单击此处Anna Mae Bullock (born November 26, 1939), known by her stage name Tina Turner, is a singer, dancer, actress, and author, (SONY PCGA-BP1N battery) whose career has spanned more than half a century, earning her widespread recognition and numerous awards. Born and raised in the American South, she now resides in Switzerland and is also a Swiss citizen.She began her musical career in the mid-1950s as a featured singer with Ike Turner's Kings of Rhythm, first recording in 1958 under the name "Little Ann". Her introduction to the public as Tina Turner began in 1960 as a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue. (SONY PCG-5G2L battery) Success followed with a string of notable hits credited to the duo, including "River Deep – Mountain High" (1966), "Proud Mary" (1971) and "Nutbush City Limits" (1973), a song which she wrote. In her autobiography, I, Tina, she revealed several instances of severe domestic abuse against her by Ike Turner prior to their 1976 split and subsequent 1978 divorce. Raised as a Baptist, she melded her faith with Buddhism in 1974, crediting the religion and its spiritual chant of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo for helping her to endure during difficult times(SONY PCG-5G3L battery).

After her divorce from Ike Turner, she rebuilt her career through performances, though she initially struggled to make an impact on the music charts as a solo artist. In the early 1980s, she launched a comeback with another string of hits, starting in 1983 with the single "Let's Stay Together" followed by the 1984 release of her fifth solo album Private Dancer which became a worldwide success. (SONY PCG-F305 battery) "What's Love Got to Do with It", the most successful single from the album, was later used as the title of a biographical film adapted from her autobiography. In addition to her musical career, Turner has also experienced success in films, including a role in the 1975 rock musical Tommy and a starring role in the 1985 Mel Gibson blockbuster film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, as well as a cameo role in the 1993 film Last Action Hero(SONY PCG-5J1L battery).

One of the world's most popular entertainers, she is sometimes called "the queen of rock". Turner has been termed the most successful female rock artist,[9] winning eight Grammys and selling more concert tickets than any other solo performer in history. She has also been named "one of the greatest singers of all time" by Rolling Stone. Her combined album and single sales total approximately 100 million copies worldwide. (SONY PCG-5J2L battery) She is noted for her energetic stage presence,[7] powerful vocals, and career longevity. In 2008, Turner returned from semi-retirement to embark on her Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour.[13] Turner's tour became one of the highest selling ticketed shows of 2008–2009. Rolling Stone ranked her no. 63 on their 100 greatest artists of all time.[15] In 1991, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Early life[edit] (SONY PCG-5K2L battery)

Tina Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock on November 26, 1939, in Nutbush, an unincorporated area in Haywood County, Tennessee. Her parents were Zelma Priscilla (née Currie) and Floyd Richard Bullock. Anna was born at Poindexter Farm, Hwy 180, where her father worked as an overseer of the sharecroppers. She is of African American, Native American and European American descent. Her mother had Cherokee and Navajo ancestry, as well as African American ancestry. (SONY PCG-5L1L battery) When she appeared on the PBS documentary, African American Lives 2, results of blood tests, as revealed by host Henry Louis Gates, showed her to have 1% Native American blood.

She had an older sister, Ruby Aillene. As young children, Anna Mae and Aillene were separated when their parents relocated to Knoxville, Tennessee to do work at a defense facility during World War II. Anna went to stay with her strict, religious paternal grandparents, Alex and Roxanna Bullock, who were deacon and deaconess at the Woodlawn Missionary Baptist Church(SONY PCG-6S2L battery), which was located on Woodlawn Road off Highway 19. After the war, the sisters reunited with their parents and moved with them to Knoxville, Tennessee. Two years later, the family returned to Nutbush to live in the Flagg Grove community, where Anna attended Flagg Grove Elementary School from first through eighth grade. In 1889, her great-great uncle had sold the land on which the school was built to the school trustees.

As a youngster, (SONY PCG-6S3L battery) Anna sang in the church choir at Nutbush's Spring Hill Baptist Church. When she was eleven, her mother ran off without warning, seeking freedom from the abusive relationship with Floyd Bullock. Zelma relocated to St. Louis to live with Anna Mae's great-aunt.[31] When Anna was 13, her father married another woman, and moved to Detroit. She and her sister were sent to live with their grandmother Georgeanna in Brownsville.[31] She later stated in her memoir I, (SONY PCG-6V1L battery) Tina that she felt her mother had not loved her and that she "wasn't wanted", stating further that her mother had planned to leave her father when she was pregnant with her. "She was a very young woman who didn't want another kid", she said. As a pre-teen, Anna Mae worked as a domestic worker for the Henderson family.

A self-professed tomboy, she joined both the cheerleading squad and the female basketball team at Carver High School in Brownsville, and "socialized every chance she got".(SONY PCG-6W1L battery) When she was 16, her grandmother died suddenly. After the funeral, Anna went to live with her mother in St. Louis, Missouri, where she was reunited with her sister. There, she graduated from Sumner High School in 1958. After her graduation, she worked as a nurse's aide at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, and dreamed of becoming a nurse.

Ike & Tina Turner

Origins[edit]

Anna and her sister began to frequent nightclubs in the St. Louis and East St. Louis areas around this time. At Club Manhattan, a nightclub in the East St. Louis area, (SONY PCG-7111L battery) she first saw Ike Turner and his band, the Kings of Rhythm, perform.[31] Though not taken by his looks, she later said she was impressed by the music and Ike's talent, claiming the bandleader's music put her "into a trance". Noticing that women volunteered to sing with Ike, she felt the urge to get on stage, despite the fact that Ike was not serious about allowing female singers in his band. (SONY PCG-71511M battery) One night in 1957, the Kings of Rhythm drummer Gene Washington pulled out a microphone from his drum set to the table Anna and her sister Aillene shared. After Aillene rejected the microphone, Anna took it and began singing while the rest of the band was in intermission. Stunned by her voice, Ike left his piano and asked her if she knew other songs. By the end of the night, she was singing lead for the band's performance. Soon afterwards, Ike invited her to join the band full-time. (SONY PCG-6W3L battery) He taught her the points of voice control and performance. Her first studio recording was in 1958, singing background, under the name "Little Ann", on the Ike Turner song, "Box Top", alongside singer Carlson Oliver.

In 1959, Ike wrote a song for male vocalist Art Lassiter. When Lassiter failed to show up for the recording session for the song, Ike, who had booked expensive studio time, asked Anna to sing a "dummy vocal",(SONY PCG-7113L battery) with the intention of erasing her vocals and adding Lassiter's at a later date. Although some felt that the demo with Anna's voice was "high pitched" and "screechy", the song received decent air-time in St. Louis. Local St. Louis deejay Dave Dixon convinced Ike to send the tape to Juggy Murray, president of R&B label, Sue Records. Murray was impressed with Anna's vocals, later stating that her vocals "sounded like screaming dirt... it was a funky sound." Murray bought the track and paid Ike a $25,000 advance for recording and (SONY PCG-7133L battery)publishing rights. Murray also convinced Turner to make Tina "the star of the show". It was at this point that Ike Turner renamed Anna Mae Bullock "Tina", because the name rhymed with his favorite television character, Sheena. It has also been said that the renaming of Anna Mae Bullock was intended to keep her from running off and making a name for herself. Ike Turner felt that, if Anna Mae Bullock left him, he could replace her with another singer and have her perform as Tina. (SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) Ike later admitted that another reason for the name change was to discourage one of Tina's former lovers from returning to her.

Early success[edit]

"A Fool in Love" became an immediate hit after its release reaching #2 on the Hot R&B Sides chart by August 1960, and #27 on the Billboard Hot 100 by that October. It was described by Kurt Loder years later as "the blackest record to ever creep into the white pop charts since Ray Charles' gospel-styled 'What'd I Say' that previous summer".(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) Their second pop hit, "It's Gonna Work Out Fine", was released a year later, where it peaked at #14 on the Hot 100 and later won the duo their first Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock and Roll Performance. Other hit singles the duo scored during this early period included the top ten R&B singles, "I Idolize You", "Poor Fool" and "Tra-La-La-La". After a few more recordings failed to generate success, the Turners left Sue in 1964 and signed with Kent Records for a brief spell, releasing the song, (SONY PCG-8Y1L battery) "I Can't Believe What You Say", which failed to chart. They then signed with the Bob Krasnow-run label, Loma Records, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Records, in 1965. Krasnow replaced Juggy Murray as the group's manager. In a five-year span, Ike & Tina signed with more than ten labels between 1964 and 1969.

The duo's early success was mainly built around live performances across the United States, which the duo gigged 90 days straight in dates around the country. (SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) During the days of the chitlin' circuit, the Ike and Tina Turner Revue built a reputation that a writer for the History of Rock site cited as "one of the most hottest, most durable and potentially most explosive of all R&B ensembles" with its show rivaling that of the James Brown Show in terms of musical spectacle.[48] The shows, organized by Ike Turner, provided them with financial earnings. Due to their successful performances(SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), the couple were able to perform in front of diverse crowds in the American South due to the money they made from performing in Southern clubs.[49] Between 1963 and 1966, the band toured constantly without the presence of a hit single. Tina's own profile was raised after several solo appearances on shows such as American Bandstand and Shindig!, while the entire Revue appeared on shows such as Hollywood A Go-Go, The Andy Williams Show and, in late 1965, in the concert film The Big T.N.T. Show(SONY PCG-8Z1L battery).

Mainstream success[edit]

In 1965, Phil Spector sought to work with Tina after catching an Ike & Tina show in Los Angeles. Upon working out the deal, Spector gave Ike a $20,000 advance to keep out of the studio, to which Ike agreed. With Spector, Turner produced the song "River Deep - Mountain High", which was released in 1966 on Spector's Philles record label. Though the record didn't do well in the United States, the song became successful overseas, (SONY PCG-7112L battery) finding its peak in the United Kingdom, where it reached #3 on the singles chart. The success of the record led to them opening for The Rolling Stones on their UK tour later that fall, which the Revue later extended by performing all over Europe and Australia. The Turners' 1968 Blue Thumb release, Outta Season, produced a charted cover of Otis Redding's "I've Been Loving You Too Long". Their 1969 Blue Thumb follow-up, The Hunter(SONY PCG-6W2L battery), included the original composition, "Bold Soul Sister", and a cover of the title track of the same name, originally recorded by Albert King. Tina Turner won a Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance in 1970 for "The Hunter". The success of the albums led to the Revue headlining at Las Vegas where their shows were attended by a variety of celebrities including David Bowie, Sly Stone, Janis Joplin, Cher, James Brown, (SONY PCG-5K1L battery) Ray Charles, Elton John and Elvis Presley. In 1969, the Revue's profile in their home country was raised after opening for the Rolling Stones on their US tour. Tina became the first woman to grace the cover of the rock magazine, Rolling Stone during this time.

The success of the tour led to the Turners signing with, first Minit Records, and then, Liberty Records, where they released two recordings, Come Together and Workin' Together, released in 1970 and 1971. (SONY PCGA-BP1U battery) In 1970, they appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show and had their first top 40 pop song in nearly ten years with their remake of Sly and the Family Stone's "I Want to Take You Higher". Their cover of The Beatles' "Come Together" also charted beginning the period of the act covering rock songs rather than the usual blues and R&B in their repertoire. In early 1971, the duo's cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival's "Proud Mary" became their biggest hit, (SONY PCGA-BP2E battery) reaching #4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and selling over a million copies. The song later won the duo a Grammy for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group. The duo's live album, What You Hear Is What You Get, culled from a gig at Carnegie Hall, became the band's first gold-selling album. The success of their 1971 recordings led to Ike Turner creating Bolic Sound Studios near their home in Inglewood, California. Reassigning to the United Artists label, the duo released ten albums between 1971 and 1974, with little success. (SONY PCGA-BP2EA battery) The duo's final hit single, "Nutbush City Limits", which included lyrics from Tina, was released in 1973, peaking at #22 on the Hot 100, while reaching #4 in the UK. A year later, Turner, with help from outside producers in Bolic, released her first solo album Tina Turns the Country On! Turner was critically raved for her vocal performances on the album, leading to another solo Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance in 1975(SONY PCGA-BP2NX battery). Her and Ike's work on their gospel album, The Gospel According to Ike & Tina, led to a nomination for Best Soul Gospel Performance. One of the Turners' last albums together, Sweet Island Rhode Red, produced the funk hit "Sexy Ida, Pt. 1".

In 1974, Tina traveled to London to participate in the filming of the rock musical, Tommy, in which she played The Acid Queen, and sang the song of the same name. Turner's performance was critically acclaimed. Shortly after filming wrapped, Turner appeared with Ann-Margret on her TV special in London. (SONY PCGA-BP2NY battery) Returning to the United States, Turner continued her career with the Ike & Tina Turner Revue. Following the release of Tommy, another Turner solo album, Acid Queen, was released in 1975. Though it included a variety of producers, Ike Turner contributed on a few of the songs, including the raunchy duet "Baby Get It On", which became Ike & Tina's final charted single.

Decline[edit]

By 1975, the Ike & Tina Turner Revue's success had tapered off. (SONY PCGA-BP2V battery) Ike Turner's alcoholism and troubling cocaine habit had hampered his ability to produce music and some gigs were canceled, leading to a drop in ticket sales in their concerts. Throughout that year, Tina appeared solo without Ike in several shows including The Cher Show. Tina, around this time, had begun chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo after having converted to Nichiren Buddhism in 1974, as a means to get through rough times, which mainly included Ike's own rough treatment of her (SONY PCGA-BP3T battery).

On July 2, 1976, Turner and her husband had a violent fight on their way from Los Angeles to Dallas where the Revue had a gig at the Dallas Statler Hilton. Following their arrival to the hotel, Turner left Ike, fleeing with nothing more than thirty-six cents ("a quarter, a dime and a penny", Tina said) and a Mobil gas station credit card in her possession. She spent the next few months hiding from Ike while staying with various friends until Ike finally agreed to a divorce. (SONY PCGA-BP4V battery) Following this, Tina filed for divorce on July 27 after 14 years of marriage, ending the Ike & Tina Turner Revue for good.

Tina later credited the Nichiren Buddhist faith and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo with giving her the courage to strike out on her own. However, by walking out on Ike in the middle of a tour, she learned she was legally responsible to tour promoters for the canceled shows. After a year in court, their divorce was made final on March 29, 1978. (SONY PCGA-BP51 battery) In the divorce, she completely parted ways with him, retaining only her stage name and assuming responsibility for the debts incurred by the canceled tour as well as a significant Internal Revenue Service lien.

First solo performances[edit]

After Ike & Tina's divorce was finalized in March 1978, Tina set on reviving her flagging career. With the help of United Artists Records executive Richard Stewart, Turner was given the finances to produce her own show. (SONY PCGA-BP52 battery) Inspired by the cabaret-styled Las Vegas shows she had witnessed during her Ike & Tina years, Tina produced a similar show and began performing in venues in Las Vegas and in small clubs in the United States. To earn further income due to issues with the IRS, Turner began appearing in shows such as The Hollywood Squares, Donny and Marie, The Sonny & Cher Show and The Brady Bunch Hour. Later in 1978, United Artists released Turner's third solo album Rough, (SONY PCGA-BP52A battery) with distribution both in North America and Europe with EMI. The record failed to chart as well as her follow-up album Love Explosion, which included a brief diversion to disco rhythms. The albums completed Turner's contract with United Artists/EMI and Turner left the label without renewing the contract. Continuing to perform in small clubs with her cabaret styled act, Turner spent most of 1978 and 1979 on the road promoting her Wild Lady of Rock 'n' Roll tour, (SONY PCGA-BP71 battery) where she continued to be a successful live act even without a hit record.

Following an appearance on Olivia Newton-John's musical variety show in Australia, she sought contact with her management team, which included Roger Davies. Davies saw her perform in San Francisco in 1980 and agreed to work with her, becoming Turner's manager and booking agent for her shows. Through Davies' insistence and from her desire to fill in arenas, Turner cut most of her entourage including longtime associate Rhonda Gramm, (SONY PCGA-BP71A battery) and her band, and revived her show from cabaret styled shows to a gritty rock'n'roll showcase, debuting Turner's new show in venues both in and outside the United States. In 1981, Davies set up a showcase for Tina at The Ritz in New York City, which led to Rod Stewart having Tina perform with him, first on Saturday Night Live and then on several dates of his U.S. tour. Following this, Turner opened three shows for The Rolling Stones. (SONY VGP-BPL1 battery)In both tours, Turner gained recognition for her success as a live performer. In 1982, she recorded a cover of The Temptations' "Ball of Confusion" for the UK production team B.E.F., which became a hit in European dance clubs. Throughout 1982, Turner performed in both bigger and smaller venues, including another showcase at the Ritz in December of that year, which led to a singles deal with Capitol Records under the insistence of David Bowie.

Mainstream success

In November 1983, (SONY VGP-BPL2 battery) Tina released her cover of Al Green's "Let's Stay Together", with Capitol. The record became a hit, first in Europe where it reached the top forty and top ten in some countries including the UK and then in the Americas, peaking at #26 on the US pop chart in February 1984, becoming Turner's first solo single to chart putting an end to the singer's eight-year absence from the charts, also peaking at the top 5 of the US R&B and dance charts as well. (SONY VGP-BPL4 battery) The success of the single led Capitol to rethink its contract with Turner and offered the singer a three-album deal, demanding an album on short notice, which had Turner staging what Ebony magazine later called an "amazing comeback". Done in two months, the album Private Dancer, was released in June 1984. That same month, Turner issued the album's second single "What's Love Got to Do with It". It quickly climbed to the Top 10 within a month and in September had reached #1 on the Hot 100 in the U.S., making it the first time in Turner's career that she had reached that position. (SONY VGP-BPL5A battery) Private Dancer peaked at the Top 5 of the Billboard album charts later selling five million copies in the U.S. and a total of eleven million copies worldwide, though some sources stated the album has sold over twenty million making it her most successful album. Private Dancer also featured two more Top 10 singles, the rock-oriented "Better Be Good to Me" and the seductive title track "Private Dancer" while another U.S. single, "Show Some Respect",(SONY VGP-BPS2 battery) became a modest Top 40 hit. Turner's comeback was culminated in early 1985 when she won four Grammy Awards including Record of the Year for "What's Love Got to Do with It". In February of that year, she embarked on her second world tour supporting the Private Dancer album, where she toured to huge crowds. One show, filmed at Birmingham, England's NEC Arena, was later released on home video. During this time, she also contributed on vocals to the USA for Africa benefit song "We Are the World"(SONY VGP-BPS3 battery).

Turner's success continued in 1985 when she appeared in the film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, playing Aunty Entity, the ruler of Bartertown – her first acting role in 10 years. Upon its release, the film grossed $36 million. Turner later received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress for her role in the film. She also contributed songs to the film's soundtrack, two of which, "We Don't Need Another Hero" and "One of the Living",(SONY VGP-BPS4 battery) became hits, with "One of the Living" later winning Turner a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. In July, Turner performed at Live Aid alongside Mick Jagger. Encouraged by a performance together during Tina's filmed solo concert in England, singer Bryan Adams released their duet single together, "It's Only Love", later resulting in a Grammy nod for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.

