place in the 2005 local elections and the first in a parliamentary election was made available for the 2007 elections, in which 30,275 individuals voted over the Internet. Voters have a chance to invalidate their electronic vote in traditional elections, if they wish to. In 2009 in its 8th Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Estonia 6th out of 175 countries(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91HS battery).[75] In the first ever State of World Liberty Index report, Estonia was ranked 1st out of 159 countries.

[edit]Law

Main article: Law of Estonia

See also: Police and Border Guard Board

The Supreme Court building in Tartu

According to the Constitution of Estonia (Estonian: Põhiseadus) the supreme power of the state is vested in the people. The people exercise their supreme power of the state on the elections of the Riigikogu through citizens who have the right to vote.[76] The supreme judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court or Riigikohus(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ91S battery), with 19 justices.[77] The Chief Justice is appointed by the parliament for nine years on nomination by the president. The official Head of State is the President of Estonia, who gives assent to the laws passed by Riigikogu, also having the right of sending them back and proposing new laws.

The president, however, does not use these rights very often, having a largely ceremonial role(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92HS battery). He or she is elected by Riigikogu, with two-thirds of the votes required. If the candidate does not gain the amount of votes required, the right to elect the president goes over to an electoral body, consisting of the 101 members of Riigikogu and representatives from local councils. As other spheres, Estonian law-making has been successfully integrated with the Information Age(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ92S battery).

[edit]Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of Estonia, Diplomatic missions of Estonia, Estonia–Russia relations, and Estonia – United States relations

President Toomas Hendrik Ilves and President George W. Bush, in Estonia 2006.

Estonia was a member of the League of Nations from 22 September 1921,[78] has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94HS battery),[79] and of NATO since 29 March 2004,[80] as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004.[81] Estonia has also signed the Kyoto protocol. Estonia is a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). As an OSCE participating State, Estonia’s international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission(SONY Vaio VGC-LJ94S battery).

Since regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close cooperation with its Western European partners. The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into NATO and the European Union, achieved in March and May 2004 respectively(SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/W battery). Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with Russia, most recently demonstrated by the controversy surrounding the relocation of the Bronze Soldier WWII memorial in Tallinn.[82]

Estonia is a member of the European parliament since 2004.

An important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden(SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery). Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people rather than Balts,[83][84] based on their historical ties with Sweden, Denmark and particularly Finland. In December 1999, then Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, president of Estonia) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs(SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery).[85] In 2003, the foreign ministry also hosted an exhibit called "Estonia: Nordic with a Twist".[86]

In 2005, Estonia joined the European Union's Nordic Battle Group. It has also shown continued interest in joining the Nordic Council. Whereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade(SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery),[87] today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbors: three quarters of foreign investment in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania) (SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E battery). On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its flat rate of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the other Nordic states, and indeed from many other European countries.[88]

[edit]Military

Main article: Military of Estonia

Estonia is a part of the Nordic Battle Group.

An Estonian Patria Pasi XA-180 in Afghanistan.

Estonian military personnel in training during Erna Retk.

The military of Estonia is based upon the Estonian Defence Forces (Estonian: Kaitsevägi) which is the name of the unified armed forces of the republic with Maavägi (Army) (SONY Vaio VGN-CR120 battery), Merevägi (Navy), Õhuvägi (Air Force) and a paramilitary national guard organization Kaitseliit (Defence League). The Estonian National Defence Policy aim is to guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the integrity of its land, territorial waters, airspace and its constitutional order(SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery).[89] At the moment the main strategic goals are to be able to defend the country's interests and development of the armed forces which would be ready to be interoperability with the other armed forces of NATO and European Union member states and also their capability to participate in NATO missions(SONY Vaio VGN-CR116E battery).

The current national military service (Estonian: ajateenistus) is compulsory for men between 18 and 28, and conscripts serve eight-month to eleven-month tours of duty depending on the army branch they serve in. Estonia has retained conscription unlike Latvia and Lithuania and has no plan to transition to a professional army(SONY Vaio VGN-CR116 battery). In 2008, annual military spending will reach 1.85% of GDP, or 5 billion kroons, and will continue to increase until 2010, when a 2.0% level is expected to be reached.[90]

As of January 2008, the Estonian military had almost 300 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of various international peacekeeping forces, including 35 Defence League troops stationed in Kosovo(SONY Vaio VGN-CR115E battery); 120 Ground Forces soldiers in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan; 80 soldiers stationed as a part of MNF in Iraq; and 2 Estonian officers in Bosnia-Herzegovina and 2 Estonian military agents in Israel's Golan Heights.[91]

The Estonian Defence Forces have also previously had military missions in Croatia from March until October 1995, in Lebanon from December 1996 until June 1997 and in Macedonia from May until December 2003(SONY Vaio VGN-CR115 battery).[92] Estonia participates in the Nordic Battlegroup and has announced readiness to send soldiers also to Sudan to Darfur if necessary, creating the very first African peacekeeping mission for the armed forces of Estonia.[93]

The Ministry of Defence and the Defence Forces have been working on a cyberwarfare and defence formation for some years now(SONY Vaio VGN-CR110EW battery). In 2007, a military doctrine of an e-military of Estonia was officially introduced as the country was under massive cyberattacks in 2007.[94] The proposed aim of the e-military is to secure the vital infrastructure and e-infrastructure of Estonia. The main cyber warfare facility is the Computer Emergency Response Team of Estonia (CERT) which was founded in 2006(SONY Vaio VGN-CR110 battery). The organization operates with the security problems that occur in the local networks also with those which are started there.[95]

On 25 June 2007, Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves met with the President of the US, George W. Bush.[96] Among the topics discussed were the attacks on Estonian e-infrastructure.[97] The attacks triggered a number of military organisations around the world to reconsider the importance of network security to modern military doctrine(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). On 14 June 2007, defence ministers of NATO members held a meeting in Brussels, issuing a joint communiqué promising immediate action. First public results were estimated to arrive by autumn 2007.[98]

As to the placement of a NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCOE), Bush announced his support of Estonia as this centre's location(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery).[99] In the aftermath of the 2007 cyberattacks, plans to combine network defence with Estonian military doctrine have been nicknamed as the Tiger's Defence, in reference to Tiigrihüpe.[100] The CCDCOE started its operations in November 2008.[101]

[edit]Economy

Main article: Economy of Estonia

Tornimäe business area in Tallinn

Business quarter in Tartu.

As a member of the European Union, Estonia's economy is rated as high income by the World Bank. Because of its rapid growth, the Estonian economy has often been described as the Baltic Tiger. Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th eurozone member state(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery).[102]

According to Eurostat newsrelease published at 21 October 2011, Estonia has the lowest ratio of government debt to GDP among EU countries as 6.7 percent at the end of 2010. The world media has lately started to describe Estonia as a Nordic country, emphasizing the economic, political and cultural differences between Estonia and its less successful Baltic neighbors(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery).[103]

A balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, competitive commercial banking sector, innovative e-Services and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's market economy.

Estonia is producing ca 75% of its consumed electricity.[104] Over 85% of it generated with locally mined oil shale. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy part was ca 6% of total consumption in 2009.[105] Estonia imports needed petroleum products from western Europe and Russia. Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery), food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy. The ice-free port of Muuga, near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and brand-new oil tanker off-loading capabilities. The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points to the East(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery).

Estonia is part of the Schengen Area, the EU single market and Eurozone (dark blue).

Estonia today is mainly influenced by developments in Finland, Sweden and Germany – the three main trade partners. The government recently increased greatly its spending on innovation. The prime minister of Estonian Reform Party has stated its goal of bringing Estonian GDP per capita into the TOP 5 of EU by 2022(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). Ireland is sometimes seen as a model for Estonian economic future.

Because of the Global Economic Recession, the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by Riigikogu(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery). The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.[106] In 2010, the economic situation stabilized and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery).[107]

According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.[108] In March 2011, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was 843€

However, there are big differences in GDP between different areas in Estonia. Currently, over half of the Estonian GDP is created in the capital Tallinn(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery).[110] In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average.[111] This makes the GDP per capita of Tallinn number in at 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.

The registered unemployment rate was in April 2011 10.1%.[112]

In 2011, the real GDP growth in Estonia was 8.0%(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E battery).[113]

[edit]Historic development

Real GDP growth in Estonia, 2000–2011.

Milton Friedman's economic theories have had a large influence on the development of the Estonian economic policies.

By 1929, a stable currency, the kroon, was established. It is issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank. Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom. Only 3% of all commerce was with the USSR(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160 battery).

Before the Second World War Estonia was mainly an agricultural country whose products such as butter, milk and cheese were widely known on the western European markets. The USSR's forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet occupation during World War II crippled the Estonian economy(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E battery). Post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure.

Since re-establishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and aggressively pursued economic reform and integration with the West. Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E battery). In 1994, based on the economic theories of Milton Friedman, Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. In January 2005, the personal income tax rate was reduced to 24%. Another reduction to 23% followed in January 2006. The income tax rate was decreased to 21% by January 2008(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery).[114] The Government of Estonia finalised the design of Estonian euro coins in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.[102][115]

In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the 1998 Russian financial crisis. Estonia joined the WTO in November 1999(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). With assistance from the European Union, the World Bank and the Nordic Investment Bank, Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union. Estonia joined the OECD in 2010(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery).

[edit]Resources

Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests which cover 50.6% of the land.[116] In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of phosphorite, pitchblende and granite which are not mined or mined extensively at the moment(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery).[117]

Significant quantities of rare earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe.[118] Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2 percent of world production(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery).[119]

In recent years[when?] a public debate has been raised in the terms of whether Estonia should build a nuclear power plant in order to secure the energy production after the closure of old units in the Narva Power Plants if they are not reconstructed by the year 2016(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery).[120]

[edit]Industry and environment

See also: Oil shale in Estonia, Narva Power Plants, and Wind power in Estonia

Wind farm in Pakri.

Skype was written and is mainly developed in Estonia.

Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry. In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people which make around 12% of the entire country's workforce.[121] Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry which is mainly located in Ida-Viru County and around Tallinn(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery).

The oil shale based mining industry, which is also concentrated in East-Estonia, produces around 90% of the entire country's electricity. The extensive oil shale usage however has also caused severe damage to the environment. Although the amount of pollutants emitted to the air have been falling since the 1980s(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery),[122] the air is still polluted with sulfur dioxide from the mining industry which was rapidly developed by the Soviet Union in early 1950s. In some areas the coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the Sillamäe industrial complex.[123]

Estonia is a dependent country in the terms of energy and energy production. In recent years many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). The importance of wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and currently the total amount of energy production from wind is nearly 60 MW while at the same time roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW worth of projects are being proposed in the Lake Peipus area and the coastal areas of Hiiumaa(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery).

Currently[when?], there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale based energy production.[127] Estonia liberalised 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole will be liberalised by 2013(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). [128]

Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country is considering to participate in the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace the Ignalina.[129][130] However, due to the slow pace of the project, Estonia does not rule out building its own nuclear reactor(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery). Another consideration is doing a joint project with Finland because the two electricity grids are connected.[131] The country is considering to apply nuclear power for its oil shale production.[132]

Estonia has a strong information technology sector, partly owing to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery).[133]

Skype was written by Estonia-based developers Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, and Jaan Tallinn, who had also originally developed Kazaa.[134]

[edit]Trade

Estonia has had a market economy since the end of 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe. Proximity to the Scandinavian markets, location between the East and West(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery), competitive cost structure and high-skill labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). Tallinn as the largest city has emerged as a financial centre and the Tallinn Stock Exchange joined recently with the OMX system. The current government has pursued relatively sound fiscal policies(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery), resulting in balanced budgets and low public debt.

In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on Estonia's currency, which was pegged to the euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries. Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery).[135] Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.[135] At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.[135] Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.[135]

Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia receives 53.3 billion kroons (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery) (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports by creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia ever.[136] Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into to the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery), regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.[137]

[edit]Transport

Main articles: Transport in Estonia and Rail transport in Estonia

Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport.

Estonia has been an important transit centre since the medieval period. The country's favorable geographical location, along with its developing infrastructure, offers good opportunities for all transport and logistics related activities(Sony VAIO VGN-S battery). Rail transport dominates the cargo sector, carrying 70% of all goods, both domestic and international. Since 2007, the importance of the transport sector to the economy as a whole has been reduced, mainly due to the confrontation between Estonia and Russia(Sony VAIO VGN-SZ battery).[138]

The road transport sector dominates passenger transport; almost 90% of all passengers travel by road. The reconstruction of the Tallinn–Tartu motorway has gained national attention as it connects two of the largest cities in the country. The motorway reconstruction (2+2 route) is part of the current Government Coalition programme(Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery).[139] Also the proposed permanent connection to Saaremaa Island is in the national infrastructure building programme. The costs of the projects have been estimated in billions of Euros, which have also gained a lot of media attention and caused public debates over the feasibility(Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery).[140]

There are currently five major cargo ports which offer easy navigational access, deep waters, and good ice conditions. There are 12 airports and one heliport in Estonia of which the Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport is the largest airport, providing services to a number of international carriers flying to 23 destinations(Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery).

[edit]Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Estonia

Population of Estonia 1970–2010. Data of Statistics Estonia.

Prior to World War II, ethnic Estonians constituted 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.[141] The largest minority groups in 1934 were Russians, Germans, Swedes, Latvians, Jews, Poles, Finns and Ingrians. The share of Baltic Germans had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) in 1934. (Sony VGN-NR260E/T Battery)

Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and Joseph Stalin's mass deportations and executions(Sony VGN-NR260E/W Battery). By 1989, minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.

At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a national catastrophe. This was a result of the migration policies essential to the Soviet Nationalisation Programme aiming to russify Estonia(Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) – forceful administrative and military immigration of non-Estonians from the USSR coupled with the mass deportations of Estonians to the USSR. During the purges up to 110,000 Estonians were killed or deported. In the decade following the reconstitution of independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006(Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery).

Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically heterogeneous country, but this heterogeneity is not a feature of much of the country as the non-Estonian population is concentrated in two of Estonia's counties. Thirteen of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80 percent ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being Hiiumaa(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery), where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of Harju (including the capital city, Tallinn) and Ida-Viru, however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. Russians make up 25.6% of the total population, but account for 36% of the population in Harju county, and 70% of the population in Ida-Viru county(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery).

The law on the Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was passed in 1925, which was the first in Europe at the time.[citation needed] Cultural autonomies could be granted to minorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Prior to the Soviet occupation(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's north-western coast and islands have been populated by indigenous ethnically Rannarootslased (Coastal Swedes) (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery).

The majority of Estonia's Swedish population of 3,800 fled to Sweden or were deported in 1944, escaping the advancing Red Army. In the recent years the numbers of Coastal Swedes has risen again, numbering in 2008 almost 500 people, owing to the property reforms in the beginning of 1990s. In 2005, the Ingrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). The Estonian Swedish minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.

[edit]Urbanization

Main article: List of cities and towns in Estonia

Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia. It lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the Gulf of Finland. There are currently 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total there are 47 linna, with "linn" in English meaning both the "cities" and "towns"(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery). More than 70% of the population lives in towns. The 20 largest cities are listed below:

Religion

Main article: Religion in Estonia

St. Olaf's church: The tallest building in the world between 1549 and 1625.[143]

St. John's church, Tartu

Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.[144] According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is the second least religious country in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be irreligious, after China with 93%(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery).[145] The Eurobarometer Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied (EU study).[146]

The largest religious faith in the country is Evangelical Lutheranism, adhered to by 152,000 Estonians (or 14.8%) of the population, principally ethnic Estonians. 143,000 inhabitants follow the Eastern Orthodox Christianity, practised chiefly by the Russian minority. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery)

According to the census of 2000, there were about 152,000 Lutherans, 143,000 Orthodox Christians, 5,000 Roman Catholics, 4,268 Jehovah's Witnesses[149] and 1,000 adherents of Taaraism[150][151][152] or Maausk in Estonia (see Maavalla Koda). There is a Jewish community in Estonia, with an estimated population of about 1,900 (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) (see History of the Jews in Estonia). In addition there were around 68,000 people who declared themselves to be atheists.[148]

The country was Christianised by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century. During the Reformation, Protestantism spread, and the Lutheran church was officially established in Estonia in 1686. Still, many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious, because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery).[153] Historically there has been also another minority religion, Russian Old-believers, near Lake Peipus area in Tartu County.