Subsequent releases

In 1986, Turner returned with her next solo album Break Every Rule(SONY VGP-BPS5 battery). The album quickly became platinum launching several hit singles including "Typical Male", "Two People" and "What You Get Is What You See" going on to sell two million copies in the United States and four million altogether worldwide. That same year, Turner published her autobiography I, Tina, in which she talked about her early life and volatile marriage to Ike Turner. She later received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame that summer. (SONY VGP-BPS5A battery) Turner's European Break Every Rule Tour, which culminated in March 1987 in Munich, Germany, contributed to record breaking sales and concert attendances. In January 1988, Turner made history alongside Paul McCartney when she performed in front of the largest paying audience (approximately 184,000) to see a solo performer in Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, earning her a Guinness World Record. The success of Turner's two live tours led to the recording of Tina Live in Europe which was released that April. (SONY VGP-BPS8 battery) Turner lay low following the end of her Break Every Rule Tour, emerging once again with Foreign Affair which included one of Turner's signature songs, "The Best". She later embarked on a Europe-only tour to promote the album. While Foreign Affair went gold in the United States, with its singles "The Best" and "Steamy Windows" becoming Top 40 hits there, it wasn't as successful as Turner's previous offerings, though it was hugely successful in Europe, where Turner had personally relocated(SONY VGP-BPS8A battery).

In 1991, Ike & Tina Turner were inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Phil Spector later accepted on their behalf. That same year, the ex-couple signed away their rights to have their lives dramatized in the semi-autobiographical film What's Love Got to Do with It, later released in 1993 and starring Angela Bassett as Tina and Laurence Fishburne as Ike, with the actors winning Best Actress and Best Actor Academy Award nominations for their portrayals of the former (SONY VGP-BPL8 battery)husband-and-wife team. Turner contributed to the soundtrack for What's Love Got to Do with It, re-recording songs from her Ike & Tina days and recording several newer songs including what turned out to be her last Top 10 U.S. hit, "I Don't Wanna Fight". Other than helping Bassett with her wardrobe and teaching her dance steps as well as providing songs for the soundtrack, she refused to be involved fully in the film, telling an interviewer, "Why would I want to see Ike Turner beat me up again? (SONY VGP-BPS9 battery) I haven't dwelled on it; it's all in the past where it belongs."[83] Following the film's and soundtrack's release, Turner embarked on her first US tour in seven years. Following the tour's end, Turner moved to Switzerland and took a year off from the road at the end of the tour.

Turner returned in 1995 with the U2 composition, "GoldenEye" for the James Bond film of the same name. Its huge success in Europe and modest success in her native United States led Turner (SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery)to record a new album, releasing the Wildest Dreams album in 1996. Though the album itself was not as hugely successful in the United States, thanks to a world tour and a much played Hanes hosiery commercial, the album went gold in the United States. The album reached platinum success in Europe where Turner had hits with "Whatever You Want", "Missing You", which briefly charted in the U.S., "Something Beautiful Remains", and the sensual Barry White duet "In Your Wildest Dreams"(SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). Following the tour's end in 1997, Turner took another break before re-emerging again in 1999 appearing on the VH-1 special Divas Live '99. In 1998 the duet with Italian superstar Eros Ramazzotti in "Cose della vita" that became a European hit. Before celebrating her 60th birthday, Turner released the dance-infused song, "When the Heartache Is Over" and its parent album, Twenty Four Seven the following month in Europe, (SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery) releasing both the song and the album in North America in early 2000. The success of "When the Heartache is Over" and Turner's tour supporting the album once again helped in the album going gold in the U.S. The Twenty Four Seven Tour became her most successful concert tour to date and became the highest-grossing tour of 2000 according to Pollstar grossing over $100 million. Later, Guinness World Records announced that Turner had sold more concert tickets than any other(SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery) solo concert performer in music history. Afterwards Turner announced a semi-retirement.

Recent years[edit]

In 2002, Tennessee State Route 19 between Brownsville and Nutbush was named "Tina Turner Highway". The following year, she recorded the duet "Great Spirits" with Phil Collins for the Disney film, Brother Bear. In 2004, Tina made her first professional appearances following her semi-retirement, releasing the compilation album, (SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery) All the Best, which produced the single "Open Arms", and sold more than a million copies in the US.

In December of the following year, Turner was recognized by the Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. and was elected to join an elite group of entertainers. President George W. Bush commented on Turner's "natural skill, the energy and sensuality", and referred to her legs as "the most famous in show business".(SONY VGP-BPL9 battery) Several artists paid tribute to her that night including Oprah Winfrey, Melissa Etheridge (performing "River Deep - Mountain High"), Queen Latifah (performing "What's Love Got to Do with It"), Beyoncé (performing "Proud Mary"), and Al Green (performing "Let's Stay Together"). Winfrey stated, "We don't need another hero. We need more heroines like you, Tina. You make me proud to spell my name w-o-m-a-n," and "Tina Turner didn't just survive, she triumphed." In November, Turner released All the Best – Live Collection and it was certified (SONY VGP-BPS10 battery)platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Turner participated in the soundtrack to All the Invisible Children, providing duet vocals to the song, "Teach Me Again", with singer Elisa, finding success in Italy where it peaked at the top spot. Turner gave her first live performance in seven years, in 2007, headlining a benefit concert for the Cauldwell's Children Charity at London's Natural History Museum. That year, Turner performed a rendition of Joni Mitchell's "Edith and The Kingpin" on Herbie Hancock's Mitchell tribute album, River: The Joni Letters. (SONY VGP-BPL10 battery)Turner's original vocals for Carlos Santana's "The Game of Love" were included in a Santana greatest hits compilation. Label demands led to Turner's vocals being replaced at the last minute by Michelle Branch.

On December 12, 2007, Turner's ex-husband Ike Turner died from a cocaine overdose, brought on by emphysema and cardiovascular disease. Reached for comment, Turner issued a brief statement through her spokesperson stating: "Tina hasn't had any contact with Ike in more than 30 years. No further comment will be made." (SONY VGP-BPS11 battery) Turner made her public comeback in February 2008 at the Grammy Awards where she performed alongside Beyoncé.[92][93] In addition, she picked up a Grammy as a featured artist on River: The Joni Letters. In October 2008, Turner embarked on her first tour in nearly ten years with the Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour.[94] In support of the tour, Turner released another hits compilation. The tour became a huge success and culminated in the release of the live album/DVD, (SONY VGP-BPL11 battery) Tina Live. In 2009, Turner participated in the Beyond singing project with fellow musicians Regula Curti, Seda Bagcan and Dechen Shak Dagsay. This album combined Buddhist chants and Christian choral music along with a spiritual message read by Turner. The album was released only in Germany and a handful of other countries. It peaked at #7 in Switzerland. In 2011, Children Beyond followed and charted again in Switzerland. Turner promoted the album by performing on TV shows in Germany and Switzerland in December that year. In April 2010, (SONY VGP-BPL12 battery) mainly due to an online campaign by fans of the Glasgow Rangers Football Club, Turner's 1989 hit, "The Best", returned to the UK singles chart, peaking at #9 on the chart. In May 2012, Turner was spotted attending a fashion show in Beijing to support Giorgio Armani. Turner appeared on the cover of the German issue of Vogue magazine in April 2013. At age 73, she is the oldest person worldwide to appear on the cover of Vogue.

Personal life[edit]

Family[edit]

In 1958, eighteen-year-old Tina became a mother for the first time, (SONY VGP-BPS12 battery) giving birth to her son Raymond Craig in August of that year. Craig was the child of Kings of Rhythm saxophonist Raymond Hill. The news of her out-of-wedlock pregnancy and her performances with the Kings of Rhythm caused her mother Zelma to kick her out of her house. After marrying Ike Turner, Tina became stepmother of two of Ike's eldest sons, Ike Jr. (b. 1958) and Michael (b. 1959). (SONY VGP-BPS13 battery) In October 1960, Tina gave birth to Ronald, her only child by Ike. During Ike and Tina's divorce trial, Ike sent all four sons to live with Tina at her home. After Tina rose to solo stardom, Ike accused her of being a bad mother, even alleging that she had sent Michael to a mental hospital after he had entered Tina's home allegedly to reunite her with his father. Tina denied the allegations, telling Australian magazine TV Week, "he gave me those children and not a penny to look after them with." (SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery) Tina had an estranged relationship with her mother throughout Zelma Bullock's lifetime. In 1985, after moving to England, she leased her Los Angeles home to her. Zelma died in 1999. Tina's elder sister, Aillene died after a long bout with illness in 2010.

Relationship and marriage to Ike Turner[edit]

The relationship shared between Tina and Ike was at first friendly. In early years, they compared their relationship as being "more sibling like". In 1959, Tina moved to Ike's home in East St. (SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery)Louis.[103] During that period, Ike began training Tina with her voice.[104] Neither Ike nor Tina felt much attraction for the other: Tina thought Ike was not the ideal-looking man while Ike dismissed Tina as being "too skinny". Tina later acknowledged that Ike favored curvaceous women. Ike was still married to Lorraine Taylor during this period. Late in 1959, Ike and Lorraine separated and shortly afterwards, Tina and Ike engaged in a sexual relationship, much to Tina's chagrin. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) Ike also felt guilt in the relationship, stating later that having sex with Tina "felt like I had screwed my sister or something". The couple married in Tijuana in 1962. Tina recalled the first time Ike physically abused her began after she told Ike of her thoughts of leaving Ike's group due to financial disputes. Tina said Ike grabbed a shoe stretcher and hit her in the head with it. Afterwards, Tina said, Ike asked her to have sex with him. (SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery) Tina wrote in her memoirs, I, Tina, that the incident was the first time that Ike had "instilled fear" in her.

While Tina wrote and explained Ike's levels of abuse, Ike's own accounts differed. In a 1985 interview with Spin magazine, Ike admitted, "Yeah I hit her, but I didn't hit her more than the average guy beats his wife.... If she says I abused her, maybe I did." He worded this slightly differently in his 1999 memoirs, Taking Back My Name, writing: "Sure, I've slapped Tina.... (SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery)There have been times when I punched her to the ground without thinking. But I have never beat her." Ike also claimed on more than one occasion that he and Tina weren't even legally married. In the 1985 Spin article, Ike said, "As God is my judge, of all my wives, Tina is the only one I was never legally married to." He explained in later years that Tina took his name in order to discourage a former lover from returning to her. Ike himself said he had married at least 14 times and five times before he allegedly married Tina. Tina herself admits she "never felt like [she] was married" to Ike(SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery).

Before a show in Los Angeles in 1969, Tina tried to commit suicide by swallowing 50 Valiums. In early July 1976, after years of abuse, Tina left Ike after a violent fight in Dallas. On July 27, 1976, she filed for divorce. In the final divorce decree, Tina took responsibility for missed concert dates as well as an IRS lien while also being allowed to retain use of her stage name as a means to find work as a performer. Following the divorce(SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery), Turner had corrective surgery on her nasal septum, injured due to Ike's frequent hitting. Later, Turner dismissed popular notions that she was a "victim" of Ike Turner's abuse stating she had argued with producers of her loosely-based biopic What's Love Got to Do with It over her depiction in the film. Friends and relatives of Ike Turner said he never fully got over their divorce. Their son Ronald once alleged that Ike(SONY VGP-BPS21B battery) used to come to his house occasionally and snoop through his address book to locate Tina.

Religion[edit]

Throughout her childhood and early adulthood, Turner was Baptist. Turner was introduced to Buddhism by a friend of hers and Ike's in 1972. Turner wrote in her autobiography that she first used Buddhist chants (mainly Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō) before performing at a recording session at Ike's Bolic Sound studio. The result led to Ike, instead of berating her or hitting her for supposed wrong notes, sending her money to go shopping, (SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) something Tina took to her advantage later on. Two years later, she adopted the Nichiren Buddhism faith and later credited the religion for getting her through the rough times. Turner considers herself a "Buddhist-Baptist". Turner stated she still prays in the traditional Baptist sense while also meditating and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo.

Other relationships and second marriage[edit]

Tina's first boyfriend, while living in Brownsville, was Harry Taylor, who originally came from a rival school apart from hers. (SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery) Taylor relocated to Tina's school to be near her. The relationship ended after Tina learned that Harry had married another woman. After moving to St. Louis, she and her sister got acquainted by members of the Kings of Rhythm, with Tina dating the band's saxophonist Raymond Hill. After Tina gave birth to their son Craig, their relationship was strained. Allegedly, after a fight between the two broke out, Ike and other Kings of Rhythm members confronted Hill and beat him up, with one member tackling him to the ground, instantly breaking his leg. (SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery) The injury was so severe that Hill had to return to his hometown of Clarksdale, Mississippi. Ike Turner later adopted Tina's son adding his last name legally. After divorcing Ike Turner in 1978, Tina abstained from relationships as she set on bringing her career back on track.

While at a record label party in London in 1985, Tina met German music executive Erwin Bach. Initially starting out a friendship, Turner and Bach began dating the following year and have remained together since. In July 2013, (SONY VGP-BPS13S battery) after a 27-year romantic partnership, the couple married in a civil ceremony on the banks of Lake Zurich in Küsnacht, northern Switzerland.

Residences and citizenship[edit]

Turner has been living in a lake house, Château Algonquin in Küsnacht, next to Zurich, Switzerland, since moving there in 1994. She owns property in Los Angeles, and has residences in London, Cologne, and a villa on the French Riviera named Anna Fleur.

On January 25, 2013, it was announced that Turner had applied for Swiss citizenship, and that she would renounce her U.S. citizenship. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery) In April, she undertook a mandatory citizenship test which included advanced knowledge of the German language and of Swiss history; she passed without problems. On April 22, 2013, she was issued a Swiss passport and is now a citizen of Switzerland.

Awards and accolades[edit]

Main article: List of awards received by Tina Turner

Turner was listed at the 17th place on Rolling Stone's list "The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time".[10] Turner is a Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee, and three of her recordings, "River Deep – Mountain High" (1999), (SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery)"Proud Mary" (2003) and "What's Love Got to Do with It" (2012) are in the Grammy Hall of Fame. Turner has won eight Grammy Awards.

Bryan Adams, who performed with her on the Private Dancer Tour, praised Turner's live performances, saying, "I never saw Tina walk through a performance, she always put on a great show, and was gracious and grateful to her audience." Her legs were noted specifically as she was honored by President George W. Bush. At age 73, (SONY VGP-BPS14 battery) Turner is also the oldest person to be on the front cover of Vogue Magazine surpassing Meryl Streep who covered American Vogue in 2012 at age 62. Turner has her own star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.进行编辑.

A hard disk drive (HDD)[note 2] is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating discs (platters) coated with magnetic material. An HDD retains its data even when powered off. Data is read in a random-access manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than sequentiallySony PCG-71313M battery. An HDD consists of one or more rigid ("hard") rapidly rotating discs (platters) with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm to read and write data to the surfaces.

Introduced by IBM in 1956,[2] HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for general purpose computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers. More than 200 companies have produced HDD units, though most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba and Western DigitalSony PCG-71212M battery. Worldwide revenues for HDDs shipments are expected to reach $33 billion in 2013, a decrease of about 12% from $37.8 billion in 2012.

The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000: a 1-terabyte (TB) drive has a capacity of 1,000 gigabytes (GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 billion bytes). Typically, some of an HDD's capacity is unavailable to the user because it is used by the file system andSony PCG-71311M battery the computer operating system, and possibly inbuilt redundancy for error correction and recovery. Performance is specified by the time to move the heads to a file (Average Access Time) plus the time it takes for the file to move under its head (average latency, a function of the physical rotational speed in revolutions per minute) and the speed at which the file is transmitted (data rate) Sony PCG-71213M battery.

The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch in desktop computers and 2.5-inch in laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as SATA (Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial attached SCSI) cables.

As of 2012, the primary competing technology for secondary storage is flash memory in the form of solid-state drives (SSDs). Sony PCG-61211M battery HDDs are expected to remain the dominant medium for secondary storage due to predicted continuing advantages in recording capacity and price per unit of storage;[3][4] but SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption and durability are more important considerations than price and capacity.[5][6]

HDDs were introduced in 1956 as data storage for an IBM real-time transaction processing computer[2] and were developed for use with general purpose mainframe and minicomputers. The first IBM driveSony VAIO PCG-31114M battery, the 350 RAMAC, was approximately the size of two refrigerators and stored 5 million 6-bit characters (the equivalent of 3.75 million 8-bit bytes) on a stack of 50 discs.

In 1961 IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, which was about the size of a washing machine and stored two million characters on a removable disk pack. Users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape. Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations and reached capacities of 300 megabytes by the early 1980sSony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. Non-removable HDDs were called fixed disk drives.

Some high performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track, e.g., IBM 2305 so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track.[7] Known as Fixed-Head or Head-Per-Track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production.[8]

In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD codenamed "Winchester". Its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered downSony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. Instead, the heads were allowed to "land" on a special area of the disk surface upon spin-down, "taking off" again when the disk was later powered on. This greatly reduced the cost of the head actuator mechanism, but precluded removing just the disks from the drive as was done with the disk packs of the day. Instead, the first models of "Winchester technology" drives featured a removable disk moduleSony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, which included both the disk pack and the head assembly, leaving the actuator motor in the drive upon removal. Later "Winchester" drives abandoned the removable media concept and returned to non-removable platters.

Like the first removable pack drive, the first "Winchester" drives used platters 14 inches (360 mm) in diameter. A few years later, designers were exploring the possibility that physically smaller platters might offer advantages. Drives with non-removable eight-inch platters appeared, and then drives that used a 51⁄4 in (130 mm) Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery form factor (a mounting width equivalent to that used by contemporary floppy disk drives). The latter were primarily intended for the then-fledgling personal computer (PC) market.

As the 1980s began, HDDs were a rare and very expensive additional feature on PCs; however by the late 1980s, their cost had been reduced to the point where they were standard on all but the cheapest PCSony VAIO PCG-41111M battery.

Most HDDs in the early 1980s were sold to PC end users as an external, add-on subsystem. The subsystem was not sold under the drive manufacturer's name but under the subsystem manufacturer's name such as Corvus Systems and Tallgrass Technologies, or under the PC system manufacturer's name such as the Apple ProFile. The IBM PC/XT in 1983 included an internal 10MB HDD, and soon thereafter internal HDDs proliferated on personal computersSONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery.

External HDDs remained popular for much longer on the Apple Macintosh. Every Mac made between 1986 and 1998 has a SCSI port on the back, making external expansion easy; also, "toaster" Compact Macs did not have easily accessible HDD bays (or, in the case of the Mac Plus, any hard drive bay at all), so on those models, external SCSI disks were the only reasonable optionSONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery.

Driven by areal density doubling every two to four years since their invention (an observation known as Kryder's law, similar to Moore's Law), HDDs have continuously improved their characteristics; a few highlights include:

Capacity per HDD increasing from 3.75 megabytes[2] to 4 terabytes or more, more than a million times larger.

Physical volume of HDD decreasing from 68 cubic feet (1.9 m3)[2] (comparable to a large side-by-side refrigerator), to less than 20 millilitres (0.70 imp fl oz; 0.68 US fl oz),[9] a 100,000-to-1 decreaseSONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery.

Weight decreasing from 2,000 pounds (910 kg)[2] to 48 grams (1.7 oz),[9] a 20,000-to-1 decrease.

Price decreasing from about US$15,000 per megabyte[10] to less than $0.00006 per megabyte ($90/1.5 terabyte), a greater than 250-million-to-1 decrease.[11]

Average Access Time decreasing from over 100 milliseconds to a few milliseconds, a greater than 40-to-1 improvementSONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery.

Market application expanding from mainframe computers of the late 1950s to most mass storage applications including computers and consumer applications such as storage of entertainment content.

Magnetic cross section & frequency modulation encoded binary data

Magnetic recording[edit]

See also: Magnetic storage

An HDD records data by magnetizing a thin film of ferromagnetic material[note 3] on a disk. Sequential changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary data bits. The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions in magnetization. User data is encoded using an encoding scheme, such as run-length limited encoding,[note 4] which determines how the data is represented by the magnetic transitionsSONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery.

A typical HDD design consists of a spindle that holds flat circular disks, also called platters, which hold the recorded data. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminium alloy, glass, or ceramic, and are coated with a shallow layer of magnetic material typically 10–20 nm in depth, with an outer layer of carbon for protection.[13][14][15] For reference, a standard piece of copy paper is 0.07–0.18 millimetre (70,000–180,000 nm). SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery

Diagram labeling the major components of a computer HDD

Recording of single magnetisations of bits on a 200MB HDD-platter (recording made visible using CMOS-MagView).[17]

Longitudinal recording (standard) & perpendicular recording diagram

The platters in contemporary HDDs are spun at speeds varying from 4,200 rpm in energy-efficient portable devices, to 15,000 rpm for high performance servers.[18] The first HDDs spun at 1,200 rpm[2] and, for many years, 3,600 rpm was the norm.[19] Today, the platters in most consumer HDDs spin in the range of 5,400 rpm to 7,200 rpmSONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery.

Information is written to and read from a platter as it rotates past devices called read-and-write heads that operate very close (often tens of nanometers) over the magnetic surface. The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under itSony VAIO PCG-81112M battery.

In modern drives there is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor. Early hard disk drives wrote data at some constant bits per secondSONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery, resulting in all tracks having the same amount of data per track but modern drives (since the 1990s) use zone bit recording -- increasing the write speed from inner to outer zone and thereby storing more data per track in the outer zones.

In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects. To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a 3-atom layer of the non-magnetic element rutheniumSONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.[20] Another technology used to overcome thermal effects to allow greater recording densities is perpendicular recording, first shipped in 2005,[21] and as of 2007 the technology was used in many HDDs.[22][23][24]

Components[edit]

HDD with disks and motor hub removed exposing copper colored stator coils surrounding a bearing in the center of the spindle motor. Orange stripe along the side of the arm is thin printed-circuit cable, spindle bearing is in the center and the actuator is in the upper leftSONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery

A typical HDD has two electric motors; a spindle motor that spins the disks and an actuator (motor) that positions the read/write head assembly across the spinning disks. The disk motor has an external rotor attached to the disks; the stator windings are fixed in place. Opposite the actuator at the end of the head support arm is the read-write head; thin printed-circuit cables connect the read-write heads to amplifier electronics mounted at the pivot of the actuatorSONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. The head support arm is very light, but also stiff; in modern drives, acceleration at the head reaches 550 g.

Head stack with an actuator coil on the left and read/write heads on the right

The actuator is a permanent magnet and moving coil motor that swings the heads to the desired position. A metal plate supports a squat neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) high-flux magnet. Beneath this plate is the moving coil, often referred to as the voice coil by analogy to the coil in loudspeakers, which is attached to the actuator hub, and beneath that is a second NIB magnet, mounted on the bottom plate of the motor (some drives only have one magnet) SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery.

The voice coil itself is shaped rather like an arrowhead, and made of doubly coated copper magnet wire. The inner layer is insulation, and the outer is thermoplastic, which bonds the coil together after it is wound on a form, making it self-supporting. The portions of the coil along the two sides of the arrowhead (which point to the actuator bearing center) interact with the magnetic field, developing a tangential force that rotates the actuatorSONY PCG-8113M battery. Current flowing radially outward along one side of the arrowhead and radially inward on the other produces the tangential force. If the magnetic field were uniform, each side would generate opposing forces that would cancel each other out. Therefore the surface of the magnet is half N pole, half S pole, with the radial dividing line in the middle, causing the two sides of the coil to see opposite magnetic fields and produce forces that add instead of canceling. Currents along the top and bottom of the coil produce radial forces that do not rotate the headSONY PCG-8112M battery.

The HDD's electronics control the movement of the actuator and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Feedback of the drive electronics is accomplished by means of special segments of the disk dedicated to servo feedback. These are either complete concentric circles (in the case of dedicated servo technology), or segments interspersed with real data (in the case of embedded servo technology) SONY PCG-7134M battery. The servo feedback optimizes the signal to noise ratio of the GMR sensors by adjusting the voice-coil of the actuated arm. The spinning of the disk also uses a servo motor. Modern disk firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the platter surfaces and remapping sectors of the media which have failed.

Error handling[edit]

Modern drives make extensive use of error correction codes (ECCs), particularly Reed–Solomon error correctionSONY PCG-7131M battery. These techniques store extra bits, determined by mathematical formulas, for each block of data; the extra bits allow many errors to be corrected invisibly. The extra bits themselves take up space on the HDD, but allow higher recording densities to be employed without causing uncorrectable errors, resulting in much larger storage capacity.[25] In the newest drives of 2009, low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) were supplanting Reed-Solomon; LDPC codes enable performance close to the Shannon Limit and thus provide the highest storage density available. SONY PCG-7122M battery

Typical HDDs attempt to "remap" the data in a physical sector that is failing to a spare physical sector—hopefully while the errors in the bad sector are still few enough that the ECC can recover the data without loss. The S.M.A.R.T-Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology system counts the total number of errors in the entire HDD fixed by ECC and the total number of remappings, as the occurrence of many such errors may predict HDD failureSONY PCG-7121M battery .

Future development[edit]

HDD areal densities have shown a long term compound annual growth rate not substantively different from Moore's Law, most recently in the range of 20-25% annually, with desktop 3.5" drives estimated to hit 12 TB around 2016.[27] New magnetic storage technologies are being developed to support higher areal density growth and maintain the competitiveness of HDDs with potentially competitive products such as flash memory-based solid-state drives (SSDs). These new HDD technologies includeSONY PCG-7113M battery:

Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR)[28][29]

Bit-patterned recording (BPR)[30]

Current Perpendicular to Plane giant magnetoresistance (CPP/GMR) heads[27]

Shingled Write[27]

With these new technologies the relative position of HDDs and SSDs with regard to their cost and performance is not projected to change through 2016.[27]

Capacity[edit]

The capacity of an HDD reported to an end user by the operating system is less than the amount stated by a drive or system manufacturer due to amongst other things, different units of measuring capacity, capacity consumed by the file system and/or redundancySONY PCG-7112M battery.

Calculation[edit]

Because modern disk drives appear to their interface as a contiguous set of logical blocks their gross capacity can be calculated by multiplying the number of blocks by the size of the block. This information is available from the manufacturer's specification and from the drive itself through use of special utilities invoking low level commands. SONY PCG-8Z3M battery 

The gross capacity of older HDDs can be calculated by multiplying for each zone of the drive the number of cylinders by the number of heads by the number of sectors/zone by the number of bytes/sector (most commonly 512) and then summing the totals for all zones. Some modern SATA drives will also report cylinder-head-sector (C/H/S) values to the CPU but they are no longer actual physical parameters since the reported numbers are constrained by historic operating-system interfacesSONY PCG-8Z2M battery.

The old C/H/S scheme has been replaced by logical block addressing. In some cases, to try to "force-fit" the C/H/S scheme to large-capacity drives, the number of heads was given as 64, although no modern drive has anywhere near 32 platters.

Redundancy[edit]

In modern HDDs, spare capacity for defect management is not included in the published capacity; however in many early HDDs a certain number of sectors were reserved for spares, thereby reducing capacity available to end usersSONY PCG-8Z1M battery .

In some systems, there may be hidden partitions used for system recovery that reduce the capacity available to the end user.

For RAID subsystems, data integrity and fault-tolerance requirements also reduce the realized capacity. For example, a RAID1 subsystem will be about half the total capacity as a result of data mirroring. RAID5 subsystems with x drives, would lose 1/x of capacity to paritySONY PCG-8Y3M battery. RAID subsystems are multiple drives that appear to be one drive or more drives to the user, but provides a great deal of fault-tolerance. Most RAID vendors use some form of checksums to improve data integrity at the block level. For many vendors, this involves using HDDs with sectors of 520 bytes per sector to contain 512 bytes of user data and eight checksum bytes or using separate 512-byte sectors for the checksum data. SONY PCG-8Y2M battery  [33]

File system use[edit]

Main article: Disk formatting

The presentation of an HDD to its host is determined by its controller. This may differ substantially from the drive's native interface particularly in mainframes or servers.

Modern HDDs, such as SAS[31] and SATA[32] drives, appear at their interfaces as a contiguous set of logical blocks; typically 512 bytes long but the industry is in the process of changing to 4,096-byte logical blocks; see Advanced Format.[ SONY PCG-7Z1M battery34]

The process of initializing these logical blocks on the physical disk platters is called low level formatting which is usually performed at the factory and is not normally changed in the field.[note 5]

High level formatting then writes the file system structures into selected logical blocks to make the remaining logical blocks available to the host OS and its applications.[35] The operating system file system uses some of the disk space to organize files on the diskSONY PCG-6W2M battery , recording their file names and the sequence of disk areas that represent the file. Examples of data structures stored on disk to retrieve files include the file allocation table (FAT) in the MS-DOS file system and inodes in many UNIX file systems, as well as other operating system data structures. As a consequence not all the space on an HDD is available for user files. This file system overhead is usually less than 1% on drives larger than 100 MBSONY PCG-5J5M battery.

The total capacity of HDDs is given by manufacturers in megabytes (1 MB = 1,000,000 bytes), gigabytes (1 GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes) or terabytes (1 TB = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes).[38][39][40][36][41][42] This numbering convention, where prefixes like mega- and giga- denote powers of 1,000, is also used for data transmission rates and DVD capacities. However, the convention is different from that used by manufacturers of memory (RAM, ROM) and CDs, where prefixes like kilo- and mega- mean powers of 1,024SONY PCG-5K2M battery .

The practice of using prefixes assigned to powers of 1,000 within the HDD and computer industries dates back to the early days of computing.[43] By the 1970s million, mega and M were consistently being used in the powers of 1,000 sense to describe HDD capacity.[44][45][46]

Computers do not internally represent HDD or memory capacity in powers of 1,024; reporting it in this manner is just a convention.[47] Microsoft Windows uses the powers of 1,024 convention when reporting HDD capacity, SONY PCG-5K1M battery thus an HDD offered by its manufacturer as a 1 TB drive is reported by these OSes as a 931 GB HDD. Mac OS X 10.6 ("Snow Leopard"), uses powers of 1,000 when reporting HDD capacity.

In the case of "mega-", there is a nearly 5% difference between the powers of 1,000 definition and the powers of 1,024 definition. Furthermore, the difference is compounded by 2.4% with each incrementally larger prefix (gigabyte, terabyte, etc.). The discrepancy between the two conventions for measuring capacity was the subject of several class action SONY PCG-5J4M batterysuits against HDD manufacturers. The plaintiffs argued that the use of decimal measurements effectively misled consumers[48][49] while the defendants denied any wrongdoing or liability, asserting that their marketing and advertising complied in all respects with the law and that no class member sustained any damages or injuries.[50]

In December 1998, standards organizations addressed these dual definitions of the conventional prefixes by standardizing on unique binary prefixes and prefix symbols to denote multiples of 1,024, such as "mebibyte (MiB)" SONY PCG-5J1M battery, which exclusively denotes 220 or 1,048,576 bytes.[51] This standard has seen little adoption by the computer industry, and the conventionally prefixed forms of "byte" continue to denote slightly different values depending on context.[52][53]

minicomputer hard disks were of widely varying dimensions, typically in free standing cabinets the size of washing machines or designed to fit a 19" rack. In 1962, IBM introduced its model 1311 disk, which used 14 inch (nominal size) plattersSONY PCG-5G2M battery. This became a standard size for mainframe and minicomputer drives for many years.[65] Such large platters were never used with microprocessor-based systems.

With increasing sales of microcomputers having built in floppy-disk drives (FDDs), HDDs that would fit to the FDD mountings became desirable. Thus HDD Form factors, initially followed those of 8-inch, 5.25-inch, and 3.5-inch floppy disk drives. Because there were no smaller floppy disk drives, smaller HDD form factors developed from product offerings or industry standardsSony VAIO PCG-8131M battery.

8 inch

9.5 in × 4.624 in × 14.25 in (241.3 mm × 117.5 mm × 362 mm). In 1979, Shugart Associates' SA1000 was the first form factor compatible HDD, having the same dimensions and a compatible interface to the 8" FDD.

5.25 inch

5.75 in × 3.25 in × 8 in (146.1 mm × 82.55 mm × 203 mm). This smaller form factor, first used in an HDD by Seagate in 1980,[66] was the same size as full-height 51⁄4-inch-diameter (130 mm) FDD, 3.25-inches high. This is twice as high as "half height"; i.e., 1.63 in (41.4 mm) Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Most desktop models of drives for optical 120 mm disks (DVD, CD) use the half height 5¼" dimension, but it fell out of fashion for HDDs. The Quantum Bigfoot HDD was the last to use it in the late 1990s, with "low-profile" (≈25 mm) and "ultra-low-profile" (≈20 mm) high versions.

3.5 inch

4 in × 1 in × 5.75 in (101.6 mm × 25.4 mm × 146 mm) = 376.77344 cm³. This smaller form factor is similar to that used in an HDD by Rodime in 1983,[67] which was the same size as the "half height" 3½" FDD, i.e., 1.63 inches high. Today, the 1-inch high ("slimline" or "low-profile") version of this form factor is the most popular form used in most desktopsSony VAIO PCG-31311M battery.

2.5 inch

2.75 in × 0.275–0.59 in × 3.945 in (69.85 mm × 7–15 mm × 100 mm) = 48.895–104.775 cm3. This smaller form factor was introduced by PrairieTek in 1988;[68] there is no corresponding FDD. It came to be widely used for HDDs in mobile devices (laptops, music players, etc.) and for solid-state drives (SSDs), by 2008 replacing some 3.5 inch enterprise-class drives.[69] It is also used in the PlayStation 3[70] and Xbox 360Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery video game consoles. Drives 9.5 mm high became an unofficial standard for all except the largest-capacity laptop drives (usually having two platters inside); 12.5 mm-high drives, typically with three platters, are used for maximum capacity, but will not fit most laptop computers. Enterprise-class drives can have a height up to 15 mm.[71] Seagate released a 7mm drive aimed at entry level laptops and high end netbooks in December 2009. Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery

1.8 inch

54 mm × 8 mm × 71 mm = 30.672 cm³. This form factor, originally introduced by Integral Peripherals in 1993, evolved into the ATA-7 LIF with dimensions as stated. For a time it was increasingly used in digital audio players and subnotebooks, but its popularity decreased to the point where this form factor is increasingly rare and only a small percentage of the overall market. Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery [73]

1 inch

42.8 mm × 5 mm × 36.4 mm. This form factor was introduced in 1999 as IBM's Microdrive to fit inside a CF Type II slot. Samsung calls the same form factor "1.3 inch" drive in its product literature.[74]

0.85 inch

24 mm × 5 mm × 32 mm. Toshiba announced this form factor in January 2004[75] for use in mobile phones and similar applications, including SD/MMC slot compatible HDDs optimized for video storage on 4G handsets. Toshiba manufactured a 4 GB (MK4001MTD) and an 8 GB (MK8003MTD) version[76] and holds the Guinness World Record for the smallest HDD. Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery [77]

As of 2012, 2.5-inch and 3.5-inch hard disks were the most popular sizes.

By 2009 all manufacturers had discontinued the development of new products for the 1.3-inch, 1-inch and 0.85-inch form factors due to falling prices of flash memory,[78][79] which has no moving parts.

While these sizes are customarily described by an approximately correct figure in inches, actual sizes have long been specified in millimetersSony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery.

Performance characteristics[edit]

Main article: Hard disk drive performance characteristics

Time to access data[edit]

The factors that limit the time to access the data on an HDD are mostly related to the mechanical nature of the rotating disks and moving heads. Seek time is a measure of how long it takes the head assembly to travel to the track of the disk that contains data. Rotational latency is incurred because the desired disk sector may not be directly under the head when data transfer is requested. These two delays are on the order of milliseconds eachSony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. The bit rate or data transfer rate (once the head is in the right position) creates delay which is a function of the number of blocks transferred; typically relatively small, but can be quite long with the transfer of large contiguous files. Delay may also occur if the drive disks are stopped to save energy.

An HDD's Average Access Time is its average Seek time which technically is the time to do all possible seeks divided by the number of all possible seeks, but in practice is determined by statistical methods or simply approximated as the time of a seek over one-third of the number of tracks. Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery [80]

Defragmentation is a procedure used to minimize delay in retrieving data by moving related items to physically proximate areas on the disk.[81] Some computer operating systems perform defragmentation automatically. Although automatic defragmentation is intended to reduce access delays, performance will be temporarily reduced while the procedure is in progress.[82]

Time to access data can be improved by increasing rotational speed (thus reducing latency) and/or by reducing the time spent seekingSony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. Increasing areal density increases throughput by increasing data rate and by increasing the amount of data under a set of heads, thereby potentially reducing seek activity for a given amount of data. Based on historic trends, analysts predict a future growth in HDD areal density (and therefore capacity) of about 40% per year.[83] The time to access data has not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves have not kept up with growth in storage capacitySony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery.

Seek time[edit]

Average seek time ranges from 3 ms[84] for high-end server drives, to 15 ms for mobile drives, with the most common mobile drives at about 12 ms[85] and the most common desktop type typically being around 9 ms. The first HDD had an average seek time of about 600 ms;[2] by the middle 1970s HDDs were available with seek times of about 25 ms.[86] Some early PC drives used a stepper motor to move the heads, and as a result had seek times as slow as 80–120 msSony VAIO PCG-8161M battery, but this was quickly improved by voice coil type actuation in the 1980s, reducing seek times to around 20 ms. Seek time has continued to improve slowly over time.