[edit]Society

See also: Human rights in Estonia

The Jewish Synagogue in Tallinn

Citizenship of the Estonian population (2 July 2010). Data is from Estonia.eu.

Estonian: 1,148,895

Russian: 95,939

Others: 21,517

Stateless: 99,173

Estonian society has undergone considerable changes over the last twenty years, one of the most notable being the increasing level of stratification, and the distribution of family income(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery). The Gini coefficient has been steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),[154] although it has clearly dropped. The unemployment rate in October 2011 was 7.2%.[155]

Today's Estonia is a multinational country where, according to the 2000 census, altogether 109 languages are spoken. 67.3% of Estonian citizens speak Estonian as their native language, 29.7% – Russian and 3% speak other languages(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery).[156] As of 2 July 2010, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries and 7.3% are "citizens with undetermined citizenship".[157] Since 1992 roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship through naturalization.[158]

The ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogenous, where in most counties, over 90% of the people are ethnic Estonians. There is a bigger difference in larger cities like Tallinn(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery), where Estonians account for 60% of the population. The rest is mainly comprised from Russian- and other slavic background habitat, who arrived in Estonia during the Soviet Occupation.

According to the surveys only 5% of the Russian community have thought of turning back to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognised that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia(Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). When comparing the result with a survey from 2000, then Russians’ attitude towards the future is much more positive.[159]

Women are leading Estonia's scientific society. In 2006, over 60% of the scientists in Estonia were women.

[edit]Family

Upon giving birth, the Estonian government grants one of the parents 100% of their former salary for 18 months. After 1.5 years, the parent has the right to resume her/his former position. In addition, the parent and child will also receive free healthcare(Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). The parents who did not work before giving birth (unemployed, students etc.) currently receive 278 euros a month; the top salary is capped at 2157 euros a month.[160] These measures, which have been in force from 2005, have not been proven to have had a major positive effect on the birth rate in Estonia, which has increased already since 2001(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery).[161]

Those policy measures concentrate on the period where the children are very young. After that age, the monthly state support to a child is 19 euros a month (for the first two children) and 58 euros (for three or more children). Despite considerable variation and fluctuations in the support to the family with children(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery), the majority of Estonian families do not face great hardships and State of The World's Mothers 2011 report ranked Estonia as the 18th best country in the world to be a mother, ahead of countries like Canada and The United States.[162]

[edit]Languages

Main article: Languages of Estonia

The official language, Estonian, belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. Estonian is closely related to Finnish, spoken on the other side of the Gulf of Finland, and is one of the few languages of Europe that is not of an Indo-European origin(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). Despite some overlaps in the vocabulary due to borrowings, in terms of its origin, Estonian and Finnish are not related to their nearest geographical neighbours, Swedish, Latvian and Russian, which are all Indo-European languages.

Russian is still spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the Estonian SSR from 1944 to 1991 and taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era(Sony VAIO VGN-FW465J battery). In 1998, most first and second generation industrial immigrants from various parts of the former Soviet Union (mainly Russia (RSFSR)) did not speak Estonian.[163] However by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.[164]

The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in Ida-Virumaa(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). In the small Noarootsi Parish in Läänemaa (known as Nuckö kommun in Swedish and Noarootsi vald in Estonian), both Swedish and Estonian are co-official languages, and there are 22 villages with officially bilingual names.[165] The most common foreign languages learned by Estonians are English, Russian, Finnish, German and Swedish(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery).

[edit]Education and science

Main article: Education in Estonia

See also: List of universities in Estonia, Space science in Estonia, and Tiigrihüpe

The University of Tartu is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia

Viimsi High School in Harju county

The building of the Tallinn University

Building of the Estonian Student's Society in Tartu(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery)

The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13–14th centuries when the first monastic and cathedral schools were founded. The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the University of Tartu which was established by the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf in 1632(Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery). In 1919, university courses were first taught in Estonian language.

Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational and hobby education. The education system is based on four levels which include the pre-school, basic, secondary and higher education.[166] A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian educational system consists of state(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery), municipal, public and private educational institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.[167]

According to the Programme for International Student Assessment, the performance levels of gymnasium-aged pupils in Estonia is among the highest in the world.

Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's studies, master's studies, and doctoral studies. In some specialties (basic medical studies(Sony VGN-NR110E Battery), veterinary, pharmacy, dentistry, architect-engineer and a classroom teacher programme) the Bachelors and Master's levels are integrated into one unit.[168] Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions.

In addition to organizing the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget(Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery), approve the development plan, elect the rector and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.[169] Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the University of Tartu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Estonian Academy of Arts(Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery), and the largest private university is Estonian Business School.

The Estonian Academy of Sciences is Estonia's national academy of science. The first computer centres were established in late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for different ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s. (Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery)

[edit]Culture

Main articles: Culture of Estonia and List of Estonians

Estonia Theatre

The culture of Estonia incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the sauna, with mainstream Nordic and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic(Sony VGN-CR11SR Battery), Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Sweden and Russia.

Traditionally, Estonia has been seen as an area of rivalry between western and eastern Europe on many levels. An example of this geopolitical legacy is an exceptional combination of nationally recognised Christian traditions: a western Protestant and an eastern Orthodox Church(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery). Like the mainstream culture in the other Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread egalitarianism out of practical reasons (see: Everyman's right and universal suffrage), and the ideals of closeness to nature and self-sufficiency (Sony VGN-CR11S Battery) (see: summer cottage).[172]

The Estonian Academy of Arts (Estonian: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia, EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while Viljandi Culture Academy of University of Tartu has an approach to popularize native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design(Sony VGN-CR11M Battery), traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.[173]

[edit]Literature

Main article: Literature of Estonia

See also: Estophile

National Library of Estonia.

The Estonian literature refers to literature written in the Estonian language (ca. 1 million speakers).[174] The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany(Sony VGN-CR11E Battery), Sweden, and Russia resulted in few early written literary works in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. The Liber Census Daniae (1241) contains Estonian place and family names(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery).[175]

The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterized by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few albeit remarkable exceptions, this archaic form has not been much employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in this field is the national epic Kalevipoeg. At a professional level(Sony VGN-CR21S Battery), traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer Veljo Tormis.

Oskar Luts was the most prominent prose writer of the early Estonian literature, who is still widely read today, especially his lyrical school novel Kevade (Spring).[176] Anton Hansen Tammsaare's social epic and psychological realist pentalogy Truth and Justice captured the evolution of Estonian society from a peasant community to an independent nation. (Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery) In modern times Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski remain to be Estonia's best known and most translated writers.[179] Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are Tõnu Õnnepalu and Andrus Kivirähk, who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into absurd and grotesque(Sony VGN-CR21SR Battery).[180]

[edit]Media

See also: List of Estonian films and List of Estonian war films

The cinema of Estonia started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King Gustav V's visit to Tallinn.[181] The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio-broadcasts began already in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of 1990s(Sony VGN-CR31SR Battery). The first licenses for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.

Today the media is a vibrant sector at the forefront of change in Estonian society. There is a plethora of weekly newspapers and magazines. Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. The Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and the fact that Estonia does have a free press is recognised by various international press freedom bodies(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery), like the US-based Freedom House and Reporters Without Borders who ranks Estonia media as one of the most free in world in their Worldwide Press Freedom Index.

Estonia has two news agencies. The Baltic News Service (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by Eesti Rahvusringhääling who is a publicly funded radio and television organization created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate Eesti Raadio and Eesti Televisioon under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act. (Sony VGN-CR31E Battery)

[edit]Music

Main article: Music of Estonia

See also: Estonian national awakening, Estonian Song Festival, and Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest

A moment before the opening of the 25th Estonian Song Festival (2009) at the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds

Arvo Pärt, Estonia's most renowned composer.

Kerli Kõiv performing in London in 2008.

The earliest mentioning of Estonian singing dates back to Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum (ca. 1179).[184] Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). The older folksongs are also referred to as regilaulud, songs in the poetic metre regivärss the tradition shared by all Baltic Finns. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when it started to be replaced by rhythmic folksongs.

Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by shepherds were once widespread, but are now becoming again more commonly played. Other instruments(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery), including the fiddle, zither, concertina and accordion are used to play polka or other dance music. The kannel is a native instrument that is now again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in Viljandi.[185]

The tradition of Estonian Song Festivals (Laulupidu) started at the height of the Estonian national awakening in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur choral events in the world(Sony VGN-CR41S Battery). In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds (Lauluväljak) host the event every five years in July. The next festival will take place in 2014. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held in every four or five years, last of them in 2011.[186]

Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as Rudolf Tobias, Mart Saar and Artur Kapp emerged in the late 19th century(Sony VGN-CR41E Battery). At the time of this writing, the most known Estonian composers are Arvo Pärt, Eduard Tubin and Veljo Tormis.

In the 1950s, Estonian baritone Georg Ots rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.

In popular music, Estonian artist Kerli Kõiv has become popular in Europe, as well as gaining moderate popularity in North America. She has provided music for the 2010 Disney film Alice in Wonderland and the television series Smallville in the United States of America(Sony VGN-CR41SR Battery).

Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with the song "Everybody" performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. Maarja-Liis Ilus has competed for Estonia on two occasions (1996 and 1997), while Eda-Ines Etti, Koit Toome and Evelin Samuel owe their popularity partly to the Eurovision Song Contest(Sony VGN-CR42ZR Battery).

[edit]Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Estonia

The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day celebrated on 24 February, the day the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued. As of 2010, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually. (Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery)

[show]Public holidays in Estonia        Date

[edit]Cuisine

Main article: Estonian cuisine

See also: Kama (food), Kalev (confectioner), Kohuke, and Verivorst

A. Le Coq

Saku Originaal

Two of the most popular beers in Estonia.

Estonian delegation in Vancouver, 2010.

Historically the cuisine of Estonia has been heavily dependent on seasons and simple peasant food, which today is influenced by many countries. Today it includes many typical international foods. The most typical foods in Estonia are black bread, pork(Sony VGN-CR42S Battery), potatoes and dairy products.[189] Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today it is also very popular to grill outside in summer(Sony VGN-CR42E Battery).

Traditionally in winter jams, preserves and pickles are brought to the table. Estonia has been through rough times in the past and thus gathering and conserving fruits, mushrooms and vegetables for winter has always been essential. Today gathering and conserving is not that common because everything can be bought from stores(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery), but preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside and still has somewhat ritual significance. Being a country with a large coastline, fish has also been very important.

[edit]Sports

Main article: Sport in Estonia

Sport plays an important role in Estonian culture. After declaring independence from Russia in 1918, Estonia first competed as a nation at the 1920 Summer Olympics, although the National Olympic Committee was established in 1923(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). Estonian athletes took part of the Olympic Games until the country was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing regatta was held in the capital city Tallinn. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in athletics, weightlifting, wrestling and cross-country skiing(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery).

The list of notable Estonian athletes include wrestlers Kristjan Palusalu, Voldemar Väli and Georg Lurich, skiers Andrus Veerpalu and Kristina Šmigun-Vähi, decathlonist Erki Nool, tennis player Kaia Kanepi, cyclists Jaan Kirsipuu and Erika Salumäe and discus throwers Gerd Kanter and Aleksander Tammert(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery).

Kiiking, a relatively new sport, was invented in 1996 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.

[edit]International rankings

The following are links to international rankings of Estonia.

Oman (i/oʊˈmɑːn/ oh-maan; Arabic: عمان‎ ʻUmān), officially called the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عُمان‎ Salṭanat ʻUmān), is an Arab state in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13). The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam enclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13A/B).

For a period, Oman was a moderate regional power, formerly having a sultanate extending across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran, and modern day Pakistan, and far south to Zanzibar on the coat of south-east Africa. Over time, as its power declined, the sultanate came under heavy influence from the United Kingdom, though Oman was never formally part of the British Empire, or a British protectorate(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13B/B). The Omani royal family claim that Oman has been ruled by the Al Said dynasty since 1744, although without substantial proof. Oman has long-standing military and political ties with the United Kingdom and the United States, although it maintains an independent foreign policy(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13/S).[6]

Oman is an absolute monarchy in which the Sultan of Oman exercises ultimate authority but its parliament has some legislative and oversight powers.[7] In November 2010, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) listed Oman, from among 135 countries worldwide, as the nation most-improved during the preceding 40 years(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13B/S).[8] According to international indices, Oman is one of the most developed and stable countries in the Arab World.[9]

History

Main article: History of Oman

[edit]Stone Age

World Heritage Graves in Al Ayn, Oman

Dereaze, located in the city of Ibri, is the oldest known human settlement in the area, dating back as many as 8,000 years to the late Stone Age.[citation needed] Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age; findings have included stone implements, animal bones(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13A/S), shells and fire hearths, with the later dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-moulded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools and scrapers.

On a mountain rock-face in the same district, animal drawings have been discovered(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q). Similar drawings have also been found in the Wadi Sahtan and Wadi Bani Kharus areas of Rustaq, consisting of human figures carrying weapons and being confronted by wild animals. Siwan in Haima is another Stone Age location and some of the archaeologists have found arrowheads, knives, chisels and circular stones which may have been used to hunt animals(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q).

Wadi Shab, Oman, 2004

Sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan or Makan, a name believed to refer to Oman's ancient copper mines. Mazoon, another name used for the region, is derived from the word muzn, which means heavy clouds which carry abundant water. The present-day name of the country, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13Q); many such tribes settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding, and many present day Omani families are able to trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia.

From the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties(Sony VGP-BPL8 Battery), the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. In the 6th century BC, the Achaemenids exerted a strong degree of control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal center such as Sohar. By about 250 BC, the Parthian dynasty had brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman(Sony VGP-BPL8A Battery), establishing garrisons in Oman to help control the trade routes in the Persian Gulf. In the 3rd century AD, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later.[10]

[edit]Arrival of Islam

The Bahla Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage site

Omanis were among the first people to embrace Islam.[11] The conversion of the Omanis is usually ascribed to Amr ibn al-As(Sony VGN-FZ130E/B Battery), who was sent by Muhammad around 630 AD to invite Jayfar and 'Abd, the joint rulers of Oman at that time, to accept the faith. In accepting Islam, Oman became an Ibadhi state, ruled by an elected leader, the Imam. During the early years of the Islamic mission, Oman played a major role in the Wars of Apostasy that occurred after the death of Muhammad(Sony VGN-FZ130E/BA Battery), and also took part in the great Islamic conquests by land and sea in Iraq, Persia and beyond. Oman's most prominent role in this respect was through its extensive trading and seafaring activities in East Africa and the Far East, particularly during the 19th century, when it propagated Islam to many of East Africa's coastal regions, certain areas of Central Africa(Sony VGN-FZ130E/BB Battery), India, Southeast Asia and China. After its conversion to Islam, Oman was ruled by Umayyads between 661–750, Abbasids between 750–931, 932–933 and 934–967, Qarmatians between 931–932 and 933–934, Buyids between 967–1053, and the Seljuks of Kirman between 1053–1154(Sony VGP-BPL9 Akku).

[edit]Portuguese colonization

A decade after Vasco da Gama discovered the seaway to India in 1498, Portuguese explorers arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 140-year period, between 1508 and 1648. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese colonists built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their colonial architectural style still remain(Sony VGP-BPL9/B Akku).

Rebellious tribes eventually drove out the Portuguese, but were pushed out themselves about a century later, in 1741, by the leader of a Yemeni tribe leading a massive army from various allied tribes, beginning the current line of ruling sultans. Excepting a brief Persian invasion in the late 1740s, Oman has been self-governing ever since(Sony VGP-BPL9/S Akku).

No foreign power controlled the entirety of what is now Oman. The majority of the territory was always ruled by tribes, with colonial control contained to a few strategic port cities. Oman, as it exists now was never under the total sway of European colonization, unlike true "colonies" such as the British in India(Sony VGP-BPL9A/B Akku).

[edit]Oman, East Africa and the Indian Ocean

The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its Sultans.