Some desktop and laptop computer systems allow the user to make a tradeoff between seek performance and drive noise. Faster seek rates typically require more energy usage to quickly move the heads across the platter, causing louder noises from the pivot bearing and greater device vibrations as the heads are rapidly accelerated during the start of the seek motion and decelerated at the end of the seek motionSony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. Quiet operation reduces movement speed and acceleration rates, but at a cost of reduced seek performance.

Latency[edit]

Latency is the delay for the rotation of the disk to bring the required disk sector under the read-write mechanism. It depends on rotational speed of a disk, measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Average rotational latency is shown in the table below, based on the statistical relation that the average latency in milliseconds for such a drive is one-half the rotational periodSony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery.

Data transfer rate[edit]

As of 2010, a typical 7,200-rpm desktop HDD has a sustained "disk-to-buffer" data transfer rate up to 1,030 Mbits/sec.[87] This rate depends on the track location; the rate is higher for data on the outer tracks (where there are more data sectors per rotation) and lower toward the inner tracks (where there are fewer data sectors per rotation); and is generally somewhat higher for 10,000-rpm drivesSony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. A current widely used standard for the "buffer-to-computer" interface is 3.0 Gbit/s SATA, which can send about 300 megabyte/s (10-bit encoding) from the buffer to the computer, and thus is still comfortably ahead of today's disk-to-buffer transfer rates. Data transfer rate (read/write) can be measured by writing a large file to disk using special file generator tools, then reading back the file. Transfer rate can be influenced by file system fragmentation and the layout of the files. Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery

HDD data transfer rate depends upon the rotational speed of the platters and the data recording density. Because heat and vibration limit rotational speed, advancing density becomes the main method to improve sequential transfer rates. Higher speeds require more power absorbed by the electric engine, which hence warms up more. While areal density advances by increasing both the number of tracks across the disk and the number of sectors per track
Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery, only the latter increases the data transfer rate for a given rpm. Since data transfer rate performance only tracks one of the two components of areal density, its performance improves at a lower rate.[citation needed]

Other considerations[edit]

Other performance considerations include power consumption, audible noise, and shock resistance.

Inner view of a 1998 Seagate HDD which used Parallel ATA interface

Main article: Hard disk drive interface

HDDs are accessed over one of a number of bus types, including as of 2011 parallel ATA (PATA, also called IDE or EIDE; described before the introduction of SATA as ATA), Serial ATA (SATA), SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel. Bridge circuitry is sometimes used to connect HDDs to buses with which they cannot communicate natively, such as IEEE 1394, USB and SCSISony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery.

Modern HDDs present a consistent interface to the rest of the computer, no matter what data encoding scheme is used internally. Typically a DSP in the electronics inside the HDD takes the raw analog voltages from the read head and uses PRML and Reed–Solomon error correction[88] to decode the sector boundaries and sector data, then sends that data out the standard interface. That DSP also watches the error rate detected by error detection and correctionSony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery, and performs bad sector remapping, data collection for Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology, and other internal tasks.

Modern interfaces connect an HDD to a host bus interface adapter (today typically integrated into the "south bridge") with one data/control cable. Each drive also has an additional power cable, usually direct to the power supply unit.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), originally named SASI for Shugart Associates System Interface, was standard on serversSony VAIO PCG-9131L battery, workstations, Commodore Amiga, Atari ST and Apple Macintosh computers through the mid-1990s, by which time most models had been transitioned to IDE (and later, SATA) family disks. The range limitations of the data cable allows for external SCSI devices.

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), later standardized under the name AT Attachment (ATA, with the alias P-ATA or PATA (Parallel ATA) retroactively added upon introduction of SATA) moved the HDD controller from the interface card to the disk drive. This helped to standardize the host/contoller interfaceSony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, reduce the programming complexity in the host device driver, and reduced system cost and complexity. The 40-pin IDE/ATA connection transfers 16 bits of data at a time on the data cable. The data cable was originally 40-conductor, but later higher speed requirements for data transfer to and from the HDD led to an "ultra DMA" mode, known as UDMA. Progressively swifter versions of this standard ultimately added the requirement for an 80-conductor variant of the same cableSony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, where half of the conductors provides grounding necessary for enhanced high-speed signal quality by reducing cross talk.

EIDE was an unofficial update (by Western Digital) to the original IDE standard, with the key improvement being the use of direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data between the disk and the computer without the involvement of the CPU, an improvement later adopted by the official ATA standards. By directly transferring data between memory and disk, DMA eliminates the need for the CPU to copy byte per byte, therefore allowing it to process other tasks while the data transfer occursSony VAIO PCG-8141L battery.

Fibre Channel (FC) is a successor to parallel SCSI interface on enterprise market. It is a serial protocol. In disk drives usually the Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) connection topology is used. FC has much broader usage than mere disk interfaces, and it is the cornerstone of storage area networks (SANs). Recently other protocols for this field, like iSCSI and ATA over Ethernet have been developed as well. Confusingly, drives usually use copper twisted-pair cables for Fibre Channel, not fibre opticsSony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. The latter are traditionally reserved for larger devices, such as servers or disk array controllers.

Serial Attached SCSI (SAS). The SAS is a new generation serial communication protocol for devices designed to allow for much higher speed data transfers and is compatible with SATA. SAS uses a mechanically identical data and power connector to standard 3.5-inch SATA1/SATA2 HDDs, and many server-oriented SAS RAID controllers are also capable of addressing SATA HDDs. SAS uses serial communication instead of the parallel method found in traditional SCSI devices but still uses SCSI commandsSony VAIO PCG-81312L battery.

Serial ATA (SATA). The SATA data cable has one data pair for differential transmission of data to the device, and one pair for differential receiving from the device, just like EIA-422. That requires that data be transmitted serially. A similar differential signaling system is used in RS485, LocalTalk, USB, FireWire, and differential SCSISony VAIO PCG-81214L battery.

Integrity and failure[edit]

Close-up HDD head resting on disk platter; its mirror reflection is visible on the platter surface

Main articles: Hard disk drive failure and Data recovery

Due to the extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface, HDDs are vulnerable to being damaged by a head crash—a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film and causing data loss. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failureSony VAIO PCG-81115L battery, physical shock, contamination of the drive's internal enclosure, wear and tear, corrosion, or poorly manufactured platters and heads.

The HDD's spindle system relies on air pressure inside the disk enclosure to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk rotates. HDDs require a certain range of air pressures in order to operate properly. The connection to the external environment and pressure occurs through a small hole in the enclosure (about 0.5 mm in breadth), usually with a filter on the inside (the breather filter). Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery If the air pressure is too low, then there is not enough lift for the flying head, so the head gets too close to the disk, and there is a risk of head crashes and data loss. Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized disks are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[90] Modern disks include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment. Breather holes can be seen on all disk drives—they usually have a sticker next to themSony VAIO PCG-81113L battery, warning the user not to cover the holes. The air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning platters. This air passes through an internal recirculation (or "recirc") filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles or chemicals that may have somehow entered the enclosure, and any particles or outgassing generated internally in normal operation. Very high humidity for extended periods can corrode the heads and plattersSony VAIO PCG-7142L battery.

For giant magnetoresistive (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) still results in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and can render the data unreadable for a short period until the head temperature stabilizes (so called "thermal asperity", a problem which can partially be dealt with by proper electronic filtering of the read signal) Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery.

When a mechanical hard disk requires repairs, the easiest method is to replace the circuit board using an identical hard disk, provided it is the circuit board that has malfunctioned. In the case of read-write head faults, they can be replaced using specialized tools in a dust-free environment. If the disk platters are undamaged, they can be transferred into an identical enclosure and the data can be copied or cloned onto a new drive. In the event of disk-platter failuresSony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, disassembly and imaging of the disk platters may be required.[91] For logical damage to file systems, a variety of tools, including fsck on UNIX-like systems and CHKDSK on Windows, can be used for data recovery. Recovery from logical damage can require file carving.

A 2011 summary of research into SSD and magnetic disk failure patterns by Tom's Hardware summarized research findings as follows:[92]

MTBF does not indicate reliability; the annualized failure rate is higher and usually more relevant.

Magnetic disks do not have a specific tendency to fail during early use, and temperature only has a minor effect; instead, failure rates steadily increase with ageSony VAIO PCG-61411L battery.

SMART warns of mechanical issues but not other issues affecting reliability, and is therefore not a reliable indicator of condition.

Failure rates of drives sold as "enterprise" and "consumer" are "very much similar", although customized for their different environments.

In drive arrays, one drive's failure significantly increases the short-term chance of a second drive failingSony VAIO PCG-61112L battery.

3.0 TB 3.5" Seagate FreeAgent GoFlex plug and play external USB 3.0-compatible drive (left), 750 GB 3.5" Seagate Technology push-button external USB 2.0 drive (right), and a 500 GB 2.5" generic brand plug and play external USB 2.0 drive (front).

External removable HDDs[note 11] typically connect via USB. Plug and play drive functionality offers system compatibility, and features large storage options and portable design. External HDDs are available in 2.5" and 3.5" sizes, and as of March 2012 their capacities generally range from 160GB to 2TBSony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Common sizes are 160GB, 250GB, 320GB, 500GB, 640GB, 750GB, 1TB, and 2TB.[93][94]

External HDDs are available as preassembled integrated products, or may be assembled by combining an external enclosure (with USB or other interface) with a separately purchased drive.

Features such as biometric security or multiple interfaces are available at a higher cost.[95]

External hard drives generally have a slower transfer rate than that of an internally mounted hard drive connecting through SATASony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery.

Market segments[edit]

Desktop HDDs typically store between 60 GB and 4 TB and rotate at 5,400 to 10,000 rpm, and have a media transfer rate of 0.5 Gbit/s or higher (1 GB = 109 bytes; 1 Gbit/s = 109 bit/s). As of September 2011, the highest capacity consumer HDDs store 4 TB.[54]

Mobile HDDs or laptop HDDs, smaller than their desktop and enterprise counterparts, tend to be slower and have lower capacity. Mobile HDDs spin at 4,200 rpm, 5,200 rpm, 5,400 rpm, or 7,200 rpm, with 5,400 rpm being typicalSony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. 7,200 rpm drives tend to be more expensive and have smaller capacities, while 4,200 rpm models usually have very high storage capacities. Because of smaller platter(s), mobile HDDs generally have lower capacity than their greater desktop counterparts.

Enterprise HDDs are typically used with multiple-user computers running enterprise software. Examples are: transaction processing databases, internet infrastructure (email, webserver, e-commerce), scientific computing software, and nearline storage management software. Enterprise drives commonly operate continuously ("24/7")Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery in demanding environments while delivering the highest possible performance without sacrificing reliability. Maximum capacity is not the primary goal, and as a result the drives are often offered in capacities that are relatively low in relation to their cost.[96] The fastest enterprise HDDs spin at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds above 1.6 Gbit/s[97] and a sustained transfer rate up to 1 Gbit/s.[97] Drives running at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm use smaller platters to mitigate increased power requirements (as they have less air drag) Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery and therefore generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives. Enterprise HDDs are commonly connected through Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) or Fibre Channel (FC). Some support multiple ports, so they can be connected to a redundant host bus adapter. They can be reformatted with sector sizes larger than 512 bytes (often 520, 524, 528 or 536 bytes). The additional storage can be used by hardware RAID cards or to store a Data Integrity FieldSony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery.

Consumer electronics HDDs include drives embedded into digital video recorders and automotive vehicles. The former are configured to provide a guaranteed streaming capacity, even in the face of read and write errors, while the latter are built to resist larger amounts of shock.

The exponential increases in disk space and data access speeds of HDDs have enabled consumer products that require large storage capacities, such as digital video recorders and digital audio players.[98] In additionSony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery, the availability of vast amounts of cheap storage has made viable a variety of web-based services with extraordinary capacity requirements, such as free-of-charge web search, web archiving, and video sharing (Google, Internet Archive, YouTube, etc.).

Diagram of HDD manufacturer consolidation

See also: History of hard disk drives and List of defunct hard disk manufacturers

More than 200 companies have manufactured HDDs over time. But consolidations have concentrated production into just three manufacturers today: Western Digital, Seagate, and ToshibaSony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery.

Worldwide revenues for HDDs shipments are expected to reach $33 billion in 2013, down about 12% from $37.8 billion in 2012. This corresponds to a 2013 unit shipment forecast of 552 million compared to 577 million units in 2012 and 624 million units in 2011. The estimated 2013 market shares are about 40-45% each for Seagate and Western Digital and 13-16% for ToshibaSony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery

HDDs are traditionally symbolized as a stylized stack of platters or as a cylinder and are found in diagrams, or on lights to indicate HDD access. In most modern operating systems, HDDs are represented by an illustration or photograph of the drive enclosureSony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery.

Green is the color of emeralds, jade, and growing grass.[5] In the continuum of colors of visible light it is located between yellow and blue. Green is the color most commonly associated with nature and the environmental movement, Ireland, Islam, spring, hope and envy. (SONY VGP-BPS13 battery)

The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow.[8] It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni (but unattested in East Germanic), ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- "to grow", and root-cognate with grass and to grow.[9] The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca. AD 700(SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery).[10]

Latin with viridis (and hence the Romance languages, and English vert, verdure etc.) also has a genuine term for "green". Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ. Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green, χλωρός, cognate with χλοερός "verdant" and χλόη "the green of new growth"(SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery).

Thus, the languages mentioned above (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, Greek) have old terms for "green" which are derived from words for fresh, sprouting vegetation. However, comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently, over the past few millennia, and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for "green". For example, the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari "yellow, ochre, golden".(SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) [11] The Turkic languages also have jašɨl "green" or "yellowish green", compared to a Mongolian word for "meadow".[12]

Languages where green and blue are one color

(Main article: color term)

In some languages, including old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese, the same word can mean either blue or green.[13]

The Chinese character 青 (pronounced qīng in Mandarin, ao in Japanese, and thanh in Sino-Vietnamese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of "青." In more contemporary terms(SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery), they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively. Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru 'to be in leaf, to flourish' in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word 'green'). However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, "aoi"(SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery), because green is considered a shade of aoi; similarly, green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples, green shiso (as opposed to red apples and red shiso) will be described with the word "aoi". Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green, xanh, with variants such as xanh da trời (azure, lit. "sky blue"), lam (blue), and lục (green; also xanh lá cây, lit. "leaf green")(SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery).

"Green" in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm, but many historical and non-European languages make other choices, e.g. using a term for the range of ca. 450–530 nm ("blue/green") and another for ca. 530–590 nm ("green/yellow")

In the comparative study of color terms in the world's languages, green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors (white, red yellow, green, blue, black) (SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery), or more rarely in systems with five colors (white, red yellow, green, black/blue).[14] (See distinction of green from blue) [15] These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote "green", but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms (much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit) (SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). Thus, the Thai word เขียว besides meaning "green" also means "rank" and "smelly" and holds other unpleasant associations.[16]

The Celtic languages had a term for "blue/green/grey", Proto-Celtic *glasto-, which gave rise to Old Irish glas "green, grey" and to Welsh glas "blue". This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός "bluish green", contrasting with χλωρός "yellowish green" discussed above.

In modern Japanese, the term for green is 緑, while the old term for "blue/green"(SONY VGP-BPS21 battery), blue (青 Ao?) now means "blue". But in certain contexts, green is still conventionally referred to as 青, as in blue traffic light (青信号 Ao shingō?) and blue leaves (青葉 Aoba?), reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese (more accurately, the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue, and others with yellow tones) (SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery).

The Persian language is traditionally lacking a black/blue/green distinction. The Persian word سبز sabz can mean "green", "black" or "dark". Thus, Persian erotic poetry, dark-skinned women are addressed as sabz-eh, as in phrases like سبز گندم گون sabz-eh-gandom-gun (literally "dark wheat colored") or سبز مليح sabz-eh-malih ("a dark beauty").[17] Similarly, in Sudanese Arabic, dark-skinned people are described as أخضر akhḍar, the term which in Standard Arabic stands unambiguously for "green".(SONY VGP-BPS13S battery)

Green in history and art

In the ancient world

Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments, but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing, made from the leaves of the birch tree. it was of very poor quality, more brown than green. Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes, but it is not known how the colors were produced. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery)]

In Ancient Egypt green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth, and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile. For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus, Egyptian artists used finely-ground malachite, mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert- A paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun. They also used less expensive green earth pigment, or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite(SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). To dye fabrics green, they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant.[19]

For the ancient Egyptians, green had very positive associations. The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout, showing the close connection between green, vegetation, vigor and growth. In wall paintings, the ruler of the underworld, Osiris, was typically portrayed with a green face(SONY VGP-BPS14 battery), because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth. Palettes of green facial makeup, made with malachite, were found in tombs. It was worn by both the living and dead, particularly around the eyes, to protect them from evil. Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased. It also symbolized the sea, which was called the "Very Green.". (SONY VGP-BPS22 battery)

In Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees. The philosopher Democritus described two different greens; cloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green. Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). However, green was not counted among of the four classic colors of Greek painting; red, yellow, black and white, and is rarely found in Greek art.[21]

The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green; it was the color of Venus, the goddess of gardens, vegetables and vineyards.The Romans made a fine green earth pigment, which was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Lyon, Vaison-la-Romaine, and other Roman cities(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). They also used the pigment verdigris, made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine.[22] By the Second Century AD, the Romans were using green in paintings, mosaics and glass, and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green.[23]

In the Middle Ages and Renaissance

In the Middle Ages the color of clothing often showed a person's social rank and profession. Red was worn by the nobility, brown and gray by peasants, and green by merchants, bankers and the gentry and their families. The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait, as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan Van Eyck(SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery).

Unfortunately for those who wanted or were required to wear green, there were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight. Green dyes were made out of the fern, plantain, buckthorn berries, the juice of nettles and of leeks, the digitalis plant, the broom plant, the leaves of the fraxinus, or ash tree, and the bark of the alder tree, but they rapidly faded or changed color. Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced, by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad, and then yellow with reseda luteola, also known as yellow-weed. (SONY VGP-BPS22A battery)

The pigments available to painters were more varied; monks in monasteries used use of verdigris, made by soaking copper in fermenting wine, to color medieval manuscripts. They also used finely-ground malachite, which made a luminous green. They used green earth colors for backgrounds(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery).

During the early Renaissance, painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat, then with pink, which gave the faces a more realistic hue. Over the centuries the pink has faded, making some of the faces look green.[25]

The 18th and 19th century

The 18th and 19th century brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery), which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes. These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes, but some contained high levels of arsenic, and were eventually banned.

In the 18th and 19th century, green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art. The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau celebrated the virtues of nature, The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery), suitable for decorating bedrooms. Painters such as John Constable and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests. Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution.

The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions, not just to imitate nature. One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeil Whistler, who created a series of paintings called "symphonies" (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery)or "noctures" of color, including "Symphony in gray and green; The Ocean" between 1866 and 1872.

The late nineteenth century also brought the systematic study of color theory, and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other. These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent Van Gogh. Describing his painting(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery), The Night Cafe, to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: "I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions. The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green. Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens." (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery)

20th and 21st Century

In the 1980s green became a political symbol, the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries. It symbolized the environmental movement, and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism.

Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization which emerged out of the anti-nuclear and peace movements in the 1970s(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery). Its ship, the Rainbow Warrior, frequently tried to interfere with nuclear tests and whaling operations. The movement now has branches in forty countries.

Green is the color you see when you look at light with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nanometers.

It is one of the three additive colors, along with red and blue, which are combined on computer screens and color televisions to make all other colors.

In the subtractive color system, used in printing, it is not a primary color, but is created out of a mixture of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery);

On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a purple color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light. On a color wheel based on traditional color theory (RYB), the complementary color to green is considered to be red. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery)

Green, blue and red are additive colors. All the colors you see on your computer screen are made by mixing them in different intensities.

The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones. Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery). A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm.[29]

In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions, one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550 nm; this "green" primary is combined with an orangish-red "red" primary and a purplish-blue "blue" primary to produce any color in between (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery)– the RGB color model. A unique green (green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary.

By contrast in process color printing, a subtractive color system, green can be produced via a mixture of cyan and yellow ink, and in traditional color theory, green is produced by mixing yellow and blue paint(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery).

Green is complementary to a purplish red or reddish purple color, in both additive and subtractive mixtures, and in simultaneous contrast effects and afterimages.

The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a bluish-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a yellowish-green color.[30] Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red–green color blindness.[31] Green is restful to the eye. Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue.[32]

The Chicago River is dyed green every year to mark St. Patrick's Day.

Aside from chlorophyll, the green pigment of growing grass and leaves, green pigments are rather rare in nature(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery).

Emeralds, are colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium.[33]

Malachite, like many greens, is colored by the presence of copper, in this case by basic copper(II) carbonate.[34]

Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire. It s composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium. Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery), and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia. The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered. It was sometimes called Green of Verona.[35]

Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper, brass or bronze, slightly warmed, into a vat of fermenting wine, leaving it there for several weeks, and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal. The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny. It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery), and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD. It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate, but it had drawbacks; it was unstable, it could not resist dampness, it did not mix well with other colors, it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact., and it was toxic. Leonardo DaVinci, in his treatise on painting, warned artists not to use it(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its use largely ended in the late 19th century, when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green.[36]

Cobalt green, sometimes known as Rinman's green or Zinc Green, is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt (II) oxide and zinc oxide. Sven Rinman, a Swedish chemist, discovered this compound in 1780. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery)

Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835.

Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide. It was also known as Guignet Green.[38]

Viridian, also called chrome green, is a pigment made with chromium oxide dihydrate, was patented in 1859. It became popular with painters, since, unlike other synthetic greens, it was stable and not toxic. Vincent Van Gogh used it, along with Prussian blue, to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Cafe terrace at night. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery)

Green has also often been made by mixing blue and yellow pigments. In antiquity, the Egyptians often mixed Egyptian blue and Naples yellow, while in the 19th century a color named English green was made by mixing Prussian blue and chrome yellow. Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century.[ (Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery)9]

Amazonite. For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.[40]

Phtalocyanine, is an intense green synthetic dye which was accidentally created by Swiss chemists in 1927(Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery).

Food coloring and fireworks

There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials.[41] Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States. (Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) [42] Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia.[43]

To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs.[44] Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as "campfire blue") can also produce green flames.[44] Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate. (Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery) [44] Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate.[44]

Why leaves and grass are green

Leaves and growing fresh grass are green because they contain a natural pigment known as chlorophyll. Chlorophyll takes the energy of sunlight and uses it to convert carbon dioxide and water into chemical energy, in the form of glucose, or natural sugar, which allows the plant to grow. This process is called photosynthesis. Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths (red) and short wavelengths (blue) of the light, but the green light is reflected(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery), making the grass and leaves appear green.[31] Chlorophyll does not absorb green light because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis. Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin. The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery) [45]

Biology

Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment.[31] Green animals include, especially, amphibians, reptiles, and some fish, birds and insects. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery). For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially.[31] Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet. This can causes their feces to look green as well. Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery) [31] Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields. Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation.

Lasers

Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery) Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm (563.5 THz) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power, and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness. The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state (DPSS) technology to create the green light.[47] An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit 281.76 THz (1064 nm). This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam (563.5 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm ("green").[48(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery)] Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm.[49] Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers, including the Helium-neon laser (543 nm), the Argon-ion laser (514 nm) and the Krypton-ion laser (521 nm and 531 nm), as well as liquid dye lasers. Green lasers have a wide variety of applications, including pointing, illumination, surgery, laser light shows, spectroscopy, interferometry, fluorescence(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery), holography, machine vision, non-lethal weapons and bird control.[50]

Common associations of green

Nature, vivacity, and life

Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the U.S. with nature, vivacity and life.[51] It is the color of many environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and of the Green Parties in Europe. Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space, and use green trash bins and containers. A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery).

In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth.[52] In Thailand, the color green is consider auspicious for those born on a Wednesday day (light green for those born at night).[53]

Springtime, freshness, and hope

Green is the color most commonly associated in the U.S. and Europe with springtime, freshness, and hope.[54] Green is often used to symbolize rebirth and renewal and immortality. In Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris, king of the underworld, was depicted as green-skinned. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery) Green as the color of hope is connected with the color of springtime; hope represents the faith that things will improve after a period of difficulty, like the renewal of flowers and plants after the winter season.[56]

Youth and inexperience

Green the color most commonly associated in Europe and the U.S. with youth. It also often is used to describe anyone young, inexperienced, probably by the analogy to immature and unripe fruit.[1] [57] Examples include green cheese, a term for a fresh, unaged cheese, and greenhorn, an inexperienced person(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery).

Jealousy and envy

Green is often associated with jealousy and envy. The expression "green-eyed monster" was first used by William Shakespeare in Othello: "it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on." Shakespeare also used it in the Merchant of Venice, speaking of "green-eyed jealousy." (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery) [58]

Love and sexuality

Green today is not commonly associated in Europe and the United States with love and sexuality,[59] but in stories of the medieval period it sometimes represented love[60] and the base, natural desires of man.[61] It was the color of the serpent in the Garden of Eden who caused the downfall of Adam and Eve. However, for the troubadours, green was the color of growing love(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery), and light green clothing was reserved for young women who were not yet married.[62]

In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called "green" women, were considered erotic.[18] The Chinese term for cuckold is "to wear a green hat."[63] This was because in ancient China, prostitutes were called "the family of the green lantern" and a prostitute's husband would wear a green headscarf. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery) [64]

The consumption of green M&M's has earned urban legendary status as a purported aphrodisiac, though the company that makes them has pointed out that they are identical in content to all the other colors.[65]

Fairies, dragons, monsters, and devils

In legends, folk tales and films, fairies, dragons, monsters, and the devil are often shown as green(Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery).

In the Middle Ages, the devil was usually shown as either red, black or green. Dragons were usually green, because they had the heads, claws and tails of reptiles.

Modern Chinese dragons are also often green, but unlike European dragons, they are benevolent; Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods. The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck. The Emperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). The dragon dance is a popular feature of Chinese festivals.

In Irish folklore and English folklore, the color was sometimes was associated with witchcraft, and with faeries and spirits.[66] The type of Irish fairy known a leprachaun is commonly portrayed wearing a green suit, though before 20th century he was usually described as wearing a red suit.

In the theater and in films, green was often connected with horror or ghost stories(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery), and with corpses. The earliest films of Frankenstein were in black and white, but in the poster for the 1935 version The Bride of Frankenstein, the monster had a green face. Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–28 Broadway stage production.[67][68]

Poison, sickness, and misfortune

Like other common colors, green has several completely opposite associations. While it is the color most associated by Europeans and Americans with good health, it is also the color most often associated with toxicity and poison(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). There was a solid foundation for this association; in the nineteenth century several popular paints and pigments, notably verdigris, vert de Schweinfurt and vert de Paris, were highly toxic, containing copper or arsenic.[69]

A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness.[70] The expression 'green at the gills' means appearing sick. The color, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth.[71] In some Far East cultures the color green is used as a symbol of sickness and/or nausea. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery) [72]

Green is sometimes thought to be an unlucky color in British and British-derived cultures. In the Celtic tradition, green was avoided in clothing for its superstitious association with misfortune and death.[73] Green wedding dresses and green cars were considered unlucky, even though British racing green was the official color for British racing cars.[74][75] Green costumes for actors were also considered unlucky in France and England(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), a superstition connected with the death on stage of the French playwright Moliere, who was said to have been wearing a green costume.[76]

Safety and permission

Green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights.[2] Green and red were standarized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century. The first traffic light, using green and red gas lamps, was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London. It exploded the following year, injuring the policeman who operated it. (Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery) In 1912, the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City, Utah. Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility, and its association with danger, while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red. Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).

Social status, prosperity and the dollar

Green in Europe and the United States is sometimes associated with status and prosperity. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century it was often worn by bankers, merchants country gentlemen and others who were wealthy but not members of the nobility. The benches in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, where the landed gentry sat, are colored green(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).

In the United States green was connected with the dollar bill. Since 1861, the reverse side of the dollar bill has been green. Green was originally chosen because it deterred counterfeiters, who tried to use early camera equipment to duplicate banknotes. Also, since the banknotes were thin, the green on the back did not show through and muddle the pictures on the front of the banknote. Green continues to be used because the public now associates it with a strong and stable currency. (Sony VGN-CR11S Battery) [77]

Green on flags

The flag of Italy (1797) was modeled after the French tricolor. It was originally the flag of the Cisalpine Republic, whose capital was Milan; red and white were the colors of Milan, and green was the color of the military uniforms of the army of the Cisalpine Republic. Other versions say it is the color of the Italian landscape, or symbolizes hope. (Sony VGN-CR11M Battery) [78]

The flag of Brazil has a green field adapted from the flag of the Empire of Brazil. The green represented the royal family.

The flag of India was inspired by an earlier flag of the independence movement of Gandhi, which had a red band for Hinduism and a green band representing Islam, the second largest religion in India. (Sony VGN-CR11E Battery) [79]

The flag of Pakistan symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and equal rights of religious minorities where the larger portion (3:2 ratio) of flag is dark green representing Muslim majority (98% of total population) while a white vertical bar (3:1 ratio) at the mast representing equal rights for religious minorities and minority religions in country. The crescent and star symbolizes progress and bright future respectively(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery).

Green is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism. Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe. The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries. Green on some African flags represents the natural richness of Africa. (Sony VGN-CR21S Battery) [80]

Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam (see below). The flag of Hamas,[81] as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology.[82] The 1977 flag of Libya consisted of a simple green field with no other characteristics. It was the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details.[83] Some countries used green in their flags to represent their country's lush vegetation(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery), as in the flag of Jamaica,[84] and hope in the future, as in the flags of Portugal and Nigeria.[85] The green cedar of Lebanon tree on the Flag of Lebanon officially represents steadiness and tolerance.[86]

The Wearing of the Green

Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the "Emerald Isle". The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times. It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery), in balance with white and the Protestant orange.[87] Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St. Patrick's Day.[88]

See also: Green politics

The first recorded green party was a political faction in Constantinople during the 6th century Byzantine Empire. which took its name from a popular chariot racing team. They were bitter opponents of the blue faction, which supported Emperor Justinian I and which had its own chariot racing team(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). In 532 AD rioting between the factions began after one race, which led to the massacre of green supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople.[91] (See Nika Riots).

Green was the traditional color of Irish nationalism, beginning in the 17th century. The green harp flag, with a traditional gaelic harp, became the symbol of the movement. It was the banner of the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the Irish Rebellion of 1798, calling for Irish independence(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). The uprising was suppressed with great bloodshed by the British army. When Ireland achieved independence in 1922, green was incorporated into the national flag.

In the 1980s green became the color of a number of new European political parties organized around an agenda of environmentalism. Green was chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth. The largest Green Party in Europe is Alliance '90/The Greens (German: Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) in Germany, which was formed in 1993 from the merger of the German Green Party, founded in West Germany in 1980, and Alliance 90(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery), founded during the Revolution of 1989–1990 in East Germany. In the 2009 federal elections, the party won 10.7% of the votes and 68 out of 622 seats in the Bundestag.

Green Parties in Europe have programs based on ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice. Green parties are found in over one hundred countries, and most are members of the Global Green Network.[ (Sony VGN-CR41S Battery)92]

The Australian Greens party was founded in 1992. At the 2010 federal election, the party received 13 percent of the vote (more than 1.6 million votes) in the Senate, a first for any Australian minor party.

Green is the traditional color of Islam. According to tradition, the robe and banner of Muhammed were green. and according to the Koran (XVIII, 31 and LXXVI, 21), those fortunate enough to live in paradise wear green silk robes.[3][93][94] Muhammad is quoted in a hadith as saying that "water, greenery, and a beautiful face" were three universally good things. (Sony VGN-CR41E Battery)

Al-Khidr ("The Green One"), was an important Qur'anic figure who was said to have met and traveled with Moses.[96] He was given that name because of his role as a diplomat and negotiator. Green was also considered to be the median color between light and obscurity.[93]

Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time.[97] In the Eastern Catholic Church(Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery), green is the color of Pentecost.[98] Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season. Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration.[99] In Ireland and Scotland especially, green is used to represent Catholics, while orange is used to represent Protestantism. This is shown on the national flag of Ireland(Sony VGN-CR42S Battery).

In the metaphysics of the "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "third ray" of "creative intelligence" is represented by the color green. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Green Ray".[100] In Hinduism, Green is used to symbolically represent the fourth, heart chakra (Anahata). (Sony VGN-CR42E Battery)Psychics who claim to be able to observe the aura with their third eye report that someone with a green aura is typically someone who is in an occupation related to health, such as a physician or nurse, as well as people who are lovers of nature and the outdoors.[102]

Green in gambling and sports

Green was the color of one of the famous chariot racing teams at the Hippodrome in Ancient Rome. It was also the color of one of the popular teams in Ancient Byzantium. A riot between the supporters of the blue and green teams in 532 AD lasted for five days and resulted in the death of thousands of supporters and the destruction of much of the center of Constantinople. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery) (See Nika riots).

Gambling tables in a casino are traditionally green. The tradition is said to have started in gambling rooms in Venice in the 16th century.[103]

Billiards tables are traditionally covered with green woolen cloth. The first indoor tables, dating to the 15th century, were colored green after the grass courts used for the similar lawn games of the period. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery)

Tennis courts and ping-pong tables are traditionally painted green, in imitation of grass courts.

Green was the traditional color worn by hunters in the 19th century, particularly the shade called hunter green. In the 20th century most hunters began wearing the color olive drab, a shade of green, instead of hunter green.[105]

Green is a common color for sports teams. Well-known teams include Les Verts (The Greens) in Saint-Etienne, France. The Mexico national football team has a green uniform(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery).

British racing green was the international motor racing color of Britain from the early 1900s until the 1960s, when it was replaced by the colors of the sponsoring automobile companies.

A green belt in karate, taekwondo and judo symbolizes a level of proficiency in the sport.

Idioms and expressions

Having a green thumb. To be passionate about or talented at gardening. The expression was popularized beginning in 1925 by a BBC gardening program. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery)

Greenhorn. Someone who is inexperienced.

Green-eyed monster. Refers to jealousy. (See section above on jealousy and envy).

Greenmail. A term used in finance and corporate takeovers. It refers to the practice of a company paying a high price to buy back shares of its own stock to prevent an unfriendly takeover by another company or businessman. It originated in the 1980s on Wall Street, and originates from the green of dollars. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery) [106]

Green room. A room at a theater where actors rest when not onstage, or a room at a television studio where guests wait before going on-camera. It originated in the late 17th century from a room of that color at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.[106]

Greenwashing. Environmental activists sometimes use this term to describe the advertising of a company which promotes its positive environmental practices to cover up its environmental destruction(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery) [107]

Green around the gills. A description of a person who looks physically ill.[108]

A sign language (also signed language or simply signing) is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses manual communication and body language to convey meaning. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's thoughts(SONY PCG-5G2L battery). They share many similarities with spoken languages (sometimes called "oral languages", which depend primarily on sound), which is why linguists consider both to be natural languages, but there are also some significant differences between signed and spoken languages.

Wherever communities of deaf people exist, sign languages develop. Signing is also done by persons who can hear(SONY PCG-5G3L battery), but cannot physically speak. While they utilize space for grammar in a way that spoken languages do not, sign languages exhibit the same linguistic properties and use the same language faculty as do spoken languages.[1][2] Hundreds of sign languages are in use around the world and are at the cores of local deaf cultures. Some sign languages have obtained some form of legal recognition(SONY PCG-F305 battery), while others have no status at all.

Groups of deaf people have used sign languages throughout history. One of the earliest written records of a sign language is from the fifth century BC, in Plato's Cratylus, where Socrates says: "If we hadn't a voice or a tongue, and wanted to express things to one another, wouldn't we try to make signs by moving our hands, head, and the rest of our body, just as dumb people do at present?" (SONY PCG-5J1L battery)

Until the 19th century, most of what we know about historical sign languages is limited to the manual alphabets (fingerspelling systems) that were invented to facilitate transfer of words from a spoken to a signed language, rather than documentation of the rest of the language.

In 1620, Juan Pablo Bonet published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos (‘Reduction of letters and art for teaching mute people to speak’) in Madrid. (SONY PCG-5J2L battery) [4] It is considered the first modern treatise of sign language phonetics, setting out a method of oral education for deaf people and a manual alphabet.

Meanwhile in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication,[5] public speaking, or communication by deaf people.[6] In 1648, John Bulwer described "Master Babington", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, "contryved on the joynts of his fingers", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing. (SONY PCG-5K2L battery) [7] In 1680, George Dalgarno published Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor,[8] in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an "arthrological" alphabet, where letters are indicated by pointing to different joints of the fingers and palm of the left hand. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people for some time;[9] some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets. (SONY PCG-5L1L battery) [10][11] The vowels of this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak.[12] He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment(SONY PCG-6S2L battery). Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.

Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (e.g. Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems.[13] He described codes for both English and Latin.

By 1720(SONY PCG-6S3L battery), the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form.[14] Descendants of this alphabet have been used by deaf communities (or at least in classrooms) in former British colonies India, Australia, New Zealand, Uganda and South Africa, as well as the republics and provinces of the former Yugoslavia, Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Norway, Germany and the USA(SONY PCG-6V1L battery).

From the language of signs of Bonet, Charles-Michel de l'Épée published his manual alphabet in the 18th century, which has survived basically unchanged in France and North America until the present time.

Sign languages have often evolved around schools for deaf students. In 1755, Abbé de l'Épée founded the first school for deaf children in Paris; Laurent Clerc was arguably its most famous graduate(SONY PCG-6W1L battery). Clerc went to the United States with Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet to found the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817.[15] Gallaudet's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet founded a school for the deaf in 1857 in Washington, D.C., which in 1864 became the National Deaf-Mute College. Now called Gallaudet University, it is still the only liberal arts university for deaf people in the world(SONY PCG-7111L battery).