In the 1690s, Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the East African coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to bin Sultan in 1698(Sony VGP-BPL9A Akku). Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the Portuguese from Zanzibar and from all other coastal regions north of Mozambique, with the aid of the Somalis. Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the East African coast, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the 19th century Sultan of Oman(Sony VGP-BPL9 Akku), Sa'id ibn Sultan, to make it his main place of residence in 1837. Sa'id built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many regions claimed by the family on the East African coast(Sony VGP-BPS21 Akku). The other son, Thuwaini, inherited Muscat and Oman.

A History of Omani presence is also known in Comoros archipelago in the Indian ocean, which led to a great influence in the Comorian culture from the clothing, to the wedding ceremenies. It is said that the capital of Comoros, Moroni, was once the capital of the Omani sultanate empire and a centre of trade for the empire(Sony VGP-BPS21A Akku).

[edit]Oman and Gwadar

Main article: Gwadar

In 1783, Oman's Saiad Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, a coastal city located in the Makran region of what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran and at the mouth of the Gulf of Oman.[note 1][12] He was to continue this sovereignty, via an appointed wali (Sony VGP-BPS21B Akku) (or "governor"), after regaining control of Muscat, and he maintained close relations with the Emirs of Sindh. The Sultans of Muscat retained sovereignty over Gwadar until the 1950s. In 1955, Makran acceded to Pakistan and was made a district – although Gwadar, at the time, was not included in Makran. In 1958, Gwadar and its surrounding areas were returned to Pakistan by Muscat(Sony VGP-BPS21A/B Akku), and were given the status of Tahsil of the Makran district.[note 2][13]

[edit]Dhofar rebellion

Main article: Dhofar Rebellion

The Dhofar Rebellion was launched in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and Britain from 1962 to 1975. As the rebellion threatened to overthrow the Sultan's rule in Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed by his son Qaboos bin Said, who introduced major social reforms and modernised the state's administration(Sony VGP-BPS21/S Akku). The rebellion was ended by the intervention of Iranian Imperial forces, Pakistani Baluchistan Imperial ground forces, British Royal Air Force air power and major offensives by the expanded Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces.

[edit]2011 Omani protests

Main article: 2011 Omani protests

[edit]Politics

The Sultan's Al Alam Palace in Old Muscat

Main articles: Politics of Oman and Human rights in Oman(Akku Sony VGP-BPL14)

The head of state and of the government is the hereditary sultan, Qaboos bin Said Al Said, who appoints a cabinet called the "Diwans" to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected council, the Consultative Assembly of Oman, It had advisory roles until 2011, when Sultan Qaboos decided to give legislative powers to the council( Akku Sony VGP-BPL14 ), allowing the newly elected parliament to question ministers, propose laws and suggest changes to government regulations.[14]

There are no legal political parties in Oman. As more and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted(Akku Sony VGP-BPS14/S ).[15] A State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests.

[edit]Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign relations of Oman

Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy and expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. Oman is among the very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with Iran(Akku Sony VGP-BPL14/B).[16][17] Wikileaks disclosed US diplomatic cables which have shown that cordial relations between Oman and Iran have borne fruit for the United Kingdom (in helping release British sailors imprisoned by Iran).[18] The same cables also portray the Omani government as wishing to maintain cordial relations with Iran and as having continuously turned down US diplomats requesting Oman to take a sterner stance against Iran(Akku Sony VGP-BPS14/B ).

[edit]Military

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)

Main article: Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces

Oman's armed forces, the Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF), including Royal Household troops, numbered 120,000 in 2010, consisting of: 105,000 personnel in the Royal Army of Oman (RAO) (AKKU sony VAIO VGN-FW21E), equipped with over 120 main battle tanks and 37 Scorpion tanks; 8,100 personnel in the Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO) operating 180–200 combat aircraft, trainers, transports and helicopters; and 6,200 personnel in the Royal Navy of Oman (RNO) sailing 64 patrol and coastal vessels. Paramilitary units include the Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) (AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21I) of 8,000 personnel organized in small tribal teams, a Royal Oman Police (ROP) coast guard of 400, and a small ROP air wing. Funded directly by the Sultan, the elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit number 6,400, including two special forces regiments. Oman holds one of the world's largest amounts of Scud missiles(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L), ranging at an estimate of over 30,000 ballistic missiles. In 2008 Oman spent 7.7% of GDP on military expenditures.[23] According to Times Online, Oman is home to the world's only camel-backed bagpipe military band.

[edit]Geography

Coast of Sur, Oman

Main articles: Geography of Oman and Geology of Oman

Geography of Oman

Coastline         2,092 km(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z)

Bordering countries     Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen

Oman lies between latitudes 16° and 28° N, and longitudes 52° and 60° E.

A vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges along the north (Al Hajar Mountains) and southeast coast, where the country's main cities are also located: the capital city Muscat, Sohar and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south. Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M). During past epochs Oman was covered by ocean, witnessed by the large numbers of fossilized shells existing in areas of the desert away from the modern coastline.

Desert landscape in Oman

The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem) exclave, which has a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M).[24] The series of small towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea, with boats available for hire at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by sea.

Oman's other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as Madha, located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J),[24] is part of the Musandam governorate, covering approximately 75 km2 (29 sq mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 m (32.8 ft) from the Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8 km (5 mi) along a dirt track west of the town of New Madha(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E), consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.[25]

[edit]Climate

Main article: Climate of Oman

Oman has a hot climate and very little rainfall. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 100 mm (3.9 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 640 mm (25.2 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z).[citation needed] While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around 50 °C (122.0 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31ZJ).

Flora and fauna

Nakhal palm tree farms in the Batina Region, Sultanate of Oman

Desert shrub and desert grass, common to southern Arabia, are found, but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely gravel desert.

The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW32Z); coconut palms grow plentifully in the coastal plains of Dhofar and frankincense is produced in the hills, with abundant oleander and varieties of acacia.

The Al Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion, the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr(AKKU Sony VAIO PCG-5G2L).

Indigenous mammals include the leopard, hyena, fox, wolf, and hare, oryx and ibex. Birds include the vulture, eagle, stork, bustard, Arabian partridge, bee eater, falcon and sunbird. in 2001 Oman had nine endangered species of mammals and five endangered types of birds[citation needed] and nineteen threatened plant species(AKKU Sony VAIO PCG-5G3L ). Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, including the Arabian leopard, Arabian Oryx, Mountain gazelle, Goitered Gazelle, Arabian tahr, Green sea turtle, Hawksbill Turtle and Olive ridley turtle, but UNESCO have de-listed the Oman Arabian Oryx sanctuary from the World Heritage list due to the government's decision to reduce the site to 10% of its former size(Sony VAIO PCG-5J1L Akku).[27]

[edit]Administrative divisions

Main article: Regions and governorates of Oman

Since 28 October 2011, Oman is divided into eleven governorates (muhafazah):

Ad Dakhiliyah

Ad Dhahirah North

Al Batinah North

Al Batinah South

Al Buraimi

Al Wusta

Ash Sharqiyah North

Ash Sharqiyah South

Dhofar

Masqat

Musandam

Below the governorates, Oman is divided into provinces (wilayat) (Sony VAIO PCG-5J2L Akku).

[edit]Environment

Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply, so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable water resources; 94% of available water is used in farming and 2% for industrial activity(Sony VAIO PCG-5K2L Akku), with the majority sourced from fossil water in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains. Drinking water is available throughout the country, either piped or delivered.

The soil in coastal plains, such as Salalah, have shown increased levels of salinity, due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table(Sony VAIO PCG-5K1L Akku). Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent risk.

Demographics of Oman

Languages      Arabic,Balochi, English

Religion Ibadi Islam

Ethnic groups         Arab, Baloch, South Asian and African

Life expectancy      73.13 years

[edit]Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Oman

According to the 2010 census, the total population was 2.773 million and of those, 1.96 million were Omanis. The population has grown from 2.340 million in the 2003 census(Sony VAIO PCG-6S1L Akku). In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz.

Some 600,000 foreigners live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, India and the Philippines(Sony VAIO PCG-6S2L Akku).

[edit]Religion

The Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque is the largest Mosque in Oman and one of the largest in the world.

Around 75% of the population consists of Ibadhi, a form of Islam distinct from the Sunni and Shia denominations, 24% Sunni Muslims and the Shiia forming the remaining 1% of the Omani population(Sony VAIO PCG-6W1L Akku). The Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, but most citizens are Muslims.[31] Non-Muslim religious communities individually constitute less than 5% of the population and include various groups of Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Baha'is, and Christians. Christian communities are centered in the major urban areas of Muscat(Sony VAIO PCG-6W2L Akku), Sohar, and Salalah and include Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations, organizing along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than 50 different Christian groups, fellowships, and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from Southeast Asia, although there are small communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians that have been naturalized(Sony VAIO PCG-6W3L Akku).[citation needed] Many of the non-Muslims in Oman are due to the historical and cultural influence of India.

[edit]Economy

Economy of Oman

The Central Bank of Oman

Currency         Omani Riyal (R$, OMR)

Fiscal year      Calendar year

Central Bank Central Bank of Oman

Stock Market         Muscat Stock Market

Main article: Economy of Oman

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Sony VAIO PCG-7111L Akku)

Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that, "The National Economy is based on justice and the principles of a free economy."

Omani citizens enjoy good living standards, but the future is uncertain with Oman's limited oil reserves.[31] Other sources of income, agriculture and industry, are small in comparison and count for less than 1% of the country's exports(Sony VAIO PCG-7112L Akku), but diversification is seen as a priority in the government of Oman. Agriculture, often subsistence in its character, produces dates, limes, grains and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under cultivation Oman is likely to remain a net importer of food.

Since the slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, such as tourism(Sony VAIO PCG-7113L Akku).

[edit]Oil and gas

Petrochemical tanks in Sohar

Oman's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, 24th largest in the world.[32] Oil is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining.[33][34] In 2009, production was estimated at 816,000 barrels per day(Sony VAIO PCG-7131L Akku).[35]

Commercial export of oil began in 1967 and since Sultan Qaboos' accession to the throne in 1970, many more oil fields have been found and developed. In June 1999, PDO discovered a new oil field in southern Oman after drilling and testing three wells which demonstrated the commercial viability of the reservoir(Sony VAIO PCG-7132L Akku).

Work is continuing on the RO 503.876 million (US$1.3 billion) oil refinery project in Sohar, which was due to go into operation in 2006 with a 116,400 barrels per day (18,510 m3/d) refining capacity, with the short to mid-term future of Oman resting on the project. In 2004 the Oman Oil Refinery was supplied with about 78,200 barrels per day (Sony VAIO PCG-7133L Akku) (12,430 m3/d) for refining, while PDO began using steam injection technology in several wells to increase their productivity.

Natural gas has increased greatly in importance due to the exploitation of gas fields and the opening of a processing plant at Sur, on the coast south of Muscat. Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic meters(Sony VAIO PCG-7z1L Akku), ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24 billion cubic meters per year.[36]

[edit]Mineral resources

Oman's mineral resources include chromite, dolomite, zinc, limestone, gypsum, silicon, copper, gold, cobalt and iron. Several industries have grown up around them as part of the national development process which, in turn, have boosted the minerals sector's contribution to the nation’s GDP as well as providing jobs for Omanis(Sony VAIO PCG-7z1L Akku). The mineral sector's operations include mining and quarrying, with several projects recently completed, including: an economic feasibility study on silica ore in Wadi Buwa and Abutan in the Wusta Region, which confirmed that there were exploitable reserves of around 28 million tonnes at the two sites; a feasibility study on the production of magnesium metal from dolomite ore(Sony VAIO PCG-8Y1L Akku); a draft study on processing limestone derivatives; a project to produce geological maps of the Sharqiyah Region; economic feasibility studies on the exploitation of gold and copper ores in the Ghaizeen area; a study on raw materials in the wilayats of Duqm and Sur for use in the Sultanate's cement industry(Sony VAIO PCG-8Y2L Akku); and a study on the construction of a new minerals laboratory at Ghala in the Governorate of Muscat.

[edit]Industry

The industrial sector is a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s long-term (1996–2020) development strategy for diversifying the sources of national income and reducing dependence on oil(Sony VAIO PCG-8Z1L Akku); it is also capable of helping to meet Oman's social development needs and generate greater added value for national resources by processing them into manufactured products.

The Seventh Five-Year Development Plan creates the conditions for an attractive investment climate, providing a strategy for the industrial sector aiming to develop the information technology and telecommunications industries(Sony VAIO PCG-8Z2L Akku). The Knowledge Oasis Muscat complex has been set up and expanded, and Omani companies are developing their technological potential through collaboration with various Japanese and German institutions.

There are industrial estates in Sohar, Sur, Salalah, Nizwa and Buraimi providing industries with the resources for expansion(Akku Sony VGN-NR11M/S). Provision of Natural gas to the industrial estates in Sohar and Salalah, help to promote expansion of those industries reliant on large quantities of energy; tax exemptions are given as an incentive to encourage their expansion and development, with the industrial sector expected to contribute 15% to the country's GDP by 2020. (Akku Sony VGN-NR11S/S)

[edit]Development plans

Sohar port is expected to transform Oman's economy

The Omani economy has been radically transformed over a series of development plans beginning with the First Five-year Plan (1976–1980). At Sultan Qaboos's instruction, "Vision 2020", a plan for Oman's economic future up to the year 2020, was set out at the end of the first phase of the country's development, from 1970–1995(Akku Sony VGN-NR11Z/S), outlining the country's economic and social goals over the 25 years of the second phase of the development process (1996–2020).

Oman 2020, held in June 1995, has developed the following aims with regard to securing Oman's future prosperity and growth:

To have economic and financial stability

To reshape the role of the Government in the economy and to broaden private sector participation

To diversify the economic base and sources of national income(Akku Sony VGN-NR11Z/T)

To globalize the Omani economy

To upgrade the skills of the Omani workforce and develop human resources

A free-trade agreement with the United States took effect 1 January 2009, eliminating tariff barriers on all consumer and industrial products, also providing strong protections for foreign businesses investing in Oman.[37]

[edit]Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Oman

Al-Bustan Palace Hotel

Oman is known for its popular tourist attractions(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11E Battery). Wadis, deserts, beaches, and mountains are areas which make Oman unique among its neighboring Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) nations (wadis in particular). With a coastline of 1700 km, Oman offers clean beaches popular with visitors. Few beaches are private, except some attached to the beach resort hotels(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L), or those adjoining military or official property. Wadis are green, lush oases of palm trees, grasses, and flowers. Some wadis have year-round running water, with deep, cool pools in which it is quite safe to swim if the currents are slow. A Falaj (pl. aflaaj) is a system for the distribution of water and is commonly used to describe irrigation channel systems downstream of water sources(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M). Some aflaaj in Oman were built more than 1,500 years ago, whilst others were built at the beginning of the 20th century. In many areas, the only water available is attained by drilling wells to depths of dozens of meters.[citation needed]

Numerous forts and castles are included among Oman's cultural landmarks and, together with its towers and city walls(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S), have historically been used as defensive bastions or look-out points, as well as the seats of administrative and judicial authority. There are over 500 forts, castles, and towers in various architectural styles, built to defend more than 3200 km coastline from potential invaders(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z).

Inside of Grand Hyatt at Muscat

Souqs can be found in many of the towns throughout the country. One of the oldest preserved souqs in Oman is Muttrah, on the Corniche, consisting of a maze of pathways; gold and silver jewelry is found in abundance as well as numerous wooden carvings, ornaments and spices and traditional implements(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E/B). Household goods make up the bulk of the wares. Today the capital area also has a number of Western European-style Shopping Malls, mainly situated in Qurum, but also extending to the Al Khuwair area of Muscat, where a variety of shops, ranging from boutiques to chain stores, can be found(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E).[38] The largest mall in the country is the Muscat City Centre which includes a French Carrefour hypermarket. Another mall namely the Muscat Grand Mall is expected to open soon and it will be the largest mall in Oman.Now 10 other big hypermarkets are there in Oman named Lulu Hypermarket(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E).