Sign languages generally do not have any linguistic relation to the spoken languages of the lands in which they arise. The correlation between sign and spoken languages is complex and varies depending on the country more than the spoken language. For example, the US, Canada, UK, Australia and New Zealand all have English as their dominant language, but American Sign Language (ASL), used in the US and most parts of Canada(SONY PCG-71511M battery), is derived from French Sign Language whereas the other three countries sign dialects of British, Australian and New Zealand Sign Language.[16] Similarly, the sign languages of Spain and Mexico are very different, despite Spanish being the national language in each country,[17] and the sign language used in Bolivia is based on ASL rather than any sign language that is used in a Spanish-speaking country. (SONY PCG-6W3L battery) [18] Variations also arise within a 'national' sign language which don't necessarily correspond to dialect differences in the national spoken language; rather, they can usually be correlated to the geographic location of residential schools for the deaf.[19][20]

International Sign, formerly known as Gestuno, is used mainly at international Deaf events such as the Deaflympics and meetings of the World Federation of the Deaf. Recent studies claim that while International Sign is a kind of a pidgin, they conclude that it is more complex than a typical pidgin and indeed is more like a full sign language. (SONY PCG-7113L battery) [21]

Linguistics of sign languages[edit]

In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as any spoken language, despite the common misconception that they are not "real languages". Professional linguists have studied many sign languages and found that they exhibit the fundamental properties that exist in all languages. (SONY PCG-7133L battery)

Sign languages are not mime – in other words, signs are conventional, often arbitrary and do not necessarily have a visual relationship to their referent, much as most spoken language is not onomatopoeic. While iconicity is more systematic and widespread in sign languages than in spoken ones, the difference is not categorical.[24] The visual modality allows the human preference for close connections(SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) between form and meaning, present but suppressed in spoken languages, to be more fully expressed.[25] This does not mean that sign languages are a visual rendition of a spoken language. They have complex grammars of their own, and can be used to discuss any topic, from the simple and concrete to the lofty and abstract(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery).

Sign languages, like spoken languages, organize elementary, meaningless units (phonemes; once called cheremes in the case of sign languages) into meaningful semantic units. Like in spoken languages, these meaningless units are represented as (combinations of) features, although often also crude distinctions are made in terms of Handshape (or Handform), Orientation, Location (or Place of Articulation), Movement, and Non-manual expression(SONY PCG-8Y1L battery).

More generally, both sign and spoken languages share the following common features that linguists have found in all natural human languages.[citation needed] 1) Mode of communication 2) Semanticity 3) Pragmatic function 4) Interchangeability 5) Cultural Transmission 6) Arbitrariness 7) Discreteness 8) Displacement 9) Productivity These nine features serve to define the notion "language"(SONY PCG-8Y2L battery).

Common linguistic features of many sign languages are the occurrence of classifiers, a high degree of inflection, and a topic-comment syntax. More than spoken languages, sign languages can convey meaning by simultaneous means, e.g. by the use of space, two manual articulators, and the signer's face and body. Though there is still much discussion on the topic of iconicity in sign languages, classifiers are generally perceived to be highly iconic(SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), as these complex constructions "function as predicates that may express any or all of the following: motion, position, stative-descriptive, or handling information"[26] It needs to be noted that the term classifier is not used by everyone working on these constructions. Across the field of sign language linguistics the same constructions are also referred with other terms(SONY PCG-8Z1L battery).

Sign languages' relationships with spoken languages[edit]

Sign language relief sculpture on a stone wall: "Life is beautiful, be happy and love each other", by Czech sculptor Zuzana Čížková on Holečkova Street in Prague-Smíchov, by a school for the deaf.

A common misconception is that sign languages are somehow dependent on spoken languages, that is, that they are spoken language spelled out in gesture, or that they were invented by hearing people. Hearing teachers in deaf schools, such as Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, are often incorrectly referred to as “inventors” of sign language(SONY PCG-7112L battery).

Although not part of sign languages, elements from the Manual alphabets (fingerspelling) may be used in signed communication, mostly for proper names and concepts for which no sign is available at that moment. Elements from the manual alphabet can sometimes be a source of new signs (e.g. initialized signs, in which the shape of the hand represents the first letter of the word for the sign) (SONY PCG-6W2L battery).

On the whole, sign languages are independent of spoken languages and follow their own paths of development. For example, British Sign Language and American Sign Language are quite different and mutually unintelligible, even though the hearing people of Britain and America share the same spoken language. The grammars of sign languages do not usually resemble that of spoken languages used in the same geographical area(SONY PCG-5K1L battery); in fact, in terms of syntax, ASL shares more with spoken Japanese than it does with English.[27]

Similarly, countries which use a single spoken language throughout may have two or more sign languages; whereas an area that contains more than one spoken language might use only one sign language. South Africa, which has 11 official spoken languages and a similar number of other widely used spoken languages, is a good example of this(SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). It has only one sign language with two variants due to its history of having two major educational institutions for the deaf which have served different geographic areas of the country.

Spatial grammar and simultaneity[edit]

Sign languages exploit the unique features of the visual medium (sight), but may also exploit tactile features (tactile sign languages). Spoken language is by and large linear; only one sound can be made or received at a time. Sign language, on the other hand, is visual and, hence, can use simultaneous expression(SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery), although this is limited articulatorily and linguistically. Visual perception allows processing of simultaneous information.

One way in which many sign languages take advantage of the spatial nature of the language is through the use of classifiers. Classifiers allow a signer to spatially show a referent's type, size, shape, movement, or extent(SONY VGP-BPS9A battery).

The large focus on the possibility of simultaneity in sign languages in contrast to spoken languages is sometimes exaggerated, though. The use of two manual articulators is subject to motor constraints, resulting in a large extent of symmetry[28] or signing with one articulator only.

Non-manual signs[ed(SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery)it]

Sign languages convey much of their prosody through non-manual signs. Postures or movements of the body, head, eyebrows, eyes, cheeks, and mouth are used in various combinations to show several categories of information, including lexical distinction, grammatical structure, adjectival or adverbial content, and discourse functions(SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery).

In ASL, some signs have required facial components that distinguish them from other signs. An example of this sort of lexical distinction is the sign translated 'not yet', which requires that the tongue touch the lower lip and that the head rotate from side to side, in addition to the manual part of the sign. Without these features it would be interpreted as 'late'. (SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery)

Grammatical structure that is shown through non-manual signs includes questions, negation, relative clauses,[30] boundaries between sentences,[31] and the argument structure of some verbs.[32] ASL and BSL use similar non-manual marking for yes/no questions, for example. They are shown through raised eyebrows and a forward head tilt. (SONY VGP-BPL9 battery)

Some adjectival and adverbial information is conveyed through non-manual signs, but what these signs are varies from language to language. For instance, in ASL a slightly open mouth with the tongue relaxed and visible in the corner of the mouth means 'carelessly,' but a similar sign in BSL means 'boring' or 'unpleasant.'(SONY VGP-BPS10 battery)

Discourse functions such as turn taking are largely regulated through head movement and eye gaze. Since the addressee in a signed conversation must be watching the signer, a signer can avoid letting the other person have a turn by not looking at them, or can indicate that the other person may have a turn by making eye contact. (SONY VGP-BPS13 battery)

Iconicity in sign languages[edit]

The first studies on iconicity in ASL were published in the late 1970s, and early 1980s. Many early sign language linguists rejected the notion that iconicity was an important aspect of the language.[36][37] Though they recognized that certain aspects of the language seemed iconic, they considered this to be merely extralinguistic, a property which did not influence the language. Frishberg (1975) (SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery) wrote a very influential paper addressing the relationship between arbitrariness and iconicity in ASL. She concluded that though originally present in many signs, iconicity is degraded over time through the application of grammatical processes. In other words, over time, the natural processes of regularization in the language obscures any iconically motivated features of the sign(SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery).

Some researchers have suggested that the properties of ASL give it a clear advantage in terms of learning and memory.[38] Brown, a psychologist by trade, was one of the first to document this benefit. In his study, Brown found that when children were taught signs that had high levels of iconic mapping they were significantly more likely to recall the signs in a later memory task than when they were taught signs that had little or no iconic properties(SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery).

"Hello" in ASL (American sign language)

Another variation of "hello" in ASL (American sign language)

The pioneers of sign language linguistics were yoked with the task of trying to prove that ASL was a real language and not merely a collection of gestures or “English on the hands.” One of the prevailing beliefs at this time was that ‘real languages’ must consist of an arbitrary relationship between form and meaning. Thus, if ASL consisted of signs that had iconic form-meaning relationship, it could not be considered a real language(SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). As a result, iconicity as a whole was largely neglected in research of sign languages.

The cognitive linguistics perspective rejects a more traditional definition of iconicity as a relationship between linguistic form and a concrete, real-world referent. Rather it is a set of selected correspondences between the form and meaning of a sign.[39] In this view, iconicity is grounded in a language user’s mental representation (“construal” in Cognitive Grammar) (SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery). It is defined as a fully grammatical and central aspect of a sign language rather than periphery phenomena.[40]

The cognitive linguistics perspective allows for some signs to be fully iconic or partially iconic given the number of correspondences between the possible parameters of form and meaning.[41] In this way, the Israeli Sign Language (ISL) sign for ASK has parts of its form that are iconic (“movement away from the mouth” means “something coming from the mouth”), and parts that are arbitrary (the handshape, and the orientation). (SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery)

Many signs have metaphoric mappings as well as iconic or metonymic ones. For these signs there are three way correspondences between a form, a concrete source and an abstract target meaning. The ASL sign LEARN has this three way correspondence. The abstract target meaning is “learning.” The concrete source is putting objects into the head from books(SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). The form is a grasping hand moving from an open palm to the forehead. The iconic correspondence is between form and concrete source. The metaphorical correspondence is between concrete source and abstract target meaning. Because the concrete source is connected to two correspondences linguistics refer to metaphorical signs as “double mapped.” (SONY VGP-BPS21B battery)

Classification of sign languages[edit]

Sign language families

Although sign languages have emerged naturally in deaf communities alongside or among spoken languages, they are unrelated to spoken languages and have different grammatical structures at their core.

Sign languages may be classified by how they arise.

Home sign is not a full language, but closer to a pidgin. Home sign is amorphous and generally idiosyncratic to a particular family, where a deaf child does not have contact with other deaf children and is not educated in sign(SONY VGP-BPS21 battery). Such systems are not generally passed on from one generation to the next. Where they are passed on, creolization would be expected to occur, resulting in a full language.

A village sign language is a local indigenous language that typically arises over several generations in a relatively insular community with a high incidence of deafness, and is used both by the deaf and by a significant portion of the hearing community, who have deaf family and friends.[43] The most famous of these is probably Martha's Vineyard Sign Language of the US, but there are also numerous village languages scattered throughout Africa, Asia, and America(SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery).

Deaf-community sign languages, on the other hand, arise where deaf people come together to form their own communities. These include school sign, such as Nicaraguan Sign Language, which develop in the student bodies of deaf schools which do not use sign as a language of instruction, as well as community languages such as Bamako Sign Language, which arise where generally uneducated deaf people congregate in urban centers for employment(SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). At first, Deaf-community sign languages are not generally known by the hearing population, in many cases not even by close family members. However, they may grow, in some cases becoming a language of instruction and receiving official recognition, as in the case of ASL.

Both contrast with speech-taboo languages such as the various Aboriginal Australian sign languages, which are developed by the hearing community and only used secondarily by the deaf(SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). It is doubtful whether any of these are languages in their own right, rather than manual codes of spoken languages. Hearing people may also develop sign to communicate with speakers of other languages, as in Plains Indian Sign Language; this was a contact signing system or pidgin that was evidently not used by deaf people in the Plains nations, who used home sign.

Language contact and creolization is common in the development of sign languages, making clear family classifications difficult – it is often unclear whether lexical similarity is due to borrowing or a common parent language(SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery), or whether there was one or several parent languages, such as several village languages merging into a Deaf-community language. Contact occurs between sign languages, between sign and spoken languages (contact sign, a kind of pidgin), and between sign languages and gestural systems used by the broader community. One author has speculated that Adamorobe Sign Language, a village sign language of Ghana(SONY VGP-BPL14 battery), may be related to the "gestural trade jargon used in the markets throughout West Africa", in vocabulary and areal features including prosody and phonetics.[44]

BSL, Auslan and NZSL are usually considered to be a language known as BANZSL. Maritime Sign Language and South African Sign Language are also related to BSL.[45]

Danish Sign Language and its descendants Norwegian Sign Language and Icelandic Sign Language are largely mutually intelligible with Swedish Sign Language. Finnish Sign Language, and Portuguese Sign Language derive from Swedish SL(SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery), though with local admixture in the case of mutually unintelligible Finnish SL. Danish SL has French SL influence and Wittmann (1991) places them in that family, though he proposes that Swedish, Finnish, and Portuguese SL are instead related to British Sign Language.

Japanese Sign Language, Taiwanese Sign Language and Korean Sign Language are thought to be members of a Japanese Sign Language family.[46]

French Sign Language family. There are a number of sign languages that emerged from French Sign Language (LSF), or are the result of language contact between local community sign languages and LSF(SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). These include: French Sign Language, Italian Sign Language, Quebec Sign Language, American Sign Language, Irish Sign Language, Russian Sign Language, Dutch Sign Language (NGT), Spanish Sign Language, Mexican Sign Language, Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS), Catalan Sign Language, Austrian Sign Language (along with its twin Hungarian Sign Language and its offspring Czech Sign Language) and others(SONY VGP-BPS14B battery).

A subset of this group includes languages that have been heavily influenced by American Sign Language (ASL), or are regional varieties of ASL. Bolivian Sign Language is sometimes considered a dialect of ASL. Thai Sign Language is a mixed language derived from ASL and the native sign languages of Bangkok and Chiang Mai, and may be considered part of the ASL family. Others possibly influenced by ASL include Ugandan Sign Language, Kenyan Sign Language(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery), Philippine Sign Language and Malaysian Sign Language.

German Sign Language (DGS) gave rise to Polish Sign Language; it also at least strongly influenced Israeli Sign Language, though it is unclear whether the latter derives from DGS or from Austrian Sign Language, which is in the French family.

Lyons Sign Language may be the source of Flemish Sign Language (VGT) though this is unclear.

According to a SIL report, the sign languages of Russia, Moldova and Ukraine share a high degree of lexical similarity and may be dialects of one language, or distinct related languages(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). The same report suggested a "cluster" of sign languages centered around Czech Sign Language, Hungarian Sign Language and Slovak Sign Language. This group may also include Romanian, Bulgarian, and Polish sign languages.

Sign languages of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq (and possibly Saudi Arabia) may be part of a sprachbund, or may be one dialect of a larger Eastern Arabic Sign Language.

Known isolates include Nicaraguan Sign Language, Kata Kolok, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language and Providence Island Sign Language(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery).

The only comprehensive classification along these lines going beyond a simple listing of languages dates back to 1991.[47] The classification is based on the 69 sign languages from the 1988 edition of Ethnologue that were known at the time of the 1989 conference on sign languages in Montreal and 11 more languages the author added after the conference. (SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery)

In his classification, the author distinguishes between primary and auxiliary sign languages[51] as well as between single languages and names that are thought to refer to more than one language.[52] The prototype-A class of languages includes all those sign languages that seemingly cannot be derived from any other language.[49] Prototype-R languages are languages that are remotely modelled on a prototype-A language (in many cases thought to have been FSL) (SONY VGP-BPS22A battery) by a process Kroeber (1940) called "stimulus diffusion".[50] The families of BSL, DGS, JSL, LSF (and possibly LSG) were the products of creolization and relexification of prototype languages.[53] Creolization is seen as enriching overt morphology in sign languages, as compared to reducing overt morphology in spoken languages.[54]

Typology of sign languages[edit]

See also: Linguistic typology

Linguistic typology (going back on Edward Sapir) is based on word structure and distinguishes morphological classes such as agglutinating/concatenating, inflectional, polysynthetic, incorporating, and isolating ones(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery).

Sign languages vary in word-order typology as there are different word orders in different languages. For example, ÖGS, Japanese Sign Language and so-called Indo-Pakistani Sign Language are Subject-Object-Verb while ASL is Subject-Verb-Object. Influence from the surrounding spoken languages is not improbable(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery).

Sign languages tend to be incorporating classifier languages, where a classifier handshape representing the object is incorporated into those transitive verbs which allow such modification. For a similar group of intransitive verbs (especially motion verbs), it is the subject which is incorporated. Only in a very few sign languages (for instance Japanese Sign Language) are agents ever incorporated(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). in this way, since subjects of intransitives are treated similarly to objects of transitives, incorporation in sign languages can be said to follow an ergative pattern.

Brentari[55][56] classifies sign languages as a whole group determined by the medium of communication (visual instead of auditive) as one group with the features monosyllabic and polymorphemic. That means, that via one syllable (i.e. one word, one sign) several morphemes can be expressed, like subject and object of a verb determine the direction of the verb's movement (inflection) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery).

Acquisition of sign languages[edit]

See also: Language acquisition

Children who are exposed to a sign language from birth will acquire it, just as hearing children acquire their native spoken language.[57]

The acquisition of non-manual features follows an interesting pattern: When a word that always has a particular non-manual feature associated with it (such as a wh- question word) is learned, the non-manual aspects are attached to the word but don’t have the flexibility associated with adult use(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). At a certain point the non-manual features are dropped and the word is produced with no facial expression. After a few months the non-manuals reappear, this time being used the way adult signers would use them.[58]

Written forms of sign languages[edit]

Sign languages do not have a traditional or formal written form. Many deaf people do not see a need to write their own language.[59]

Several ways to represent sign languages in written form have been developed.

Stokoe notation, devised by Dr. William Stokoe for his 1965 Dictionary of American Sign Language,[1] is an abstract phonemic notation system(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). Designed specifically for representing the use of the hands, it has no way of expressing facial expression or other non-manual features of sign languages. However, his was designed for research, particularly in a dictionary, not for general use.

The Hamburg Notation System (HamNoSys), developed in the early 1990s, is a detailed phonetic system, not designed for any one sign language, and intended as a transcription system for researchers rather than as a practical script(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery).

David J. Peterson has attempted to create a phonetic transcription system for signing that is ASCII-friendly known as the Sign Language International Phonetic Alphabet (SLIPA).

SignWriting, developed by Valerie Sutton in 1974, is a system for representing sign languages phonetically (including mouthing, facial expression and dynamics of movement). The script is sometimes used for detailed research, language documentation, as well as publishing texts and works in sign languages(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery).

Si5s is another orthography which is largely phonemic. However, a few signs are logographs and/or ideographs due to regional variation in sign languages.

ASL-phabet is a system designed primarily for education of deaf children by Dr. Sam Supalla which uses a minimalist collection of symbols in the order of Handshape-Location-Movement. Many signs can be written the same way (homograph) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery).

So far, there is no formal acceptance of any of these writing systems for any sign language, or even any consensus on the matter. None are widely-used.

Sign perception[edit]

For a native signer, sign perception influences how the mind makes sense of their visual language experience. For example, a handshape may vary based on the other signs made before or after it, but these variations are arranged in perceptual categories during its development. The mind detects handshape contrasts but groups similar handshapes together in one category. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery) Different handshapes are stored in other categories. The mind ignores some of the similarities between different perceptual categories, at the same time preserving the visual information within each perceptual category of handshape variation.

Sign languages in society[edit]

Telecommunications[edit]

A deaf person using a remote VRS interpreter to communicate with a hearing person

In order to communicate using a sign language between remote locations, deaf people use a video link through the Internet, either a special-purpose videophone designed for use with sign language or "off-the-shelf" video services designed for use with broadband and on ordinary computers with webcams(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery). The latter, though more widely available, often do not provide sufficient quality for sign language communication, although high-definition units are increasingly available.

The special videophones that are designed for sign language communication typically provide more frames per second than 'off-the-shelf' services and may use data compression methods specifically designed to maximize the intelligibility of sign languages. Some advanced equipment enables a person to remotely control the other person's video camera(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery), in order to zoom in and out or to point the camera better to understand the signing.

One of the first demonstrations of the ability for telecommunications to help sign language users communicate with each other occurred when AT&T's videophone (trademarked as the "Picturephone") was introduced to the public at the 1964 New York World's Fair – two deaf users were able to freely communicate with each other between the fair and another city. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery) However, video communication did not become widely available until sufficient bandwidth for the high volume of video data became available in the early 2000s.

Sign language interpretation[edit]

Main article: Main article: Language interpretation –Sign language

An ASL interpreter (in the Joe Greene jersey) appearing at a rally for the Pittsburgh Steelers prior to the U.S. Super Bowl XLV.

In order to facilitate communication between deaf and hearing people, sign language interpreters are often used. Such activities involve considerable effort on the part of the interpreter(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery), since sign languages are distinct natural languages with their own syntax, different from any spoken language.

The interpretation flow is normally between a sign language and a spoken language that are customarily used in the same country, such as French Sign Language (LSF) to spoken French in France, Spanish Sign Language (LSE) to spoken Spanish in Spain, British Sign Language (BSL) to spoken English in the U.K. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery), and American Sign Language (ASL) to spoken English in the U.S.A. (since BSL and ASL are distinct sign languages both used in English-speaking countries), etc. Sign language interpreters who can translate between signed and spoken languages that are not normally paired (such as between LSE and English), are also available, albeit less frequently(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery).

Remote interpreting[edit]

Video Interpreter sign used at VRS/VRI service locations.

Main articles: Video Remote Interpreting and Video Relay Service

Interpreters may be physically present with both parties to the conversation, but since the technological advancements in the early 2000s, provision of interpreters in remote locations has become available. In Video Remote Interpreting (VRI), the two clients (a sign-language user and a hearing person who wish to communicate with each other) are in one location, and the interpreter is in another(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). The interpreter communicates with the sign-language user via a video telecommunications link, and with the hearing person by an audio link. VRI can be used for situations in which no on-site interpreters are available.

However, VRI cannot be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. In Video Relay Service (VRS), the sign-language user, the interpreter, and the hearing person are in three separate locations, thus allowing the two clients to talk to each other on the phone through the interpreter(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery).

Home sign[edit]

Main article: Home sign

Sign systems are sometimes developed within a single family. For instance, when hearing parents with no sign language skills have a deaf child, an informal system of signs will naturally develop, unless repressed by the parents. The term for these mini-languages is home sign (sometimes homesign or kitchen sign). (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery)

Home sign arises due to the absence of any other way to communicate. Within the span of a single lifetime and without the support or feedback of a community, the child naturally invents signals to facilitate the meeting of his or her communication needs. Although this kind of system is grossly inadequate for the intellectual development of a child and it comes nowhere near meeting the standards linguists use to describe a complete language, it is a common occurrence(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). No type of Home Sign is recognized as an official language.

Use of signs in hearing communities[edit]

On occasion, where the prevalence of deaf people is high enough, a deaf sign language has been taken up by an entire local community. Famous examples of this include Martha's Vineyard Sign Language in the USA, Kata Kolok in a village in Bali, Adamorobe Sign Language in Ghana and Yucatec Maya sign language in Mexico. In such communities deaf people are not socially disadvantaged(Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery).

Many Australian Aboriginal sign languages arose in a context of extensive speech taboos, such as during mourning and initiation rites. They are or were especially highly developed among the Warlpiri, Warumungu, Dieri, Kaytetye, Arrernte, and Warlmanpa, and are based on their respective spoken languages(Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery).

A pidgin sign language arose among tribes of American Indians in the Great Plains region of North America (see Plains Indian Sign Language). It was used to communicate among tribes with different spoken languages. There are especially users today among the Crow, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. Unlike other sign languages developed by hearing people, it shares the spatial grammar of deaf sign languages(Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery).

Signs may also be used for manual communication in noisy or secret situations.

Sign language and children[edit]

Main article: Baby sign language

Sign language is becoming a popular teaching style among hearing parents for young hearing children. Since the muscles in babies' hands grow and develop quicker than their mouths, sign language is a beneficial option for better communication.[65] Babies can usually produce signs before they can speak. This decreases the confusion between parents when trying to figure out what their child wants. When the child begins to speak, signing is usually abandoned(Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery).

Gestural theory of human language origins[edit]

Main article: Origin of language – Gestural theory

The gestural theory states that vocal human language developed from a gestural sign language.[66] An important question for gestural theory is what caused the shift to vocalization.[67]

Primate use of sign language[edit]

Main article: Great ape language –Primate use of sign language

There have been several notable examples of scientists teaching non-human primates basic signs in order to communicate with humans,[68] but the degree to which these basic signs relate to human sign language and the ability of the animals in question to actually communicate is a matter of substantial controversy and dispute.[69][70] Notable examples include(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery):

Chimpanzees: Washoe and Loulis

Gorillas: Michael and Koko.

Deaf communities and deaf culture[edit]

Deaf communities are very widespread in the world and the culture which comprises within them is very rich. Sometimes it even does not intersect with the culture of the hearing population because of different impediments for hard-of-hearing people to perceive aurally conveyed information(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery).

There are many theories indicating what Indian sign language were applied for. One theory indicates that the sign system's development provided great ease for the local inhabitants to talk with each other: In the 1500s, a Spanish expeditionary, Cabeza de Vaca, observed using sign language with native Indians on the west part of modern day Florida. In mid 16th century(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), Francisco de Coronado also mentioned that communication with the Tonkawa using signs, was possible without the presence of an translator.

Ideas narrate to doing business with the use of sign as a common understandable language, and even exaggerated ideas of Native American using sign because they were perceived to be "exotic" and "uncivilized" group also prevail. Nevertheless, the sign adhered by the Indians were used primarily with communication between tribes or for the usage of hunting(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery). If gestures that were used by primitive individuals or Native Indians did in fact or not quite reach the stage of being official languages, excluding the usage of oration and still having full communication, is still up for debate.There are estimates indicating that as frequent as 15 in 650 Native Americans have serious deafness or are completely deaf. These estimates are more than twice the national medium(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery).

Legal recognition[edit]

Main article: Legal recognition of sign languages

Some sign languages have obtained some form of legal recognition, while others have no status at all. Sarah Batterbury has argued that sign languages should be recognized and supported not merely as an accommodation for the disabled, but as the communication medium of language communities. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery)

Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses(SONY PCG-5G2L battery).

Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The temperature varies based on the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases(SONY PCG-5G3L battery).

Appliances which provide a frequent supply of hot water are numerously called water heaters, hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers, heat exchangers, geysers, or calorifiers, These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water (DHW) (SONY PCG-F305 battery).

Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy. Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity(SONY PCG-5J1L battery).

Densely-populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water. This is especially the case in Scandinavia and Finland. District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from waste heat from industries, power plants, incinerators, geothermal heating, and central solar heating. Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers' premises. Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system, due to the expected high availability of district heating systems(SONY PCG-5J2L battery).

Electric tank-type storage water heater (US)

Hot water used for space heating may be heated by fossil fuels in a boiler, while potable water may be heated in a separate appliance. This is common practice in the US, especially when warm-air space heating is usually employed.[1]

Storage water heaters (tank-type)[edit]

Main article: Storage water heater(SONY PCG-5K2L battery)

Gas furnace (top) and storage water heater (bottom) (Germany)

In household and commercial usage, most water heaters in North America have traditionally been of the tank type. Also called storage water heaters, these consist of a cylindrical vessel or container in which water is kept continuously hot and ready for use. Typical sizes for household use range from 75 to 400 litres (20 to 100 US gallons). These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources(SONY PCG-5L1L battery). Natural gas heaters are most popular in the US and most European countries, since the gas is often conveniently piped throughout cities and towns and currently is the cheapest to use.

Another popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods is to heat water in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply. In North America, these vessels are called hot water tanks, and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, an air source heat pump(SONY PCG-6S2L battery), or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.

Where hot-water space heating boilers are installed, DHW cylinders are usually heated indirectly by primary water from the boiler, or by an electric immersion heater (often as backup to the boiler). In the UK these vessels are called unvented cylinders. In the US, when connected to a boiler they are called indirect-fired water heaters(SONY PCG-6S3L battery).

Compared to tankless heaters, storage water heaters have the advantage of using energy (gas or electricity) at a relatively slow rate, storing the heat for later use. The disadvantage is that over time, the water inside the tank will cool down causing the heating system to activate to heat the water back up. Additionally, once the tank's supply of hot water has been exhausted, there is a significant delay before hot water is available again. (SONY PCG-6V1L battery) Larger tanks tend to provide hot water with less temperature fluctuation at moderate flow rates.

Volume storage water heaters in the United States and New Zealand are typically vertical, cylindrical tanks, usually standing on the floor or on a platform raised a short distance above the floor. Volume storage water heaters in Spain are typically horizontal. In India, they are mainly vertical. In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms. In Australia, gas and electric outdoor tank heaters have mainly been used(SONY PCG-6W1L battery) (with high temperatures to increase effective capacity), but solar roof tanks are becoming fashionable.

In temperate zone countries, where ambient temperature are seasonally colder, tiny point-of-use (POU) electric storage water heaters with capacities ranging from 8 to 32 liters (2 to 6 gallons) are made for installation in kitchen and bath cabinets or on the wall above a sink. They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW(SONY PCG-7111L battery), and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater. They may be used when retrofitting a pump and recirculating plumbing in a building is too costly or impractical. Since they maintain water temperature thermostatically, they can only supply a continuous flow of hot water at extremely low flow rates, unlike high-capacity tankless heaters(SONY PCG-71511M battery).

In tropical countries, like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate.

Tankless heaters[edit]

The inside of a hydraulically-operated two-stage tankless heater, heated by single-phase electric power. The copper tank contains heating elements with 18kW maximum power.

Main article: Tankless water heating

See also: Instant hot water dispenser and Electric water boiler(SONY PCG-6W3L battery)

Tankless water heaters—also called instantaneous, continuous flow, inline, flash, on-demand, or instant-on water heaters—are gaining in popularity. These high-power water heaters instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain any water internally except for what is in the heat exchanger coil. Copper heat exchangers are preferred in these units because of their high thermal conductivity and ease of fabrication(SONY PCG-7113L battery).

Tankless heaters may be installed throughout a household at more than one point-of-use (POU), far from a central water heater, or larger centralized models may still be used to provide all the hot water requirements for an entire house. The main advantages of tankless water heaters are a plentiful continuous flow of hot water (as compared to a limited flow of continuously heated hot water from conventional tank water heaters), and potential energy savings under some conditions(SONY PCG-7133L battery).

Stand-alone appliances for quickly heating water for DHW are known in North America as tankless or on demand water heaters. In some places, they're called multipoint heaters, geysers or ascots. In Australia and New Zealand they are called instantaneous hot water units. A similar wood-fired appliance was known as the chip heater. (SONY PCG-7Z1L battery)

A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed, is for a boiler to also heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of DHW without extra equipment. Appliances that can supply both space-heating and DHW are called combination (or combi) boilers. Though on-demand heaters can provide a continuous supply of DHW, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery)    .

Electric shower heads[edit]

A poorly-installed electric shower head can pose an electrical shock hazard (Guatemala)

As the name implies, an electric heating element is incorporated into such shower heads to instantly heat the water as it flows through. These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use (POU) tankless water heaters, and are widely used in some countries.

Invented in Brazil in the 1930s and used frequently since the 40s, the electric shower is a home appliance often seen in South American(SONY PCG-8Y1L battery) countries due to the higher costs with gas distribution. Earlier models were made of chromed copper or brass, which were expensive, but since 1970, units made of injected plastics are popular due to low prices similar to that of a hair dryer. Electric showers have a simple electric system, working like a coffee maker, but with a larger water flow. A flow switch turns on the device when water flows through it. Once the water is stopped, the device turns off automatically. (SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) An ordinary electric shower often has three heat settings: low (2.5 kW), high (5.5 kW) or cold (0 W) to use when a central heater system is available or in hot seasons.[citation needed]

Energy usage[edit]

The power consumption of electric showers in the maximum heating setting is about 5.5 kW for 120 V and 7.5 kW for 220 V. The lower costs with electric showers compared to the higher costs with boilers is due to the time of use: an electric shower uses energy only during the water flow, while a boiler works many times(SONY PCG-8Z2L battery) a day to keep a larger quantity of standing water hot for use throughout the day and night. So electric showers may save energy compared to gas central heaters. A 20 minute bath by an electric shower can cost about US$0.10, but the same bath using water from a gas heater can cost three times as much. This difference can be larger where the electricity is cheaper than the gas supply, or in tropical countries where the maximum power consumption is required only during the cold seasons(SONY PCG-8Z1L battery).

Safety[edit]

There is a wide range of electric showers all with various amounts of heating controls. The heating element of an electric shower is made from a coil made of nickel or an alloy of nickel and chromium or can even be made of sheathed heater element, like the ones used in oil heaters, radiators or irons - they provide more safety as there is insulation between the electric parts and the water. Due to electrical safety standards(SONY PCG-7112L battery), modern electric showers are made of plastic instead of using metallic casings like in the past. As an electrical appliance that uses more electrical current than a washer or a dryer machine, an electric shower installation requires careful planning, and must be wired directly from the electrical distribution box with its own circuit breaker and ground system. A poorly installed system with old aluminum wires or bad connections may be dangerous, as the wires can overheat(SONY PCG-6W2L battery).

Some changes in electrical distribution utilities were required before widespread use of electric showers could become practical. Electric utility transformers with higher KVA capacity are required due to increase of peak electrical demand. In countries where almost all houses use electric showers like Brazil, an ordinary street transformer per square has 112.5 to 150 kVA of capacity, and buildings must have their own transformers to support the electrical domestic demand without overloads in the electric distribution. (SONY PCG-5K1L battery)

Solar water heaters[edit]

Direct-gain solar heater panels with integrated storage tank

Flat-plate solar thermal collector, viewed from roof-level

Main article: Solar water heating

Increasingly, solar powered water heaters are being used. Their solar collectors are installed outside dwellings, typically on the roof or walls or nearby, and the potable hot water storage tank is typically a pre-existing or new conventional water heater, or a water heater specifically designed for solar thermal(SONY VGP-BPS8 battery).

The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use integrated collector storage (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector. Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), (SONY VGP-BPS8A battery) can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.

By contrast, indirect or closed-loop systems do not allow potable water through the panels, but rather pump a heat transfer fluid (either water or a water/antifreeze mix) through the panels. After collecting heat in the panels, the heat transfer fluid flows through a heat exchanger, transferring its heat to the potable hot water. When the panels are cooler than(SONY VGP-BPL8 battery) the storage tank or when the storage tank has already reached its maximum temperature, the controller in closed-loop systems will stop the circulation pumps. In a drainback system, the water drains into a storage tank contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space, protected from freezing temperatures. With antifreeze systems, however, the pump must be run if the panel temperature gets too hot (to prevent degradation of the antifreeze) or too cold (to prevent the water/antifreeze mixture from freezing.) (SONY VGP-BPS9 battery)

Flat panel collectors are typically used in closed-loop systems. Flat panels, which often resemble skylights, are the most durable type of collector, and they also have the best performance for systems designed for temperatures within 100 °F (38 °C) of ambient temperature. Flat panels are regularly used in both pure water and antifreeze systems(SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery).

Another type of solar collector is the evacuated tube collector, which are intended for cold climates that do not experience severe hail and/or applications where high temperatures are needed (i.e., over 200 °F (93 °C)). Placed in a rack, evacuated tube collectors form a row of glass tubes, each containing absorption fins attached to a central heat-conducting rod(SONY VGP-BPS9A battery) (copper or condensation-driven). The evacuated description refers to the vacuum created in the glass tubes during the manufacturing process, which results in very low heat loss and lets evacuated tube systems achieve extreme temperatures, far in excess of water's boiling point.

Geothermal heating[edit]

In countries like Iceland and New Zealand, and other volcanic regions, water heating may be done using geothermal heating, rather than combustion(SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery).

Gravity-fed system[edit]

Where a space-heating water boiler is employed, the traditional arrangement in the UK is to use boiler-heated (primary) water to heat potable (secondary) water contained in a cylindrical vessel (usually made of copper)—which is supplied from a cold water storage vessel or container, usually in the roof space of the building. This produces a fairly steady supply of DHW (Domestic Hot Water) at low static pressure head but usually with a good flow(SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). In most other parts of the world, water heating appliances do not use a cold water storage vessel or container, but heat water at pressures close to that of the incoming mains water supply.

Point-of-use (POU) vs. Centralized hot water[edit]

A locational design decision may be made between point-of-use and centralized hot water heaters. Centralized water heaters are more traditional, and are still a good choice for small buildings. For larger buildings with intermittent or occasional hot water use, multiple POU water heaters may be a better choice(SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery), since they can reduce long waits for hot water to arrive from a remote heater. The decision where to locate the water heater(s) is only partially independent of the decision of a tanked vs. tankless water heater, or the choice of energy source for the heat.

Other improvements[edit]

Other improvements include check valve devices at their inlet and outlet, cycle timers, electronic ignition in the case of fuel-using models, sealed air intake systems in the case of fuel-using models, and pipe insulation(SONY VGP-BPL9 battery). The sealed air-intake system types are sometimes called "band-joist" intake units. "High-efficiency" condensing units can convert up to 98% of the energy in the fuel to heating the water. The exhaust gases of combustion are cooled and are mechanically ventilated either through the roof or through an exterior wall. At high combustion efficiencies a drain must be supplied to handle the water condensed out of the combustion products, which are primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor(SONY VGP-BPS10 battery).