Other popular tourist activities include sand skiing in the desert, scuba diving, rock climbing, trekking, surfing & sailing, cave exploration, birdwatching, bull fighting, and camel races. The Sohar Music Festival happening in Sohar every October/November attracts more and more tourists each year(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J). The Muscat Festival, usually held in January and February, is similar to the Dubai Shopping Festival, but smaller in scale, where traditional dances are held, temporary theme parks open, and concerts take place. Another popular event is The Khareef Festival held in Salalah, Dhofar, which is 1,200 km from the capital city of Muscat, during the monsoon season (August) (Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M) and is similar to Muscat Festival. During this latter event the mountains surrounding Salalah are popular with tourists as a result of the cool weather and lush greenery, rarely found anywhere else in Oman.[39]

[edit]Labor

The estimated workforce was 920,000 in 2002. These days average pay is around 100 OMR to 150 OMR per month. A large proportion of the indigenous population were still engaged in subsistence agriculture or fishing(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S). The skilled local labor force is small, and many of the larger industries depend on foreign workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Philippines, India, and Sri Lanka. Oman's foreign workers send an estimated US$30 billion annually to their Asian and African home states, more than half of them earning a monthly wage of less than US$400[40] (Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z). The largest foreign community is from the south Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka or come from Maharastra, Gujarat and the Punjab[41], representing more than half of entire workforce in Oman. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be less than for Omani nationals, though still from two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M) [40].

The minimum working age for Omani citizens is 13, but this provision is not enforced against the employment of children in family businesses or on family farms. The minimum working age for foreign workers is 21. The minimum wage for non-professional workers was US$260 per month in 2002. However, many classes of workers (Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E) (domestic servants, farmers, government employees) are not required to receive the minimum wage and the government is not consistent in its enforcement of the minimum wage law. The private sector working week is 40 to 45 hours long, while government officials have a 35-hour working week.[citation needed] (Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J)

[edit]Labor unions

Oman Law was amended during February 2010 to allow the formation of labor unions. There are now approximately 70 Labor Unions within the Sultanate. The law actually allows peaceful protests. Collective bargaining is not permitted, however there exist labor-management committees in firms with more than 50 workers(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M). These committees are not authorized to discuss conditions of employment, including hours and wages. The Labor Welfare Board provides a venue for grievances.[citation needed]

[edit]Inflation

As oil prices have risen to a record high, so has inflation. The government depends mostly on oil revenue, more than on tax returns from companies and other government-owned companies. The government is also Oman's largest employer(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery), so the high interest that government gets increases the prices of food and construction equipment. The government did support the fuel prices so it doesn't increase the inflation and to make the price suitable for people on low wages.

The minimum wage has been changed from 120 Rials a month to 140 Rials because of high records of inflation driven by high prices of oil(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery).[citation needed] In February 2011, the minimum wage was increased from 140 Rials per month to 200 Rials per month.[citation needed]

[edit]Transportation

Main article: Transport in Oman

Oman maintains the following road links to its neighboring countries:

United Arab Emirates: Oman has several good road connections at Buraimi (Al Ain), Waddi Hatta (Wajaja), Khamat Mulahah (Fujairah) and Bukha(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery).

Yemen: Route 47: Raysut to Sarfait in Oman – Yemen border. The road then goes to Hawf, Al Faydami, Al Ghaydah. Another road is from Thumrait to Al Mazyonah in Oman – Yemen border.The road then goes to Shisan, Al Kurah, Al Ghaydah.

Saudi Arabia: Desert road through Al Mashash. There is also a new road under construction to link the two countries(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery).

Oman National Transport Company or ONTC is the Oman's public bus service company. Muscat International Airport and Salalah Airport are the two main airports in Oman. A rail link has been proposed connecting all major GCC nations and Oman is party to this project. The Muscat Port or Port Sultan Qaboos (Mina Qaboos as its locally known) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery) is the prime maritime gateway of Oman. Other ports have been built in Salalah and Sohar. The Sohar port will be one of the largest in the region once construction completely finishes. Oman is also constructing the Al Duqm Port & Drydock and drydock.

Oman Air is the national carrier of Oman. Formerly Gulf Air was the national carrier of the Sultanate, but as other Arab nations withdrew from the joint venture, Oman too withdrew. It was the last country to do so(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery).

The Oman Ferries Company maintains the two diesel-powered, high-speed, car ferries – Shinas and Hormouz. The ferries are used for travel between Muscat and Khasab. Khasab is strategically located in Musandam on the southern tip of the Strait of Hormuz and is controlled by Oman. Mainland Oman is separated by a small strip of UAE territory from Musandam(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery).[42]

[edit]Education

Main article: Education in Oman

Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the whole country with fewer than 1000 students receiving education in them. Since Sultan Qaboos came to power in 1970, the government has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor in the country's economic and social progress(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). Today there are over 1000 state schools and about 650,000 students. In 1986, Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened. University of Nizwa is also one of the fastest growing Universities in Oman with a newly completed research center and a growing department of Information Systems(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery). The department of Information Systems of the University of Nizwa is perhaps the biggest in the Gulf in terms of students' population. Among notable American Professors include Dr. Richmond Adebiaye who is considered an expert in Information Systems and Security. Other post-secondary institutions in Oman include Higher College of Technology and its six other colleges of technology(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery), six colleges of applied sciences (including a teacher's training college), a college of banking and financial studies, an institute of Sharia sciences, and several nursing institutes. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad.

University of Nizwa

The University of Nizwa was established in 2002 by the Decree of His Majesty the Sultan Qaboos as the first non-profit university in the Sultanate of Oman(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery); it remains the only institution of its kind in the nation. Upon the satisfaction of all requirements set forth by the Ministry of Higher Education and the Higher Education Council, the University of Nizwa was granted legal status by ministerial decision No. 1/2004 on 3 January 2004(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). On 16 October 2004, the University of Nizwa opened the doors to its inaugural class of 1,200 students, 88% of whom were Omani women. The current campus is located near the base of the famous Jabal al-Akhdhar in Birkat al-Mouz, 20 km NW of Nizwa. The construction of a new campus, located near the new Farq-Hail highwa began in March 2010(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery). The university is currently in the final stage of institutional accreditation in accordance with the academic standards established by the Oman Academic Accreditation Authority.

Though the student body comprises native Arabic speakers, the official language of academic instruction is English, making the university a bilingual institution. English language proficiency is achieved in a year-long intensive course as part of the academic General Foundation Program(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery).

Pre-university education in Oman has three stages: primary, preparatory, and secondary. Six years of primary schooling are followed by preparatory school. Academic results of the preparatory exams determine the type of secondary education the student will receive. Nine private colleges exist, providing two-year post secondary diplomas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). Since 1999, the government has embarked on reforms in higher education designed to meet the needs of a growing population, only a small percentage of which are currently admitted to Higher Education Institutions. Under the reformed system, four public regional universities will be created, and incentives are provided by the government to promote the upgrading of the existing nine private colleges and the creation of other degree-granting private colleges. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery)

The adult illiteracy rate was estimated at 28.1% for the year 2000 (males, 19.6%; females, 38.3%). In 1998, there were 411 primary schools with 313,516 students and 12,052 teachers. Student-to-teacher ratio stood at 26 to 1. In secondary schools in 1998, there were 12,436 teachers and 217,246 students(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery). As of 1999, 65% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 59% of those eligible attended secondary school. In the same year, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.9% of GDP. In 1993, there were 252 literacy centers and 176 adult education centers. Three teachers' colleges were functioning as of 1986(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). The Institute of Agriculture at Nazwa became a full college by 1985. Sultan Qaboos University opened in 1986. In 1998, all higher-level institutions had 1,307 teachers and 16,032 students.

Apart from the schools for Omani nationals, various other schools are present in Oman too that accommodate the children of the huge expatriate population of Oman. These include Indian Schools, Bangaldeshi Schools, Sri Lankan Schools, Pakistani Schools(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery), The American School in Muscat, The American British Academy and the Philippine School Muscat.

[edit]Science and technology

A water oasis in Oman provides a source of drinking water for animals and humans.

Most research conducted in Oman has been done at the behest of the government; agriculture, minerals, water resources, and marine sciences have drawn the most attention. Sultan Qaboos University, founded in 1985, has colleges of science, medicine, engineering, and agriculture(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery). In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 13% of college and university enrollments.

The Institute of Health Sciences, under the Ministry of Health, was founded in 1982. Muscat Technical Industrial College (later renamed the Higher College of Technology), founded in 1984, has departments of computing and mathematics(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery), laboratory science, and electrical, construction, and mechanical engineering.[citation needed] The Oman Natural History Museum, founded in 1983, includes the national herbarium and the national shell collection. All of these organizations are located in Muscat.

[edit]Meteorites

The central desert of Oman is an important source of meteorites for scientific analysis(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery).[43] Since 1999, search campaigns in Oman have provided about 20% of the world's meteorites.[citation needed] These include rare meteorites from Mars and the Moon. The meteorite accumulations in the gravelly central desert play an important role in increasing knowledge of conditions in the early solar systemv(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery).

[edit]Health

As of 1999, there were an estimated 1.3 physicians and 2.2 hospital beds per 1,000 people. In 1993, 89% of the population had access to health care services. In 2000, 99% of the population had access to health care services.[citation needed] During the last three decades, the Oman health care system has demonstrated and reported great achievements in health care services and preventive and curative medicine(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery). In 2001, Oman was ranked number 8 by the World Health Organization.

[edit]Culture

Main article: Culture of Oman

See also: Islam in Oman, List of traditional games in Oman, Music of Oman, Cinema of Oman, and Women in Oman

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Although Arabic is Oman's official language, there are native speakers of different dialects, as well as Balochi (the language of the Baloch from Baluchistan western-Pakistan, eastern Iran) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery), and southern Afghanistan or offshoots of Southern Arabian, and some descendants of Sindhi sailors. Also spoken in Oman are Semitic languages only distantly related to Arabic, but closely related to Semitic languages in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Swahili and English are also widely spoken in the country due to the historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar the two languages have been linked historically(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery. The dominant indigenous language is a dialect of Arabic and the country has also adopted English as a second language. Almost all signs and writings appear in both Arabic and English.[citation needed] A significant number also speak Urdu, due to the influx of Pakistani migrants during the late 1980s and the 1990s(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery).

Khanjar knife, traditional dagger of Oman, circa 1924

Oman is famous for its khanjar knives, which are curved daggers worn during holidays as part of ceremonial dress. During the Medieval era, khanjars became highly popular as they symbolized Muslim sailors, and later various types of khanjars were made(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery), representing various sailing nations in the Muslim world. Today, traditional clothing is worn by most Omani men. This typically consists of an ankle-length, collarless robe called a dishdasha that buttons at the neck with a tassel hanging down. Traditionally, this tassel would be dipped in perfume. Today the tassel is merely a traditional part of the dishdasha(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery).

Women wear the hijab and abaya. Some women cover their faces and hands, but most do not.[citation needed] The abaya is a traditional dress and currently comes in different styles. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in universities. On holidays, such as Eid, the women wear traditional dress(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery), which is often very brightly colored and consists of a mid-calf length tunic over trousers. The Abaya is mostly worn in the capital, whereas in the interior regions brightly colored dresses are the usual attire.[citation needed]

[edit]Food

Main article: Cuisine of Oman

The main daily meal is usually eaten at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During Ramadan, dinner is served after the Taraweeh prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery). Maqbous is a rice dish, with yellow rice and saffron served and cooked over spicy red or white meat. Arsia is a festival meal, served during celebrations, which consists of mashed rice flavoured with spices. Another popular festival meal is shuwa, which is meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to 2 days) in an underground clay oven(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). The meat becomes extremely tender and it is infused with spices and herbs before cooking to give it a very distinct taste. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the kingfish is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal consisting of a whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. Rukhal bread is a thin, round bread originally baked over a fire made from palm leaves(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). It is eaten at any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner. Chicken, fish and mutton are regularly used in dishes.

Although spices, herbs, onion, garlic and lime are liberally used in traditional Omani Cuisine, unlike similar Asian food, it is not hot or spicy. Omani Cuisine is also distinct from the Indigenous foods of other Arab states of the Arabian Peninsula and even varies within the Sultanate's different regions(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery).[citation needed] There are also significant differences in cuisine between different regions of Oman.

[edit]Sport

Sports of Oman

Popular sports       Football, volleyball, handball, basketball and hockey.

National sports teams 5

National sports clubs   48

National colors      Red, white, green

Ali Al-Habsi is an Omani professional association football player. He currently plays in the Premier League as a goalkeeper for Wigan Athletic(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery).[44]

The government aims to give young people a fully rounded education by providing activities and experience in the sporting, cultural, intellectual, social and scientific spheres, and to excel internationally in these areas and for this reason, in October 2004, the government created a Ministry of Sports Affairs to replace the General Organization for youth, sports and cultural affair(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery)s.

The 2009 Gulf Cup of Nations, the 19th edition, took place in Muscat, from 4 to 17 January 2009 and was won by the Omani national football team.

The International Olympic Committee awarded the former GOYSCA its prestigious prize for Sporting excellence in recognition of its contributions to youth and sports and its efforts to promote the Olympic spirit and goals(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery).

The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organizing the highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports associations, clubs and young participants. The football association took part, along with the handball, basketball, rugby union, hockey, volleyball, athletics, swimming, and tennis associations. In 2010, Muscat hosted the 2010 Asian Beach Games(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery).

They also host tennis tournaments in different age divisions each year. Inside the Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex stadium contains a 50 meter pool for swimming which is used for international tournaments from different schools in different countries. The Tour of Oman, a professional cycling 6-day stage race, is held in February(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery).

Oman also hosted the Asian 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualifiers, where 11 teams are competing for 3 spots at the FIFA World Cup.

Oman is perhaps the only Gulf nation to have bullfighting events organised in its territories. Al-Batena area is prominent for such events. Wide audiences turn up to see the events unfold. Omani bullfighting is however not a violent event(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). The origins of Bullfighting in Oman are unknown though many locals here believe it was brought to Oman by the Moors of Spanish origin. Yet others say it has a direct connection with Portugal which colonized the Omani coastline for nearly 2 centuries(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery).

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is a private humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland. States parties (signatories) to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005, have given the ICRC a mandate to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery). Such victims include war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-combatants.[3]

The ICRC is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Federation and 186 National Societies.[4] It is the oldest and most honored organization within the Movement and one of the most widely recognized organizations in the world, having won three Nobel Peace Prizes in 1917(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery), 1944, and 1963.[5]

History

[edit] Solferino, Henry Dunant and the foundation of the ICRC

Henry Dunant, author of "A Memory of Solferino".

Up until the middle of the 19th century, there were no organized and well-established army nursing systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield. In June 1859(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery), the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant traveled to Italy to meet French emperor Napoléon III with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in Algeria, at that time occupied by France. When he arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June, he witnessed the Battle of Solferino, an engagement in the Austro-Sardinian War. In a single day(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery), about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery). He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published with his own money in 1862. He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ20 battery). In addition to penning a vivid description of his experiences in Solferino in 1859, he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of those wounded on the battlefield as well as medics and field hospitals(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19VN battery).

Original document of the first Geneva Convention, 1864.

On 9 February 1863 in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the "Committee of the Five" (together with four other leading figures from well-known Geneva families) as an investigatory commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant's ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19L battery). The members of this committee, aside from Dunant himself, were Gustave Moynier, lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare; physician Louis Appia, who had significant experience working as a field surgeon; Appia's friend and colleague Théodore Maunoir, from the Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190U battery); and Guillaume-Henri Dufour, a Swiss Army general of great renown. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the "International Committee for Relief to the Wounded". In October (26–29) 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The conference was attended by 36 individuals(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N battery): eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from other non-governmental organizations, seven non-official foreign delegates, and the five members of the International Committee. The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were Baden, Bavaria, France, Britain, Hanover, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190EB battery), Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and Spain. Among the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference, adopted on 29 October 1863, were:

The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers;

Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;

The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;

The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/B battery); and

The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field, namely a white armlet bearing a red cross.

Memorial commemorating the first use of the Red Cross symbol in an armed conflict during the Battle of Dybbøl (Denmark) in 1864; jointly erected in 1989 by the national Red Cross societies of Denmark and Germany(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E battery).

The Red Cross in action in 1864

Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, to attend an official diplomatic conference. Sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field"(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18T battery). Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and Württemberg. The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18S battery), field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict. Furthermore, the convention defined two specific requirements for recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee:

The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18G battery)

The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention.

Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention, the first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, Oldenburg, Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg. Also in 1864, Louis Appia and Charles van de Velde, a captain of the Dutch Army, became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18E battery). Three years later in 1867, the first International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded was convened.

Also in 1867, Henry Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria, partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U battery). Controversy surrounding Dunant's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion, combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier, led to Dunant's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary. He was charged with fraudulent bankruptcy and a warrant for his arrest was issued. Thus, he was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U/B battery). In the following years, national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe. In 1876, the committee adopted the name "International Committee of the Red Cross" (ICRC), which is still its official designation today. Five years later, the American Red Cross was founded through the efforts of Clara Barton(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E/B battery). More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts. In a rather short period of time, the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work.

When the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, the Norwegian Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Henry Dunant and Frédéric Passy(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E battery), a leading international pacifist. More significant than the honor of the prize itself, the official congratulation from the International Committee of the Red Cross marked the overdue rehabilitation of Henry Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L battery). Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of Heiden. Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died, leaving a mark in the history of the Committee as its longest-serving president ever.

In 1906, the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time. One year later, the Hague Convention X, adopted at the Second International Peace Conference in The Hague, extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G battery). Shortly before the beginning of the First World War in 1914, 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had extended itself beyond Europe and North America to Central and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, El Salvador, Uruguay, Venezuela) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17 battery), Asia (the Republic of China, Japan, Korea, Siam), and Africa (South Africa).

[edit] World War I

French postcard celebrating the role of Red Cross nurses during the First World War, 1915.

With the outbreak of World War I, the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges which it could only handle by working closely with the national Red Cross societies. Red Cross nurses from around the world, including the United States and Japan(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E/B battery), came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war. On 15 October 1914, immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War (POW) Agency, which had about 1,200 mostly volunteer staff members by the end of 1914. By the end of the war, the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E battery), 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million Swiss francs in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries. Furthermore, due to the intervention of the Agency, about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties, released from captivity and returned to their home country. The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S battery), each card representing an individual prisoner or missing person. The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families. The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M battery).

During the entire war, the ICRC monitored warring parties’ compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country. When chemical weapons were used in this war for the first time in history, the ICRC vigorously protested against this new type of warfare(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L battery). Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations. In territories that were officially designated as "occupied territories," the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the Hague Convention's "Laws and Customs of War on Land" of 1907. This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC's work for prisoners of war(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15 battery). In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above this included inspection visits to POW camps. A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC until the end of the war.

Between 1916 and 1918, the ICRC published a number of postcards with scenes from the POW camps. The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ145E battery). The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones. After the end of the war, the ICRC organized the return of about 420,000 prisoners to their home countries. In 1920, the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded League of Nations(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N battery), which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist Fridtjof Nansen as its "High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners." His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations "High Commissioner for Refugees." (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N/B battery) Nansen, who invented the Nansen passport for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies.

A year before the end of the war, the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work. It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918(SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery). In 1923, the Committee adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members. Until then, only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This limitation was expanded to include Swiss citizens. As a direct consequence of World War I, an additional protocol to the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons(SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery). Four years later, the original Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" was established. The events of World War I and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies(SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery).

As early as in 1934, a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference. Unfortunately, most governments had little interest in implementing this convention, and it was thus prevented from entering into force before the beginning of World War II(SONY VGP-BPS10A battery).

[edit] World War II

Red Cross message from Łódź, Poland, 1940.

The legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II were the Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision. The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I: visiting and monitoring POW camps, organizing relief assistance for civilian populations(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery), and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons. By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene) had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery), and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency. One major obstacle was that the Nazi-controlled German Red Cross refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes including blatant violations such as the deportation of Jews from Germany and the mass murders conducted in the concentration camps run by the German government. Moreover, two other main parties to the conflict(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery), the Soviet Union and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions.

During the war, the ICRC failed to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps, and it eventually abandoned applying pressure to avoid disrupting its work with POWs(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery). The ICRC also failed to develop a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews. This is still considered the greatest failure of the ICRC in its history. After November 1943, the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations(Sony VAIO VGN-NW35e battery). Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, primarily to the camps Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen.[6]

Marcel Junod, delegate of the ICRC, visiting POWs in Germany(Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/TC battery).

( Benoit Junod, Switzerland)

Swiss historian Jean-Claude Favez, who conducted an 8-year review of the Red Cross records, says that even though the Red Cross knew by November 1942 about the Nazi’s annihilation plans for the Jews – and even discussed it with U.S. officials – the group did nothing to inform the public, maintaining silence even in the face of pleas by Jewish groups(Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery).

Because the Red Cross was based in Geneva and largely funded by the Swiss government, it was very sensitive to Swiss wartime attitudes and policies. On October 1942, the Swiss government and the Red Cross’ board of members vetoed a proposal by several Red Cross board members to condemn the persecution of civilians by the Nazis(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery). For the rest of the war, the Red Cross took its cues from Switzerland in avoiding acts of opposition or confrontation with the Nazis.

On 12 March 1945, ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General Ernst Kaltenbrunner accepting the ICRC's demand to allow delegates to visit the concentration camps(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery). This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them Louis Haefliger (Mauthausen Camp), Paul Dunant (Theresienstadt Camp) and Victor Maurer (Dachau Camp), accepted the assignment and visited the camps. Louis Haefliger prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery), thereby saving the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president Cornelio Sommaruga(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery).

Another example of great humanitarian spirit was Friedrich Born (1903–1963), an ICRC delegate in Budapest who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jews in Hungary. Marcel Junod (1904–1961), a physician from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. An account of his experiences, which included being one of the first foreigners to visit Hiroshima after the atomic bomb was dropped(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery), can be found in the book Warrior without Weapons.

In 1944, the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize. As in World War I, it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war, 1939 to 1945. At the end of the war, the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery). In 1948, the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from 1 September 1939 to 30 June 1947. Since January 1996, the ICRC archive for this period has been open to academic and public research.

[edit] After the Second World War

The ICRC Headquarters in Geneva.

On 12 August 1949, further revisions to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted. An additional convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea"(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery), now called the second Geneva Convention, was brought under the Geneva Convention umbrella as a successor to the 1907 Hague Convention X. The 1929 Geneva convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" may have been the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view (because it was actually formulated in Geneva) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery), but after 1949 it came to be called the third Convention because it came later chronologically than the Hague Convention. Reacting to the experience of World War II, the Fourth Geneva Convention, a new Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War," was established. Also, the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery). Today, the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles, a remarkable expansion when compared to the mere 10 articles in the first 1864 convention.

In celebration of its centennial in 1963, the ICRC, together with the League of Red Cross Societies, received its third Nobel Peace Prize. Since 1993, non-Swiss individuals have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery), a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Indeed, since then, the share of staff without Swiss citizenship has increased to about 35%.

On 16 October 1990, the UN General Assembly decided to grant the ICRC observer status for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the Italian ambassador(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery), Vieri Traxler, in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino. An agreement with the Swiss government signed on 19 March 1993, affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any possible interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery), grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery).

The ICRC continued its activities throughout the 1990s. It broke its customary media silence when it denounced the Rwandan Genocide in 1994. It struggled to prevent the crimes that happened in and around Srebrenica in 1995 but admitted, "We must acknowledge that despite our efforts to help thousands of civilians forcibly (Sony Vaio VGN-CR220E/R Battery)expelled from the town and despite the dedication of our colleagues on the spot, the ICRC's impact on the unfolding of the tragedy was extremely limited."[7] It went public once again in 2007 to decry "major human rights abuses" by Burma's military government including forced labor, starvation, and murder of men, women, and children(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/R Battery).[8]

[edit] Fatalities

At the end of the Cold War, the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the 1990s, more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery):

Frédéric Maurice. He died on 19 May 1992 at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former Yugoslavian city of Sarajevo.

Fernanda Calado (Spain), Ingeborg Foss (Norway), Nancy Malloy (Canada), Gunnhild Myklebust (Norway), Sheryl Thayer (New Zealand), and Hans Elkerbout (Netherlands) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of 17 December 1996 in the ICRC field hospital in the Chechen city of Nowije Atagi near Grozny. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings.

Rita Fox (Switzerland), Véronique Saro (Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly Zaire), Julio Delgado (Colombia), Unen Ufoirworth (DR Congo) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery), Aduwe Boboli (DR Congo), and Jean Molokabonge (DR Congo). On 26 April 2001, they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers.

Ricardo Munguia (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery). He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39.

Vatche Arslanian (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the crossfire of fighting in the city(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery).

Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on 22 July 2003, when his car was fired upon near the city of Hilla in the south of Baghdad.

[edit] The Holocaust

By taking part in the 1995 ceremony to commemorate the liberation of the Auschwitz concentration camp, the President of the ICRC, Cornelio Sommaruga, sought to show that the organization was fully aware of the gravity of The Holocaust and the need to keep the memory of it alive(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery), so as to prevent any repetition of it. He paid tribute to all those who had suffered or lost their lives during the war and publicly regretted the past mistakes and shortcomings of the Red Cross with regard to the victims of the concentration camps.[9]

In 2002, an ICRC official outlined some of the lessons the organization has learned from the failure:

from a legal point of view, the work that led to the adoption of the Geneva Convention relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery);

from an ethical point of view, the adoption of the declaration of the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, building on the distinguished work of Max Huber and Jean Pictet, to prevent any more abuses such as those that occurred within the Movement after Hitler rose to power in 1933(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery);

on a political level, the ICRC's relationship with Switzerland was redesigned to ensure its independence;

with a view to keeping memories alive, the ICRC accepted, in 1955, to take over the direction of the International Tracing Service where records from concentration camps are maintained(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/W Battery);

finally, to establish the historical facts of the case, the ICRC invited Jean-Claude Favez to carry out an independent investigation of its activities on behalf of the victims of Nazi persecution, and gave him unfettered access to its archives relating to this period; out of concern for transparency(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/R Battery), the ICRC also decided to give all other historians access to its archives dating back more than 50 years; having gone over the conclusions of Favez's work, the ICRC acknowledged its past failings and expressed its regrets in this regard.[10]

In an official statement made on 27 January 2005, the 60th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz, the ICRC stated(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/P Battery):

Auschwitz also represents the greatest failure in the history of the ICRC, aggravated by its lack of decisiveness in taking steps to aid the victims of Nazi persecution. This failure will remain part of the ICRC's memory, as will the courageous acts of individual ICRC delegates at the time(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/L Battery).[11]

[edit] Iraq war

The International Committee of the Red Cross reported on 17 March 2008 that there is no let-up in the Humanitarian Crisis in Iraq after the start of the war in 2003. Despite limited improvements in security in some areas, armed violence is still having a disastrous impact. Civilians continue to be killed in the hostilities(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190 Battery).[12]

[edit] Characteristics

The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was Inter Arma Caritas ("Amidst War, Charity"). It has preserved this motto while other Red Cross organizations have adopted others. Due to Geneva's location in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC is also known under its initial French name Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery). However, the ICRC has four official languages (Arabic, English, French and Spanish). The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background (the inverse of the Swiss flag) with the words "COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE" circling the cross.

[edit] Mission

The official mission statement says that: "The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery), neutral, and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with assistance." It also directs and coordinates international relief and works to promote and strengthen humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery).[13] The core tasks of the Committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes ([2]), are the following:

to monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions

to organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war and make confidential interventions with detaining authorities(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery)

to help with the search for missing persons in an armed conflict (tracing service)

to organize protection and care for civil populations

to act as a neutral intermediary between warring parties

The ICRC drew up seven fundamental principles in 1965 that were adopted by the entire Red Cross Movement.[14] They are humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, volunteerism, unity, and universality(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery).[15]

[edit] Legal status

ICRC is the only institution explicitly named under International Humanitarian Law (IHL) as a controlling authority. The legal mandate of the ICRC stems from the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, as well as its own Statutes. The ICRC also undertakes tasks that are not specifically mandated by law(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery), such as visiting political prisoners outside of conflict and providing relief in natural disasters.

The ICRC is a private association registered in Switzerland that has enjoyed various degrees of special privileges and legal immunities within the territory of Switzerland for many years[when?] and those are described[by whom?] (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery) as amounting to de facto sovereignty. On 19 March 1993, a legal foundation for this special treatment was created by a formal agreement between the Swiss government and the ICRC. This agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery), guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland. On the other hand Switzerland does not recognize ICRC issued passports(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery).[16]

Contrary to popular belief, the ICRC is not a sovereign entity like the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and also it is not an international organization, neither of non-governmental nor of governmental type. The ICRC limits its membership to Swiss nationals only, and also unlike most NGOs(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery) [citation needed] it does not have a policy of open and unrestricted membership for individuals as its new members are selected by the Committee itself (a process called cooptation). However, since the early 1990s, the ICRC employs persons from all over the world to serve in its field mission and at Headquarters. In 2007, almost half of ICRC staff was non-Swiss(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery). The ICRC has special privileges and legal immunities in many countries,[which?] based on national law in these countries, based on agreements between the ICRC and the respective governments, or, in some cases, based on international jurisprudence (such as the right of ICRC delegates not to bear witness in front of international tribunals) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery).

[edit] Funding and financial matters

The 2010 budget of the ICRC amounts to about 1156 million Swiss francs.[17] All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual Headquarters Appeal to cover its internal costs and Emergency Appeals for its individual missions(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). The total budget for 2009 consists of about 996.9 million Swiss Francs (85% of the total) for field work and 168.6 million Swiss Francs (15%) for internal costs. In 2009, the budget for field work increased by 6.9% and the internal budget by 4.4% compared to 2008, primarily due to above-average increases in the number and scope of its missions in Africa(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery).

Most of the ICRC's funding comes from Switzerland and the United States, with the other European states and the EU close behind. Together with Australia, Canada, Japan, and New Zealand, they contribute about 80–85% of the ICRC's budget. About 3% comes from private gifts, and the rest comes from national Red Cross societies(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery).[18]

[edit] Responsibilities within the Movement

The ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society and thus accepting it into the Movement. The exact rules for recognition are defined in the statutes of the Movement. After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery). The ICRC and the Federation cooperate with the individual national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the ICRC is the lead Red Cross agency in conflicts while other organizations within the Movement take the lead in non-war situations(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). National societies will be given the lead especially when a conflict is happening within their own country.

[edit] Organization

The ICRC is headquartered in the Swiss city of Geneva and has external offices called Delegations in about 80 countries. Each delegation is under the responsibility of a Head of delegation who is the official representative of the ICRC in the country(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). Of its 2,000 professional employees, roughly 800 work in its Geneva headquarters and 1,200 expatriates work in the field. About half of the field workers serve as delegates managing ICRC operations in the different countries while the other half are specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters. In the delegations(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery), the international staff are assisted by some 13,000 national employees, bringing the total staff under the authority of the ICRC to roughly 15,000. Delegations also often work closely with the National Red Cross Societies of the countries where they are based and thus can call on the volunteers of the National Red Cross to assist in some of the ICRC operations(Sony VGN-CR42E Battery).

The organizational structure of the ICRC is not well understood by outsiders. This is partly because of organizational secrecy, but also because the structure itself is highly mutable and has been prone to change. The Assembly and Presidency are two long-standing institutions, but the Assembly Council and Directorate were created only in the latter part of the twentieth century(Sony VGN-CR42S Battery). Decisions are often made in a collective way, so authority and power relationships are not set in stone. Today, the leading organs are the Directorate and the Assembly.

[edit] Directorate

The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee. It attends to the daily management of the ICRC, whereas the Assembly sets policy. The Directorate consists of a Director-General and five directors in the areas of "Operations", "Human Resources"(Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery), "Financial Resources and Logistics ", "Communication and Information Management", and "International Law and Cooperation within the Movement". The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years. The Director-General has assumed more personal responsibility in recent years, much like a CEO, where he was formerly more of a first among equals at the Directorate(Sony VGN-CR42ZR Battery).[19]

[edit] Assembly

The Assembly (also called the Committee) convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The Assembly has a membership of a maximum of 25 Swiss citizens. Members must speak the house language of French, but many also speak English and German as well(Sony VGN-CR41SR Battery). These Assembly members are co-opted for a period of four years, and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can serve. A three-quarters majority vote from all members is required for re-election after the third term, which acts as a motivation for members to remain active and productive(Sony VGN-CR41E Battery).

In the early years, every Committee member was Genevan, Protestant, white, and male. The first woman, Renée-Marguerite Cramer, was co-opted in 1918. Since then, several women have attained the Vice Presidency, and the female proportion after the Cold War has been about 15%. The first non-Genevans were admitted in 1923, and one Jew has served in the Assembly(Sony VGN-CR41S Battery).[20]

While the rest of the Red Cross Movement many be multi-national, the Committee believes that its mono-national nature is an asset because the nationality in question is Swiss. Thanks to permanent Swiss neutrality, conflicting parties can be sure that no one from "the enemy" will be setting policy in Geneva(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery).[21] The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 showed that even Red Cross actors (in this case National Societies) can be so bound by nationalism that they are unable to sustain neutral humanitarianism.[22]

Jakob Kellenberger, current president of the ICRC.

[edit] Assembly Council

Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five-member Assembly Council that constitutes an especially active core of the Assembly(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). The Council meets at least ten times per year and has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for facilitating communication between the Assembly and the Directorate. The Assembly Council normally includes the president, two vice presidents and two elected members(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). While one of the vice presidents is elected for a four-year term, the other is appointed permanently with his tenure ending by retirement from the vice presidency or from the Committee. Currently Olivier Vodoz and Christine Beerli[23] are vice presidents.[24]

[edit] The President

The Assembly also selects, for a term of four years, one individual to act as President of the ICRC. The president is both a member of the Assembly and leader of the ICRC(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery), and he has always been included on the Council since its formation. The President automatically becomes a member of the aforementioned groups once he is appointed, but he does not necessarily come from within the ICRC organization. There is a strong faction within the Assembly that wants to reach outside the organization to select a president from the Swiss government or professional circles like the banking or medical fields(Sony VGN-CR31SR Battery).[25] In fact, the last three presidents were previously officials in the Swiss government. The president's influence and role is not well-defined, and changes depending upon the times and each president's personal style. Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been Jakob Kellenberger, a reclusive man who rarely makes diplomatic appearances but who is skilled in personal negotiation and comfortable with the dynamics of the Assembly(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery).[26] In February 2007, he was appointed by the Assembly to another four-year term which, will run until the end of 2011 .

Staff

As the ICRC has grown and become more directly involved in conflicts, it has seen an increase in professional staff rather than volunteers over the years. The ICRC had only twelve employees in 1914[27] and 1,900 in the Second World War complemented its 1,800 volunteers(Sony VGN-CR21S Battery).[28] The number of paid staff dropped off after both wars, but has increased once again in the last few decades, averaging 500 field staff in the 1980s and over a thousand in the 1990s. Beginning in the 1970s, the ICRC became more systematic in training to develop a more professional staff.[29] The ICRC is an attractive career for university graduates especially in Switzerland(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery),[30] but the workload as an ICRC employee is demanding. 15% of the staff leaves each year and 75% of employees stay less than three years.[31] The ICRC staff is multi-national and averaged about 50% non-Swiss citizens in 2004. The ICRC's international staff are assisted in their work by some 13,000 national employees hired in the countries where the delegations are based(Sony VGN-CR11E Battery).

[edit] Relationships within the Movement

By virtue of its age and place in international humanitarian law, the ICRC is the lead agency in the Red Cross Movement, but it has weathered some power struggles within the Movement. The ICRC has come into conflict with the Federation and certain national societies at various times. The American Red Cross threatened to supplant the ICRC with its creation of the Federation as "a real international Red Cross" after the(Sony VGN-CR11M Battery) First World War.[32] Elements of the Swedish Red Cross desired to supplant the Swiss authority of the ICRC after WWII.[33] Over time the Swedish sentiments subsided, and the Federation grew to work more harmoniously with the ICRC after years of organizational discord.[34] Currently, the Federation's Movement Cooperation division organizes interaction and cooperation with the ICRC(Sony VGN-CR11S Battery).

In 1997, the ICRC and the Federation signed the Seville Agreement which further defined the responsibilities of both organizations within the movement. According to the Agreement, the Federation is the Lead Agency of the Movement in any emergency situation which does not take place as part of an armed conflict(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).

[edit] Acceptance of Magen David Adom

From its inception in 1930 until 2006, the Magen David Adom organization, the Israeli equivalent to the Red Cross, was not accepted as part of the Federation, as it used the Star of David, which the ICRC refused to recognize as an acceptable symbol. This meant that although Arab ambulances would be protected by the ICRC(Sony VGN-CR11SR Battery), Israeli ambulances would not. In May 2000, Bernadine Healy, the president of the American Red Cross, wrote: "The international committee's feared proliferation of symbols is a pitiful fig leaf, used for decades as the reason for excluding the Magen David Adom – the Shield (or Star) of David." In protest over the ICRC's perceived anti-Israel discrimination, the ARC withdrew its financial support(Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery). In 2005, at a meeting of nations party to the Geneva convention, the ICRC adopted the new Red Crystal. Magen David Adom then centered the Star of David sign inside the newly accepted signage, and in 2006 was accepted as a full member. Yonatan Yagodovsky, director of MDA’s fundraising department, said in an article published in October 2011 that "MDA will continue to use its emblem and logo(Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery), and no one ever asked us to take it off."[35]

[edit] Relationships within the World Order

The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony in 1963 when the prize was jointly awarded to the ICRC and the Federation. From left to right: King Olav of Norway, ICRC President Leopold Boissier, League Chairman John MacAulay(Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery).

(Picture from: www.redcross.int)

The ICRC is one of the largest and most respected humanitarian and non-state actors in the international system. Its efforts have provided aid and protection to victims of armed struggle in numerous conflicts for over a century.

The ICRC prefers to engage states directly and relies on low-key and confidential negotiations[36] to lobby for access to prisoners of war and improvement in their treatment(Sony VGN-NR110E Battery). Its findings are not available to the general public but are shared only with the relevant government. This is in contrast to related organizations like Doctors Without Borders and Amnesty International who are more willing to expose abuses and apply public pressure to governments. The ICRC reasons that this approach allows it greater access and cooperation from governments in the long run(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).

When granted only partial access, the ICRC takes what it can get and keeps discreetly lobbying for greater access. In the era of apartheid South Africa, it was granted access to prisoners like Nelson Mandela serving sentences, but not to those under interrogation and awaiting trial.[37] After his release, Mandela publicly praised the Red Cross(Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery).[38]

Some governments use the ICRC as a tool to promote their own ends.[citation needed] The presence of respectable aid organizations can make weak regimes appear more legitimate. Fiona Terry contends that "this is particularly true of ICRC, whose mandate, reputation, and discretion imbue its presence with a particularly affirming quality(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery)."[39] Recognizing this power, the ICRC can pressure weak governments to change their behavior by threatening to withdraw. As mentioned above, Nelson Mandela acknowledged that the ICRC compelled better treatment of prisoners[40] and had leverage over his South African captors because "avoiding international condemnation was the authorities' main goal." (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery) [41]

In a controversial move demonstrating the ICRC's commitment to neutrality, three officials from the Hamas political party, which some governments designate a terrorist organization, have been living at the International Red Cross office in Jerusalem. Israel believes that these three Hamas legislators had a role in the 2006 kidnapping of Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery), and has a deportation order set for them. Red Cross spokesperson Cecilia Goin, in speaking with CBN News said that hosting the wanted Hamas officials is in line with the organization's humanitarian mission.[42] Israel arrested two of the Hamas members for conducting “Hamas activities inside Jerusalem,” said the police(Sony VAIO VGN-FW465J battery).[43]

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Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until 1981. Although Intel created the world's first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became its primary business. During the 1990s(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13/S), Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes illegal tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) (AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13B/S), as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry.[5][6] The 2011 rankings of the world's 100 most valuable brands published by Millward Brown Optimor showed the company's brand value at number 58.[7]

Intel has also begun research in electrical transmission and generation.[8][9] Intel has recently introduced a 3-D transistor that may improve performance and energy efficiency.[10] Intel will be mass producing this 3-D transistor(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13A/S), called Tri-Gate transistors, with their upcoming 22nm process in the near future.[11] In 2011, SpectraWatt Inc., a solar cell spinoff of Intel, filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 11.

Corporate History

[edit]Origins

Intel headquarters in Santa Clara, CA, USA

Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore (of "Moore's Law" fame, a chemist and physicist), Robert Noyce (a physicist and co-inventor of the integrated circuit), and Arthur Rock (investor and venture capitalist). Moore and Noyce who had both come from Fairchild Semiconductor were the first two employees(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q), Rock was an investor only (not an employee), but was Chairman of the Board.[13][14] The total initial investment in Intel was $2.5 million convertible debentures and $10,000 from Rock. Just 2 years later, Intel completed their initial public offering (IPO) raising $6.8 million ($23.50 per share).[13] Intel's third employee was Andy Grove,[15] a chemical engineer(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q), who later ran the company through much of the 1980s and the high-growth 1990s.

Moore and Noyce initially wanted to name the company "Moore Noyce".[16] The name, however, was a homophone for "more noise" – an ill-suited name for an electronics company, since noise in electronics is usually very undesirable and typically associated with bad interference. Instead they used the name NM Electronics for almost a year(AKKU Sony VGP-BPS13Q), before deciding to call their company Integrated Electronics or "Intel" for short.[17] Since "Intel" was already trademarked by the hotel chain Intelco, they had to buy the rights for the name.[13][18]

[edit]Early history

At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to make semiconductors and its first product in 1969 was the 3101 Schottky TTL bipolar 64-bit static random-access memory (SRAM) (Sony VGP-BPL8 Battery), which was nearly twice as fast as earlier Schottky diode implementations by Fairchild and the Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan.[19][20] That same year Intel also produced the 3301 Schottky bipolar 1024-bit read-only memory (ROM)[21] and the first commercial metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) silicon gate SRAM chip(Sony VGP-BPL8A Battery), the 256-bit 1101.[13][22][23] Intel's business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices.

While Intel created the first commercially available microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971[13] and one of the first microcomputers in 1972(Sony VGN-FZ130E/B Battery),[24][22] by the early 1980s its business was dominated by dynamic random-access memory chips. However, increased competition from Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983, dramatically reduced the profitability of this market, and the sudden success of the IBM personal computer convinced then-CEO Andrew Grove to shift the company's focus to microprocessors(Sony VGN-FZ130E/BA Battery), and to change fundamental aspects of that business model.

By the end of the 1980s this decision had proven successful. Buoyed by its fortuitous position as microprocessor supplier to IBM and its competitors within the rapidly growing personal computer market, Intel embarked on a 10-year period of unprecedented growth as the primary (and most profitable) (Sony VGN-FZ130E/BB Battery) hardware supplier to the PC industry. By launching its Intel Inside marketing campaign in 1991, Intel was able to associate brand loyalty with consumer selection, so that by the end of the 1990s, its line of Pentium processors had become a household name.

[edit]Slowing demand and challenges to dominance

After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed(Sony VGP-BPL9 Akku). Competitors, notably AMD (Intel's largest competitor in its primary x86 architecture market), garnered significant market share, initially in low-end and mid-range processors but ultimately across the product range, and Intel's dominant position in its core market was greatly reduced.[25] In the early 2000s then-CEO Craig Barrett attempted to diversify the company's business beyond semiconductors(Sony VGP-BPL9/B Akku), but few of these activities were ultimately successful.

Intel had also for a number of years been embroiled in litigation. US law did not initially recognize intellectual property rights related to microprocessor topology (circuit layouts), until the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, a law sought by Intel and the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) (Sony VGP-BPL9/S Akku).[26] During the late 1980s and 1990s (after this law was passed) Intel also sued companies that tried to develop competitor chips to the 80386 CPU.[27] The lawsuits were noted to significantly burden the competition with legal bills, even if Intel lost the suits.[27] Antitrust allegations that had been simmering since the early 1990s and already been the cause of one lawsuit against Intel in 1991(Sony VGP-BPL9A/B Akku), broke out again as AMD brought further claims against Intel related to unfair competition in 2004, and again in 2005.

In 2005, CEO Paul Otellini reorganized the company to refocus its core processor and chipset business on platforms (enterprise, digital home, digital health, and mobility) which led to the hiring of over 20,000 new employees.[citation needed] In September 2006 due to falling profits(Sony VGP-BPL9A Akku), the company announced a restructuring that resulted in layoffs of 10,500 employees or about 10 percent of its workforce by July 2007.[citation needed]

[edit]Regaining of momentum

Faced with the need to regain lost marketplace momentum,[25][28] Intel unveiled its new product development model to regain its prior technological lead. Known as its "tick-tock model", the program was based upon annual alternation of microarchitecture innovation and process innovation(Sony VGP-BPL9 Akku).

In 2006, Intel produced P6 and NetBurst products with reduced die size (65 nm). A year later it unveiled its Core microarchitecture to widespread critical acclaim;[29] the product range was perceived as an exceptional leap in processor performance that at a stroke regained much of its leadership of the field(Sony VGP-BPS21 Akku).[30][31] In 2008, we saw another "tick", Intel introduced the Penryn microarchitecture, undergoing a shrink from 65 nm to 45 nm, and the year after saw the release of its positively reviewed successor processor, Nehalem, followed by another silicon shrink to the 32nm process.

Intel was not the first microprocessor corporation to do this(Sony VGP-BPS21A Akku). For example, around 1996 graphics chip designers nVidia had addressed its own business and marketplace difficulties by adopting a demanding 6-month internal product cycle whose products repeatedly outperformed market expectation.

[edit]Sale of XScale processor business

On June 27, 2006, the sale of Intel's XScale assets was announced. Intel agreed to sell the XScale processor business to Marvell Technology Group for an estimated $600 million in cash and the assumption of unspecified liabilities(Sony VGP-BPS21B Akku). The move was intended to permit Intel to focus its resources on its core x86 and server businesses, and the acquisition completed on November 9, 2006.[32]

[edit]Acquisitions

In August 2010, Intel announced two major acquisitions. On August 19, Intel announced that it planned to purchase McAfee, a manufacturer of computer security technology. The purchase price was $7.68 billion, and the companies said that if the deal were approved, new products would be released early in 2011(Sony VGP-BPS21A/B Akku).[33]

Less than two weeks later, the company announced the acquisition of Infineon Technologies’ Wireless Solutions business.[34] With the Infineon transaction, Intel plans to use the company’s technology in laptops, smart phones, netbooks, tablets and embedded computers in consumer products, eventually integrating its wireless modem into Intel’s silicon chips(Sony VGP-BPS21/S Akku).[35] Intel won the European Union regulatory approval for its acquisition of McAfee on January 26, 2011. Intel agreed to ensure that rival security firms have access to all necessary information that would allow their products to use Intel's chips and personal computers.[36]

Following the closure of the McAfee deal, Intel's workforce totals approximately 90,000, including (roughly) 12,000 software engineers(Akku Sony VGP-BPL14).[37]

In March 2011, Intel bought most of the assets of Cairo-based SySDSoft.[38]

In July 2011, Intel announced that it has agreed to acquire Fulcrum Microsystems Inc., a company specializing in network switches. [39] The company was previously included on EE Times list of 60 Emerging Startups. [39]

On October 1, 2011, Intel reached a deal to acquire Telmap, an Israeli based navigation software company( Akku Sony VGP-BPL14 ). The purchase price was not disclosed but Israeli media reports cited a $300 million to $350 million figure.[40]

[edit]Expansions

In 2008, Intel spun off key assets of a solar startup business effort to form an independent company, SpectraWatt Inc. However, as of 2011, SpectraWatt has filed for bankruptcy(Akku Sony VGP-BPS14/S ). [12]

February 2011: The company will build a new microprocessor factory at Chandler, Arizona which is expected to be completed in 2013 at a cost of $5 billion. It will accommodate 4,000 employees. The company produces three quarters of their products in the United States, although three quarters of the revenue come from overseas(Akku Sony VGP-BPL14/B).[41][42]

April 2011: Intel Corporation began a pilot project to produce smartphones with ZTE Corporation for China's domestic market. This project is intended to challenge the domination of ARM processors in mobile phones. The smartphone will be based on the Intel Atom processor(Akku Sony VGP-BPS14/B ).[43]

December 2011: Intel Corporation announced that it reorganized several of its business units in order to form a new mobile and communications group. [44] This group will be responsible for the company's smartphone, tablet and wireless efforts and will be headed by Hermann Eul(AKKU sony VAIO VGN-FW21E).

[edit]Product and market history

[edit]SRAMS and the microprocessor

The company's first products were shift register memory and random-access memory integrated circuits, and Intel grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive DRAM, SRAM, and ROM markets throughout the 1970s. Concurrently, Intel engineers Marcian Hoff, Federico Faggin, Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima invented Intel's first microprocessor(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21I). Originally developed for the Japanese company Busicom to replace a number of ASICs in a calculator already produced by Busicom, the Intel 4004 was introduced to the mass market on November 15, 1971, though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually given credit with Texas Instruments for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.) (AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L)

[edit]From DRAM to microprocessors

In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from Japanese memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors. Grove described this transition in the book Only the Paranoid Survive. A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z), of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor.

Until then, manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as Zilog and AMD. When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M).

[edit]Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM PC

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Despite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor, the 4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were never major revenue contributors at Intel. As the next processor(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M), the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978, Intel embarked on a major marketing and sales campaign for that chip nicknamed "Operation Crush", and intended to win as many customers for the processor as possible. One design win was the newly created IBM PC division, though the importance of this was not fully realized at the time(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J).

IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it was rapidly successful. In 1982, Intel created the 80286 microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the IBM PC/AT. Compaq, the first IBM PC "clone" manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the faster 80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly followed with the first 80386-based system(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E), beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier.

In 1975 the company had started a project to develop a highly advanced 32-bit microprocessor, finally released in 1981 as the Intel iAPX 432. The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance objectives, and it failed in the marketplace. Intel extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z).[45][46]

[edit]386 microprocessor

During this period Andrew Grove dramatically redirected the company, closing much of its DRAM business and directing resources to the microprocessor business. Of perhaps greater importance was his decision to "single-source" the 386 microprocessor. Prior to this, microprocessor manufacturing was in its infancy(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW31ZJ), and manufacturing problems frequently reduced or stopped production, interrupting supplies to customers. To mitigate this risk, these customers typically insisted that multiple manufacturers produce chips they could use to ensure a consistent supply. The 8080 and 8086-series microprocessors were produced by several companies(AKKU Sony VAIO VGN-FW32Z), notably AMD. Grove made the decision not to license the 386 design to other manufacturers, instead producing it in three geographically distinct factories in Santa Clara, California; Hillsboro, Oregon; and the Phoenix, Arizona suburb of Chandler; and convincing customers that this would ensure consistent delivery. As the success of Compaq's Deskpro 386 established the 386 as the dominant CPU choice(AKKU Sony VAIO PCG-5G2L), Intel achieved a position of near-exclusive dominance as its supplier. Profits from this funded rapid development of both higher-performance chip designs and higher-performance manufacturing capabilities, propelling Intel to a position of unquestioned leadership by the early 1990s.

[edit]486, Pentium, and Itanium

Intel introduced the 486 microprocessor in 1989, and in 1990 formally established a second design team(AKKU Sony VAIO PCG-5G3L ), designing the processors code-named "P5" and "P6" in parallel and committing to a major new processor every two years, versus the four or more years such designs had previously taken. The P5 was earlier known as "Operation Bicycle" referring to the cycles of the processor. The P5 was introduced in 1993 as the Intel Pentium, substituting a registered trademark name for the former part number (Sony VAIO PCG-5J1L Akku) (numbers, such as 486, are hard to register as a trademark). The P6 followed in 1995 as the Pentium Pro and improved into the Pentium II in 1997. New architectures were developed alternately in Santa Clara, California and Hillsboro, Oregon.

The Santa Clara design team embarked in 1993 on a successor to the x86 architecture, codenamed "P7". The first attempt was dropped a year later, but quickly revived in a cooperative program with Hewlett-Packard engineers(Sony VAIO PCG-5J2L Akku), though Intel soon took over primary design responsibility. The resulting implementation of the IA-64 64-bit architecture was the Itanium, finally introduced in June 2001. The Itanium's performance running legacy x86 code did not achieve expectations, and it failed to compete effectively with 64-bit extensions to the original x86 architecture(Sony VAIO PCG-5K2L Akku), introduced by AMD, named x86-64 (although Intel uses the name Intel 64, previously EM64T). As of 2009, Intel continues to develop and deploy the Itanium.

The Hillsboro team designed the Willamette processors (code-named P67 and P68) which were marketed as the Pentium 4.[citation needed]

[edit]Pentium flaw

Main article: Pentium FDIV bug

In June 1994, Intel engineers discovered a flaw in the floating-point math subsection of the P5 Pentium microprocessor(Sony VAIO PCG-5K1L Akku). Under certain data dependent conditions, low order bits of the result of floating-point division operations would be incorrect, an error that can quickly compound in floating-point operations to much larger errors in subsequent calculations. Intel corrected the error in a future chip revision, but nonetheless declined to disclose it. (Sony VAIO PCG-6S1L Akku)

In October 1994, Dr. Thomas Nicely, Professor of Mathematics at Lynchburg College independently discovered the bug, and upon receiving no response from his inquiry to Intel, on October 30 posted a message on the Internet.[47] Word of the bug spread quickly on the Internet and then to the industry press. Because the bug was easy to replicate by an average user (Sony VAIO PCG-6S2L Akku) (there was a sequence of numbers one could enter into the OS calculator to show the error), Intel's statements that it was minor and "not even an erratum" were not accepted by many computer users. During Thanksgiving 1994, The New York Times ran a piece by journalist John Markoff spotlighting the error. Intel changed its position and offered to replace every chip, quickly putting in place a large end-user support organization(Sony VAIO PCG-6W1L Akku). This resulted in a $500 million charge against Intel's 1994 revenue.

Ironically, the "Pentium flaw" incident, Intel's response to it, and the surrounding media coverage propelled Intel from being a technology supplier generally unknown to most computer users to a household name. Dovetailing with an uptick in the "Intel Inside" campaign, the episode is considered to have been a positive event for Intel(Sony VAIO PCG-6W2L Akku), changing some of its business practices to be more end-user focused and generating substantial public awareness, while avoiding a lasting negative impression.[48]

[edit]"Intel Inside" and other 1990s programs

During this period, Intel undertook two major supporting programs. The first is widely known: the 1991 "Intel Inside" marketing and branding campaign. The idea of ingredient branding was new at the time with only Nutrasweet and a few others making attempts at that(Sony VAIO PCG-6W3L Akku).[49] This campaign established Intel, which had been a component supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as a household name.

The second program is little-known: Intel's Systems Group began, in the early 1990s, manufacturing PC "motherboards", the main board component of a personal computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU) and memory (RAM) chips are plugged(Sony VAIO PCG-7111L Akku).[50] Shortly after, Intel began manufacturing fully configured "white box" systems for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly sprang up.[citation needed] At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over 15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time.[citation needed]

During the 1990s, Intel's Architecture Lab (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the personal computer(Sony VAIO PCG-7112L Akku), including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, the Universal Serial Bus (USB), Bluetooth wireless interconnect, and the now-dominant[citation needed] architecture for multiprocessor servers.[clarification needed] IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video(Sony VAIO PCG-7113L Akku),[citation needed] but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from Microsoft. The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony by IAL Vice-President Steven McGeady at the Microsoft antitrust trial.

[edit]Solid-state drives (SSD)

On September 8, 2008, Intel began shipping its first mainstream solid-state drives, the X18-M and X25-M with 80GB and 160GB storage capacities.[51] These MLC-based drives received wide critical acclaim for their superior performance. (Sony VAIO PCG-7131L Akku)Intel released their SLC-based Enterprise X25-E Extreme SSDs on October 15 that same year in capacities of 32GB and 64GB.[56]

In July 2009, Intel refreshed their X25-M and X18-M lines by moving from a 50-nanometer to a 34-nanometer process. These new drives, dubbed by the press as the X25-M and X18-M G2[57][58] (or generation 2), reduced prices by up to 60 percent while offering lower latency and improved performance(Sony VAIO PCG-7132L Akku).[59]

On February 1, 2010, Intel and Micron announced that they were gearing up for production of NAND flash memory using a new 25-nanometer process.[60] In March of that same year, Intel entered the budget SSD segment with their X25-V drives with an initial capacity of 40GB.[61] The SSD 310, Intel's first mSATA drive was released on December 2010, providing X25-M G2 performance in a much smaller package(Sony VAIO PCG-7133L Akku).[62][63]

March 2011 saw the introduction of two new SSD lines from Intel. The first, the SSD 510, uses a SATA 6 Gigabit per second interface in order to reach speeds of up to 500 MegaBytes per second.[64] The drive, which uses a controller from Marvell,[65] was released using 34 nm NAND Flash and came in capacities of 120GB and 250GB(Sony VAIO PCG-7z1L Akku). The second product announcement, the SSD 320, is the successor to Intel's earlier X25-M. It uses the new 25 nm process that Intel and Micron announced in 2010, and was released in capacities of 40 GB, 80 GB, 120 GB, 160 GB, 300 GB and 600 GB.[66] Sequential read performance maxes out at 270 MB/s due to the older SATA 3 Gbit/s interface(Sony VAIO PCG-7z1L Akku), and sequential write performance varies greatly based on the size of the drive with sequential write performance of the 40 GB model peaking at 45 MB/s and the 600 GB at 220 MB/s.[67]

Micron and Intel announced that they were producing their first 20 nm MLC NAND flash on April 14, 2011(Sony VAIO PCG-8Y1L Akku).[68]

Supercomputers

The Intel Scientific Computers division was founded in 1984 by Justin Rattner, in order to design and produce parallel computers based on Intel microprocessors connected in hypercube topologies.[80] In 1992 the name was changed to the Intel Supercomputing Systems Division, and development of the iWarp architecture was also subsumed(Sony VAIO PCG-8Y2L Akku).[81] The division designed several supercomputer systems, including the Intel iPSC/1, iPSC/2, iPSC/860, Paragon and ASCI Red.

[edit]Competition, antitrust and espionage

See also: AMD v. Intel

Two factors combined to end this dominance: the slowing of PC demand growth beginning in 2000 and the rise of the low cost PC. By the end of the 1990s, microprocessor performance had outstripped software demand for that CPU power(Sony VAIO PCG-8Z1L Akku). Aside from high-end server systems and software, demand for which dropped with the end of the "dot-com bubble", consumer systems ran effectively on increasingly low-cost systems after 2000. Intel's strategy of producing ever-more-powerful processors and obsoleting their predecessors stumbled,[citation needed] leaving an opportunity for rapid gains by competitors(Sony VAIO PCG-8Z2L Akku), notably AMD. This in turn lowered the profitability[citation needed] of the processor line and ended an era of unprecedented dominance of the PC hardware by Intel.[citation needed]

Intel's dominance in the x86 microprocessor market led to numerous charges of antitrust violations over the years, including FTC investigations in both the late 1980s and in 1999, and civil actions such as the 1997 suit by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and a patent suit by Intergraph(Akku Sony VGN-NR11M/S). Intel's market dominance (at one time[when?] it controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit x86 microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its infamous 338 patent suit versus PC manufacturers)[82] made it an attractive target for litigation, but few of the lawsuits ever amounted to anything.[clarification needed] (Akku Sony VGN-NR11S/S)

A case of industrial espionage arose in 1995 that involved both Intel and AMD. Bill Gaede, an Argentine formerly employed both at AMD and at Intel's Arizona plant, was arrested for attempting in 1993 to sell the i486 and P5 Pentium designs to AMD and to certain foreign powers.[83] Gaede videotaped data from his computer screen at Intel and mailed it to AMD, which immediately alerted Intel and authorities(Akku Sony VGN-NR11Z/S), resulting in Gaede's arrest. Gaede was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison in June 1996.[84][85]

[edit]Partnership with Apple

For more details on this topic, see Apple–Intel transition.

On June 6, 2005, then Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced that Apple would be transitioning from its long favored PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture, because the future PowerPC road map was unable to satisfy Apple's needs. The first Macintosh computers containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10, 2006(Akku Sony VGN-NR11Z/T), and Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs running on Intel processors by early August 2006. The Apple Xserve server was updated to Intel Xeon processors from November 2006, and was offered in a configuration similar to Apple's Mac Pro.[86]

[edit]Core 2 Duo advertisement controversy(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11E Battery)

In 2007, the company released a print advertisement for its Core 2 Duo processor featuring six African American runners appearing to bow down to a Caucasian male inside of an office setting (due to the posture taken by runners on starting blocks). According to Nancy Bhagat, Vice President of Intel Corporate Marketing, the general public found the ad to be "insensitive and insulting(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L)."[87] The campaign was quickly pulled and several Intel executives made public apologies on the corporate website.[88]

[edit]Classmate PC

Intel's Classmate PC is the company's first low-cost netbook computer.[89] One of the models, designed by TEAMS Design[4] in their Shanghai office, won many design awards such as the Appliance Design EID Award,[90] 2008 Spark Award and [91] iF 2008 China Award(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M).[92]

[edit]Mobile processor

In June 2011, Intel introduced the first Pentium mobile processor based on Sandy Bridge core. The B940, clocked at 2 GHz, is faster than existing or upcoming mobile Celerons, although it is almost identical to dual-core Celeron CPUs in all other aspects.[93] According to IHS iSuppli's report on September 28, 2011(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S), Sandy Bridge chips have helped Intel increase its market share in global processor market to 81.8%, while AMD's market share dropped to 10.4%.[94]

Intel planned to introduce Medfield – a processor for tablets and smartphones – to the market in 2012, as an effort to compete with ARM.[95] As a 32-nanometer processor, Medfield is designed to be energy-efficient, which is one of the core features in ARM’s chips(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z).[96]

At the Intel Developers Forum (IDF) 2011 in San Francisco, Intel's partnership with Google was announced. By January 2012, Google's Android 2.3 will use Intel's Atom microprocessor.[97][98][99]

[edit]Server chips

In July 2011, Intel announced that its server chips will use new sensors that can improve data center cooling efficiency(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E/B).[100]

[edit]22nm processors

In 2011, Intel announced the Ivy Bridge processor family at the Intel Developer Forum. [101] Ivy Bridge supports both DDR3 memory and DDR3L chips.

[edit]Personal Office Energy Monitor (POEM)

As part of its efforts in the Positive Energy Buildings Consortium, Intel has been developing an application, called Personal Office Energy Monitor (POEM), to help office buildings to be more energy-efficient(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E). With this application, employees can get the power consumption info for their office machines, so that they can figure out a better way to save energy in their working environment.[102]

[edit]IT Manager 3: Unseen Forces

IT Manager III: Unseen Forces is a web-based IT simulation game from Intel. In it you manage a company's IT department. The goal is to apply technology and skill to enable the company to grow from a small business into a global enterprise(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E).[citation needed]

[edit]Car Security System

In 2011, Intel announced that it is working on a Car Security system that connects to smartphones via an application. The application works by streaming video to a cloud service if your car is broken into. [103]

[edit]High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection

Intel also developed High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) to prevent copying of digital audio and video content as it travels across connections(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J).

[edit]Corporate affairs

In September 2006, Intel had nearly 100,000 employees and 200 facilities world wide. Its 2005 revenues were $38.8 billion and its Fortune 500 ranking was 49th. Its stock symbol is INTC, listed on the NASDAQ. As of February 2009 the biggest customers of Intel are Hewlett-Packard and Dell(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M).[104]

[edit]Leadership and corporate structure

Robert Noyce was Intel's CEO at its founding in 1968, followed by co-founder Gordon Moore in 1975. Andy Grove became the company's President in 1979 and added the CEO title in 1987 when Moore became Chairman. In 1998 Grove succeeded Moore as Chairman, and Craig Barrett, already company president, took over. On May 18, 2005(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S), Barrett handed the reins of the company over to Paul Otellini, who previously was the company president and was responsible for Intel's design win in the original IBM PC. The board of directors elected Otellini CEO, and Barrett replaced Grove as Chairman of the Board. Grove stepped down as Chairman, but is retained as a special adviser. In May 2009, Barrett stepped down as chairman and Jane Shaw was elected as the new Chairman of the Board(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z).

Current members of the board of directors of Intel are Craig Barrett, Charlene Barshefsky, Susan Decker, James Guzy, Reed Hundt, Paul Otellini, James Plummer, David Pottruck, Jane Shaw, John Thornton, and David Yoffie.[105]

[edit]Employment

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2008) (Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M)

Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica was responsible in 2006 for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP.[106]

The firm promotes very heavily from within, most notably in its executive suite. The company has resisted the trend toward outsider CEOs. Paul Otellini was a 30-year veteran of the company when he assumed the role of CEO. All of his top lieutenants have risen through the ranks after many years with the firm(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E). In many cases, Intel's top executives have spent their entire working careers with Intel, a very rare occurrence in volatile Silicon Valley[citation needed].

Intel has a mandatory retirement policy for its CEOs when they reach age 65, Andy Grove retired at 62, while both Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore retired at 58. Grove retired as Chairman and as a member of the board of directors in 2005 at age 68(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J).

No one has an office; everyone, even Otellini, sits in a cubicle. This is designed to promote egalitarianism among employees, but some new hires have difficulty adjusting to this change[citation needed]. Intel is not alone in this policy. Dell Computers, Hewlett-Packard and NVIDIA have similar no-office policies(Akku Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M).

The company is headquartered in California's Silicon Valley and has operations around the world. Outside of California, the company has facilities in China, Costa Rica, Malaysia, Israel, Ireland, India, Russia and Vietnam, 63 countries and regions internationally. In the U.S. Intel employs significant numbers of people in California(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery), Colorado, Massachusetts, Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Washington, and Utah. In Oregon, Intel is the state's largest private employer with over 15,000 employees, primarily in Hillsboro.[107] The company is the largest industrial employer in New Mexico while in Arizona the company has over 10,000 employees.[citation needed] (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery)

Intel invests heavily in research in China and about 100 researchers – or 10% of the total number of researchers from Intel – are located in Beijing.[108]

In 2011, the Israeli government offered Intel $290 million to expand in the country. As a condition, Intel will have to employ 1,500 more workers in Kiryat Gat and between 600-1000 workers in the north(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). [109]

[edit]Diversity

Intel has a Diversity Initiative, including employee diversity groups as well as supplier diversity programs.[110] Like many companies with employee diversity groups, they include groups based on race and nationality as well as sexual identity and religion. In 1994, Intel sanctioned one of the earliest corporate Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery), and Transgender employee groups,[111] and supports a Muslim employees group,[112] a Jewish employees group,[113] and a Bible-based Christian group.[114][115]

Intel received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in 2002. It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2005 by Working Mother magazine(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery).

[edit]Funding of a school

In Rio Rancho, New Mexico, Intel is the leading employer.[116] In 1997, a community partnership between Sandoval County and Intel Corporation funded and built Rio Rancho High School.[117][118]

[edit]Ultrabook Fund

In 2011, Intel Capital announced a new fund to support startups working on technologies in line with the company's concept for next generation notebooks(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). [119] The company is setting aside a $300 million fund to be spent over the next three to four years in areas related to ultrabooks. [119] Intel announced the ultrabook concept at Computex in 2011. The ultrabook will be a thin (less than 0.8 inches thick[120]) notebook that utilizes Intel processors[120] and also incorporates tablet features such as a touch screen and long battery life(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery).[120][119]

At the Intel Developers Forum in 2011, four Taiwain ODMs showed prototype ultrabooks that used Intel's Ivy Bridge chips. [121] Intel plans to improve power consumption of its chips for ultrabooks, like Ivy Bridge processors, which will only have 77W default thermal design power(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery).[122]

Intel's goal for Ultrabook's price is below $1000;[120] however, according to two presidents from Acer and Compal, this goal won't be achieved if Intel doesn't lower the price of its chips.[123]

[edit]Finances

Intel stock price, Nov 1986 – Nov 2006

Intel's market capitalization is $122.41 billion (Feb. 22, 2011). It publicly trades on NASDAQ with the symbol INTC. A widely held stock, the following indices include Intel shares: Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P 500, NASDAQ-100(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery), Russell 1000 Index, Russell 1000 Growth Index and SOX (PHLX Semiconductor Sector).

On July 15, 2008, Intel announced that it had achieved the highest earnings in the history of the company during Q2 2008.[124]

[edit]Advertising and brand management

[edit]Intel Inside

Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running Intel Inside campaign. The campaign, which started in 1991, was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery).[125] The five-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world. The initial branding agency for the Intel Inside campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of Salt Lake City. The Intel swirl logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery).

The Intel Inside advertising campaign sought public brand loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer computers.[126] Intel paid some of the advertiser's costs for an ad that used the Intel Inside logo and jingle.[127]

In 2008, Intel planned to shift the emphasis of its Intel Inside campaign from traditional media such as television and print to newer media such as the Internet(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery).[128] Intel required that a minimum of 35% of the money it provided to the companies in its co-op program be used for online marketing.[128] The Intel 2010 annual financial report indicated that $1.8 billion (6% of the gross margin and nearly 16% of the total net income) was allocated to all advertising with Intel Inside being part of that(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery).[129]

Sonic logo

The famous D♭  D♭  G♭  D♭  A♭ jingle, sonic logo, tag, audio mnemonic (MP3 file of sonic logo) was produced by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa from the Austrian 1980s sampling band Edelweiss.[130] The sonic Intel logo has undergone substantial changes in tone since the introduction of the Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core processors, yet keeps the same jingle(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery).

[edit]Naming strategy

In 2006, Intel expanded its promotion of open specification platforms beyond Centrino, to include the Viiv media center PC and the business desktop Intel vPro.

In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running Pentium name from their processors. The Pentium name was first used to refer to the P5 core Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in P5,) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery) and was done to circumvent court rulings that prevent the trademarking of a string of numbers, so competitors could not just call their processor the same name, as had been done with the prior 386 and 486 processors (both of which had copies manufactured by IBM and AMD). They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery), when the new Yonah chips, branded Core Solo and Core Duo, were released. The desktop processors changed when the Core 2 line of processors were released. By 2009 Intel was using a good-better-best strategy with Celeron being good, Pentium better, and the Intel Core family representing the best the company has to offer(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery).[131]

According to spokesman Bill Calder, since 2009, Intel has maintained only the Celeron brand, the Atom brand for netbooks and the vPro lineup for businesses. Since late 2009, Intel's mainstream processors have been called Celeron, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7, in order of performance from lowest to highest(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). The first generation core products carry a 3 digit name, such as i5 750, and the second generation products carry a 4 digit name, such as the i5 2500. In both cases, a K at the end of it shows that it is an unlocked processor, enabling additional overclocking abilities (for instance, 2500K). vPro products will carry the Intel Core i7 vPro processor or the Intel Core i5 vPro processor name.[132] In October 2011(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery), Intel started to sell its Core i7-2700K "Sandy Bridge" chip to customers worldwide.[133]

Beginning in 2010 "Centrino" will only be applied to Intel's WiMAX and Wi-Fi technologies; it won't be a PC brand anymore. This will be an evolutionary process taking place over time, Intel acknowledges that multiple brands will be in the market including older ones throughout the transition(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery).[132]

[edit]Open source support

Intel has a significant participation in the open source communities. For example, in 2006 Intel released MIT-licensed X.org drivers for their integrated graphic cards of the i965 family of chipsets. Intel released FreeBSD drivers for some networking cards,[134] available under a BSD-compatible license, which were also ported to OpenBSD(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). Intel ran the Moblin project until April 23, 2009, when they handed the project over to the Linux Foundation. Intel also runs the LessWatts.org campaigns.[135]

However, after the release of the wireless products called Intel Pro/Wireless 2100, 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG and 3945ABG in 2005, Intel was criticized for not granting free redistribution rights for the firmware that must be included in the operating system for the wireless devices to operate(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery).[136] As a result of this, Intel became a target of campaigns to allow free operating systems to include binary firmware on terms acceptable to the open source community. Linspire-Linux creator Michael Robertson outlined the difficult position that Intel was in releasing to open source, as Intel did not want to upset their large customer Microsoft(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery).[137] Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD also claimed that Intel is being "an Open Source fraud" after an Intel employee presented a distorted view of the situation on an open-source conference.[138] In spite of the significant negative attention Intel received as a result of the wireless dealings, the binary firmware still has not gained a license compatible with free software principles(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery).

[edit]Environmental record

In 2003, there were 1.4 tons of carbon tetrachloride measured from one of Intel's many acid scrubbers. However, Intel reported no release of carbon tetrachloride for all of 2003.[139] Intel's facility in Rio Rancho, New Mexico overlooks a nearby village, and the hilly contours of its location create a setting for chemical gases heavier than air to move along arroyos and irrigation ditches in that village(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery). Release of chemicals in such an environment reportedly caused adverse effects in both animals and humans. Deceased dogs in the area were found to have high levels of toluene, hexane, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers in lungs.[140] More than 1,580 pounds (720 kg) of VOC were released in June and July 2006, the company stated(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery).[141] Intel’s environmental performance is published annually in their corporate responsibility report.[142]

[edit]Religious controversy

Orthodox Jews have protested against Intel operating in Israel on Saturday, Shabbat. Intel ringed its office with barbed wire before the protest, but there was no violence.[143] As of December 2009, the situation has been stable for Intel Israel while some employees reported working overtime on Shabbat(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery).

[edit]Age discrimination

Intel has faced complaints of age discrimination in firing and layoffs. Intel was sued by nine former employees, over allegations that they were laid off because they were over the age of 40.[144]

A group called FACE Intel (Former and Current Employees of Intel) claims that Intel weeds out older employees. FACE Intel claims that more than 90 percent of people who have been terminated by Intel are over the age of 40(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). Upside magazine requested data from Intel breaking out its hiring and terminations by age, but the company declined to provide any.[145] Intel has denied that age plays any role in Intel's employment practices.[146] FACE Intel was founded by Ken Hamidi, who was terminated by Intel in 1995 at the age of 47(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery).[145] Hamidi was blocked in a 1999 court decision from using Intel's email system to distribute criticism of the company to employees.[147]

[edit]Competition

Further information: Semiconductor sales leaders by year

In the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors (10th in 1987) in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since. Other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).

Competitors in PC chip sets include AMD, VIA Technologies, SiS, and Nvidia. Intel's competitors in networking include Freescale, Infineon, Broadcom, Marvell Technology Group and AMCC, and competitors in flash memory include Spansion, Samsung, Qimonda, Toshiba, STMicroelectronics, and Hynix(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery).

The only major competitor in the x86 processor market is Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each partner can use the other's patented technological innovations without charge after a certain time.[148] However(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery), the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover.[149] Some smaller competitors such as VIA and Transmeta produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers and portable equipment.

[edit]Lawsuits

Intel has often been accused by competitors of using legal claims to thwart competition. Intel claims that it is defending its intellectual property. Intel has been plaintiff and defendant in numerous legal actions(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery).

In September 2005, Intel filed a response to an AMD lawsuit,[150] disputing AMD's claims, and claiming that Intel's business practices are fair and lawful. In a rebuttal, Intel deconstructed AMD's offensive strategy and argued that AMD struggled largely as a result of its own bad business decisions, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and excessive reliance on contracting out chip foundries(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery).[151] Legal analysts predicted the lawsuit would drag on for a number of years, since Intel's initial response indicated its unwillingness to settle with AMD.[152][153] In 2008 a court date was finally set,[154] but in 2009 Intel settled with a $1.25 billion payout to AMD (see below).[155]

In October 2006, a Transmeta lawsuit was filed against Intel for patent infringement on computer architecture and power efficiency technologies(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery).[156] The lawsuit was settled in October 2007, with Intel agreeing to pay US$150 million initially and US$20 million per year for the next five years. Both companies agreed to drop lawsuits against each other, while Intel was granted a perpetual non-exclusive license to use current and future patented Transmeta technologies in its chips for 10 years(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery).[157]

On November 4, 2009, New York's attorney general filed an antitrust lawsuit against Intel Corp, claiming the company used "illegal threats and collusion" to dominate the market for computer microprocessors.

On November 12, 2009, AMD agreed to drop the antitrust lawsuit against Intel in exchange for $1.25 billion.[155] A joint press release published by the two chip makers stated "While the relationship between the two companies has been difficult in the past(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery), this agreement ends the legal disputes and enables the companies to focus all of our efforts on product innovation and development."[158][159]

[edit]Anti-competitive allegations

See also: AMD v. Intel

[edit]Japan

In 2005, the local Fair Trade Commission found that Intel violated the Japanese Antimonopoly Act. The commission ordered Intel to eliminate discounts that had discriminated against AMD. To avoid a trial, Intel agreed to comply with the order. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery)

[edit]European Union

In July 2007, the European Commission accused Intel of anti-competitive practices, mostly against AMD.[164] The allegations, going back to 2003, include giving preferential prices to computer makers buying most or all of their chips from Intel, paying computer makers to delay or cancel the launch of products using AMD chips(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery), and providing chips at below standard cost to governments and educational institutions.[165] Intel responded that the allegations were unfounded and instead qualified its market behavior as consumer-friendly.[165] General counsel Bruce Sewell responded that the Commission had misunderstood some factual assumptions as to pricing and manufacturing costs(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery).[166]

In February 2008, Intel stated that its office in Munich had been raided by European Union regulators. Intel reported that it was cooperating with investigators.[167] Intel faced a fine of up to 10% of its annual revenue, if found guilty of stifling competition.[168] AMD subsequently launched a website promoting these allegations(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery).[169][170] In June 2008, the EU filed new charges against Intel.[171] In May 2009, the EU found that Intel had engaged in anti-competitive practices and subsequently fined Intel €1.06 billion (US$1.44 billion), a record amount. Intel was found to have paid companies, including Acer, Dell, HP, Lenovo and NEC,[172] to exclusively use Intel chips in their products, and therefore harmed other companies including AMD. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery)The European Commission said that Intel had deliberately acted to keep competitors out of the computer chip market and in doing so had made a "serious and sustained violation of the EU's antitrust rules".[172] In addition to the fine, Intel was ordered by the Commission to immediately cease all illegal practices.[172] Intel has stated that they will appeal against the Commission's verdict(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery).[172]

[edit]South Korea

In September 2007, South Korean regulators accused Intel of breaking antitrust law. The investigation began in February 2006, when officials raided Intel's South Korean offices. The company risked a penalty of up to 3% of its annual sales, if found guilty.[175] In June 2008, the Fair Trade Commission ordered Intel to pay a fine of US$25.5 million for taking advantage of its dominant position to offer incentives to major (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery)Korean PC manufacturers on the condition of not buying products from AMD.[176]

[edit]United States

New York started an investigation of Intel in January 2008 on whether the company violated antitrust laws in pricing and sales of its microprocessors.[177] In June 2008, the Federal Trade Commission also began an antitrust investigation of the case.[178] In December 2009 the FTC announced it would initiate an administrative proceeding against Intel in September 2010. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery)

In November 2009, following a two year investigation, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo sued Intel, accusing them of bribery and coercion, claiming that Intel bribed computer makers to buy more of their chips than those of their rivals, and threatened to withdraw these payments if the computer makers were perceived as working too closely with its competitors(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). Intel has denied these claims.[183]

On July 22, 2010, Dell agreed to a settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to pay $100M in penalties resulting from charges that Dell did not accurately disclose accounting information to investors. In particular, the SEC charged that from 2002 to 2006(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery), Dell had an agreement with Intel to receive rebates in exchange for not using chips manufactured by AMD. These substantial rebates were not disclosed to investors, but were used to help meet investor expectations regarding the company's financial performance; the SEC said that in the first quarter of 2007 they amounted to 70% of Dell's operating income(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery). Dell eventually did adopt AMD as a secondary supplier in 2006, and Intel subsequently stopped their rebates, causing Dell's financial performance to fall.

Market share

According to IDC, while Intel still enjoys the most market share in both the overall worldwide PC microprocessor market (79.3%) and the mobile PC microprocessor (84.4%) in the second quarter of 2011, the numbers decreased by 1.5% and 1.9% compared to the first quarter. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ER/S Battery)

Per Passmark's CPU benchmark, which takes into account individual benchmarking of their software and each system results are reported with, Intel has retained 70% and more of the active market versus AMD since Q1 2008.