In traditional plumbing in the UK, the space-heating boiler is set up to heat a separate hot water cylinder or water heater for potable hot water. Such water heaters are often fitted with an auxiliary electrical immersion heater for use if the boiler is out of action for a time. Heat from the space-heating boiler is transferred to the water heater vessel/container by means of a heat exchanger, and the boiler operates at a higher temperature than(SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) the potable hot water supply. Most potable water heaters in North America are completely separate from the space heating units, due to the popularity of HVAC/forced air systems in North America.

Residential combustion water heaters manufactured since 2003 in the United States have been redesigned to resist ignition of flammable vapors and incorporate a thermal cutoff switch, per ANSI Z21.10.1. The first feature attempts to prevent vapors from(SONY VGP-BPS11 battery) flammable liquids and gasses in the vicinity of the heater from being ignited and thus causing a house fire or explosion. The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions. These safety requirements were made based on homeowners storing, or spilling, gasoline or other flammable liquids near their water heaters and causing fires. Since most of the new designs incorporate some type of flame arrestor screen, they require monitoring to make sure they don't become clogged with lint or dust(SONY VGP-BPL11 battery) reducing the availability of air for combustion. If the flame arrestor becomes clogged, the thermal cutoff may act to shut down the heater.

A wetback stove (NZ), wetback heater (NZ), or back boiler (UK), is a simple household secondary water heater using incidental heat. It typically consists of a hot water pipe running behind a fireplace or stove (rather than hot water storage) (SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), and has no facility to limit the heating. Modern wetbacks may run the pipe in a more sophisticated design to assist heat-exchange. These designs are being forced out by government efficiency regulations that do not count the energy used to heat water as 'efficiently' used.[2]

History[edit]

Display of water heaters used in the past.

Though not very popular in North America, another type of water heater developed in Europe predated the storage model. In London, England, in 1868, a painter named Benjamin Waddy Maughan invented the first instantaneous domestic water heater that didn't use solid fuel. (SONY VGP-BPS12 battery)Named the geyser after an Icelandic gushing hot spring, Maughan's invention made cold water at the top flow through wires that were heated by hot gases from a burner at the bottom. Hot water then flowed into a sink or tub. The invention was somewhat dangerous because there was no flue to remove heated gases from the bathroom. A water heater is still sometimes called a geyser in the UK. The terms electric water boiler, electric dispensing pot or electric water urn are also commonly used there(SONY VGP-BPS13 battery).

Maughn's invention influenced the work of a Norwegian mechanical engineer named Edwin Ruud. The first automatic, storage tank-type gas water was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation. (SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery)

Thermodynamics and economics[edit]

Gas-fired tankless condensing boiler with hot water storage tank(US)

Water enters typically residences in the US at about 10 °C (50 °F), depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of 40–49 °C (104–120 °F) are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about 30 °C (54 °F) if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use(SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is 2.5 US gallons (9.5 L) per minute. Sink and dishwasher usages range from 1–3 US gallons (3.8–11 L) per minute.

Natural gas in the U.S. is measured in CCF (100 cubic feet), which is converted to a standardized heat content unit called the therm, equal to 100,000 British thermal units (BTU). A BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. A U.S. gallon of water weighs 8.3 pounds (3.8 kg). So, to raise a 40-gallon tank of 55 °F (13 °C) (SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) water up to 105 °F (41 °C) would require 40 × 8.3 × (105 − 55) = 16600 BTU, or approximately 0.166 CCF(16600/100,000), at 100% efficiency. A 40,000 BTU/h heater would take 25 minutes to do this, at 100% efficiency. At $1 per therm, the cost of the gas would be about 17 cents.

In comparison, a typical electric water heater has a 4500 watt heating element, which if 100% efficient results in a heating time of about 1.1 hours. Since 16,600 BTU is roughly 4.9 kWh, at 10 cents/kWh the electricity would cost $0.49(SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). Operating a shower at 2.5 gpm and 104 °F (40 °C) is equivalent to operating a 19.8 kW appliance [ ref. w computes 13.2 kW, but that is for 20 degree C increase instead of 30 ].[5] In the UK, domestic electric immersion heaters are usually rated at 3 kilowatts.

Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly based on manufacturer and model. However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery) (how efficiently energy is transferred to the water) reaching about 98%. Gas fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 86% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses). Overall energy factors can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems. Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units(SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery). Energy Star-qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an automatic flue damper or power venting. Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program, however, the Energy Star program does include electric heat pump units with energy factors of 200% or higher. Tankless gas water heaters must have an energy factor of 82% or higher for Energy Star (SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery)qualification. Since electricity production itself today has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (combined cycle gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric water heating is typically the least energy efficient option. However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a renewable source of electricity is used(SONY VGP-BPS21B battery).

A tankless water heater operating at those same power levels (at 100% efficiency) would be able to supply 1.6 gpm continuously, raising the temperature by 30 °C (54 °F). The same unit could supply 1.3 gpm while raising the temperature by 33 °C (59 °F). To handle a full house load of multiple uses (at least 5 gpm) with a centralized tankless water heater requires three to four times this power level—somewhat difficult to achieve with natural gas(SONY VGP-BPS21 battery), and difficult to achieve with electricity. Many tankless water heaters can use over 100,000 BTU/h during high flow, and so require especially large power supplies.

Unfortunately, it takes a great deal of energy to heat water, as one may experience when waiting to boil a gallon of water on a stove. For this reason, tankless on-demand water heaters require a powerful energy source. A standard 15-ampere rated wall electric outlet, by comparison, only sources enough power to warm a disappointingly small amount of water: about 0.17 gpm at 40 °C temperature elevation(SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery).

2015 United States Department of Energy minimum efficiency requirements[edit]

In 2015, new minimum standards for efficiency of residential water heaters set by the United States Department of Energy will go into effect.[6] All new gas storage tank water heaters with capacities smaller than 55 gallons sold in the United States in 2015 or later shall have an energy factor of at least 60% (for 50 gallon units, higher for smaller units), increased from the current minimum standard of 58% energy factor for 50 gallon gas units(SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery). Electric storage tank water heaters with capacities less than 55 gallons sold in the United States shall have an energy factor of at least 95%, increased from the current minimum standard of 90% for 50 gallon electric units. Under the 2015 standard, for the first time, storage water heaters with capacities of 55 gallons or larger will face stricter efficiency requirements than those of 50 gallons or less. Under the current standard(SONY VGP-BPS13S battery), a typical 75 gallon gas storage water heater can have an energy factor as low as 53%, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for a 75 gallon gas storage tank water heater will be 74%, which can only be achieved by using condensing technology. An 80 gallon electric storage tank water heater can have a minimum energy factor of 86% under the current standard, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for an 80 gallon electric storage tank water heater will be 197%, which is only possible with heat pump technology(SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). Gas tankless water heaters shall have an energy factor of 82% or greater under the 2015 standards, which corresponds to the current Energy Star standard.

Water heater safety[edit]

Temperature/pressure safety valve installed atop a tank-type water heater (US)

Water heaters potentially can explode and cause significant damage, injury, or death if certain safety devices are not installed. When the water temperature exceeds 100 °C (212 °F), the water will remain a liquid inside the tank, but when the pressure is released as the water comes out the tap the water will boil, potentially inflicting steam burns. Water above about 88 °C (190 °F) (SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery)will cause burns on contact. A safety device called a temperature and pressure relief (T&P or TPR) valve, is normally fitted on the top of the water heater to dump water if the temperature or pressure becomes too high. Most plumbing codes require that a discharge pipe be connected to the valve to direct the flow of discharged hot water to a drain, typically a nearby floor drain, or outside the living space. Some building codes will allow for the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage. (SONY VGP-BPS14 battery)

If a gas or propane fired water heater is installed in a garage, it is recommended, and many codes require, that it be elevated at least 18 inches (0.46 m) above the floor to reduce the potential for fire or explosion due to spillage or leakage of combustible liquids in the garage. Furthermore, certain local codes mandate that tank-type heaters in new and retrofit installations must be secured to an adjacent wall by a strap or anchor to prevent tipping over and breaking the water and gas pipes in the event of an earthquake. (SONY VGP-BPL14 battery)

For older houses where the water heater is part of the space heating boiler, and plumbing codes allow, some plumbers will install a Watts 210 device in place of a TPR valve. When the device senses that the temperature reaches 99 °C (210 °F), it will shut off the gas supply and prevent further heating. In addition, an expansion tank or exterior pressure relief valve must be installed to prevent pressure buildup in the plumbing from rupturing pipes, valves, or the water heater(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery).

Thermal burns (scalding)[edit]

Scalding injury to right hand

Scalding is a serious concern with any water heater. Human skin burns quickly at high temperature, in less than 5 seconds at 60 °C (140 °F), but much slower at 53 °C (127 °F) — it takes a full minute for a second degree burn. Older people and children often receive serious scalds due to disabilities or slow reaction times.[9] In the United States and elsewhere it is common practice to put a tempering valve on the outlet of the water heater. The result of mixing hot and cold water via a tempering valve is referred to as "tempered water".(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery)

A tempering valve mixes enough cold water with the hot water from the heater to keep the outgoing water temperature fixed at a more moderate temperature, often set to 50 °C (122 °F). Without a tempering valve, reduction of the water heater's setpoint temperature is the most direct way to reduce scalding. However, for sanitation, hot water is needed at a temperature that can cause scalding(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). This may be accomplished by using a supplemental heater in an appliance that requires hotter water. Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic hot water heater.

Bacterial contamination[edit]

Bacterial colonies of Legionella pneumophila (indicated by arrows)

Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than 55 °C (131 °F), and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly Legionella, in water that is not hot enough to kill them(SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). Both risks are potentially life threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to at least 54.4 °C (130 °F). The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at 60 °C (140 °F) and distributed such that a temperature of at least 50 °C and preferably 55 °C is achieved within one minute at outlets.[11] If there is a dishwasher without a booster heater, it may require a water temperature within a range of 57 °C (134.6 °F) to 60 °C (140 °F) for optimum cleaning, (SONY VGP-BPS22A battery)in which case tempering valves set to no more than 55 °C can be applied to faucets to avoid scalding. (Note: Tank temperatures above 60 °C may produce limescale deposits, which could later harbor bacteria, in the water tank. Temperatures above 60 °C may also cause gradual erosion of glassware in a dishwasher.)

Tank thermostats are not a reliable guide to the internal temperature of the tank. Gas-fired water tanks may have no temperature calibration shown. An electric thermostat shows the temperature at the elevation of the thermostat(SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery), but water lower in the tank can be considerably cooler. An outlet thermometer is a better indication of water temperature.[13]

In the renewable energy industry (solar and heat pumps, in particular) the conflict between daily thermal Legionella control and high temperatures, which may drop system performance, is subject to heated debate. In a paper seeking a green exemption from normal Legionellosis safety standards, Europe's top CEN solar thermal technical(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery) committee TC 312 asserts that a 50% fall in performance would occur if solar water heating systems were heated to the base daily. However some solar simulator analysis work using Polysun 5 suggests that an 11% energy penalty is a more likely figure. Whatever the context, both energy efficiency and scalding safety requirements push in the direction of considerably lower water temperatures than the legionella pasteurisation temperature of around 60°C(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery).

However, legionella can be safely and easily controlled with good design and engineering protocols. For instance raising the temperature of water heaters once a day or even once every few days to 55 °C (131 °F) at the coldest part of the water heater for 30 minutes will effectively control legionella. In all cases and in particular energy efficient applications, Legionnaires' disease is more often than not the result of engineering design issues that do not take into consideration the impact of stratification or low flow(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery).

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A mummy is a human or animal, skin and organs have been preserved by either intentional or incidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold (ice mummies), very low humidity, or lack of air when bodies are submerged in bogs, so that the recovered body will not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals(SONY PCG-5G2L battery), but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back at least to the 1730s.

Mummies of humans and other animals have been found all around the world, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats.[1] The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old, found in 1936 at the site named Inca Cueva No. 4 in South America. (SONY PCG-5G3L battery)

In addition to the well-known mummies of Ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of South America and Asia which have very dry climates. There are more than 1000 mummies in Xinjiang, China.[citation needed] The oldest-known deliberate mummy is a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, and dates from around 5050 BC. (SONY PCG-F305 battery) [3]

Etymology and meaning

The English word mummy is derived from medieval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word mūmiya (مومياء) and from a Persian word mūm (wax)[citation needed], which meant an embalmed corpse, and a bituminous embalming substance, and also meant "bitumen".[4] (See also: Mummia.) The medieval Latin and medieval English had the same meaning as the medieval Arabic. The meaning of "corpse preserved by desiccation" developed post-medievally(SONY PCG-5J1L battery). In English "mummy" as a term for a "medical preparation of the substance of mummies" is recorded from c. 1400, earlier than the sense of a complete body, with Richard Hakluyt in 1599 complaining that "these dead bodies are the Mummy which the Phisistians and Apothecaries doe against our willes make us to swallow".[5]

The OED defines a mummy as "the body of a human being or animal enbalmed (according to the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) (SONY PCG-5J2L battery) as a preparation for burial", citing sources from 1615 onwards, later than the first uses of other senses that include ground up mummy used as "a medicinal preparation", which dates to c. 1400.[6] However sense 3c: "A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air. Also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric ice", is cited to Chamber's Cyclopaedia, 1727–41, and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland. (SONY PCG-5K2L battery) [7]

The Egyptian mummification process

Main article: Ancient Egyptian burial customs#Mummification

The first evidence of intentional mummification in Egypt dates to 3500 B.C.[8] Parts of mummified human bodies recovered from Hierakonpolis exhibit evidence of resin and linen wrappings.[8]

The earliest intact Egyptian mummy, ID #32751, dates to approximately 3400 BC, and is currently held in the British Museum.[9] Mummy 32751 was previously nicknamed "Ginger" for its hair color, but this practice was stopped in 2004(SONY PCG-5L1L battery), in order to afford more dignity to human remains. Mummy #32751 was an adult male; the exact age at death is uncertain. It was apparently preserved by direct contact with the dry desert sand, though it is uncertain whether the mummification was intended. Pottery vessels were recovered from the grave, but their significance is uncertain. (SONY PCG-6S2L battery) [9]

We have little technical information on mummification from Ancient Egyptian sources. The most famous Ancient Egyptian text is called The Ritual of Embalming and describes the process of bandaging the mummy along with its corresponding rituals.[10] The first surgical description of Egyptian mummification comes from Herodotus' The History where he briefly describes the process of evisceration. (SONY PCG-6S3L battery) According to Herodotus the brain was removed using an iron hook inserted through the nostrils and the brain cavity washed with drugs. A slit was made in the left side to remove the internal organs and the cavity stuffed with spices and the body then dried for seventy days.[11] From the Middle Kingdom onwards, embalmers used salts to remove moisture from the body. The salt-like substance found on the banks of salt lakes, natron, dried out and preserved more flesh than bone. Once dried, mummies were ritualistically anointed with oils and perfumes. (SONY PCG-6V1L battery) The emptied body was then covered in natron, to speed up the process of dehydration and prevent decomposition. Natron dries the body up faster than desert sand, preserving the body more effectively. Often finger and toe protectors were placed over the mummy's fingers and toes to prevent breakage. They were wrapped with strips of white linen to protect the body from being damaged. After that, they were wrapped in a sheet of canvas to further protect them. Many sacred charms and amulets were placed in and around the mummy and the wrappings. (SONY PCG-6W1L battery) This was intended to protect the mummy from harm and to give good luck to the Ka of the mummy. Once preserved, they were laid to rest in a sarcophagus inside a tomb, where it was believed that the mummy would rest eternally. The mummy's mouth would later be opened in an ritual designed to symbolize breathing, giving rise to legends about resurrected mummies.[12] In some cases, a mummy has been discovered in an unrobbed tomb, only to be found in a state of advanced decomposition due to the proximity of the water table(SONY PCG-7111L battery). This was the case with the discovery in 1998 of the mummy of Iufaa, an Egyptian priest and administer who lived around 500 BC.

The most famous Egyptian mummies are those of Seti I, Rameses II, and Tutankhamun (13th century BC).

[edit]Scientific study of Egyptian mummies

Mummies were much sought-after by museums worldwide in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many exhibit mummies today. Notably fine examples are exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, at the Ägyptisches Museum in Berlin(SONY PCG-71511M battery), and at the British Museum in London. The Egyptian city of Luxor is also home to a specialized Mummification Museum. The mummified remains of what turned out to be Rameses I ended up in a Daredevil Museum near Niagara Falls on the United States–Canada border; records indicate that it had been sold to a Canadian in 1860 and exhibited alongside displays such as a two-headed calf for nearly 140 years, until the Michael C. Carlos Museum in Atlanta, Georgia(SONY PCG-6W3L battery), which had acquired the mummy along with other artifacts, determined it to be royal and returned it to Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities. It is currently on display in the Luxor Museum.

A female mummy in the British Museum.

Modern scientific methods are being applied to mummies for archeological research. Mummies can be studied without the need to unwrap them using CAT scan and X-ray machines to form a digital image of the body. This has been very useful to biologists and anthropologists, providing a wealth of information about the health and life expectancy of ancient people(SONY PCG-7113L battery). In 2008, the latest generation CT scanners (64- and 256-slice Philips machines at the University of Chicago) were used to study Meresamun, a temple singer and priestess at the Temple of Amun whose mummy now resides at the Oriental Institute of Chicago. Mummies have also been used in medicine to calibrate CAT scan machines at levels of radiation that would be too dangerous for living people. (SONY PCG-7133L battery)

Scientists interested in molecular cloning the DNA of mummies have reported findings of analyzable DNA in an Egyptian mummy dating to c. 2012 BC.[13] Although analysis of the hair of Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet,[14] Ancient Egyptian mummies from c. 3200 BC show signs of severe anaemia and hemolytic disorders. (SONY PCG-7Z1L battery)15]

CT scans of mummies from Egypt, Peru, southwest America, and the Aleutian Islands have been conducted to assess the prevalence of atherosclerosis in people prior to the impact of modern lifestyle factors. More than a third of the individuals had evidence of the disease.[16]

Dr. Bob Brier of Long Island University has been the first modern scientist attempting to apply ancient Egyptian methods of mummification. (SONY PCG-7Z2L battery)        [17]

[edit]Post-interment care

Of special interest are finds that may testify to the beliefs of the ancient population of Egypt. In two Neolithic cemeteries, skulls were found that indicated tooth replacement in antiquity. In both cases, the teeth were apparently collected and repositioned by people during later burials. Also in the same cemetery, four bracelets were found encircling a right humerus, which had been moved from its original position, during the deposition of a later burial(SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). However, the bracelets were maintained in place by the insertion of the individual’s own right ulna and radius that had been fractured post-mortem. Such manipulation suggests that the intention was to repair the damage caused during the insertion of later interments. These intentions are supported by the discoveries of two skulls with mis-positioned teeth. In one case, the right orbit contained eighteen of the individual’s teeth; in the other, the nasal aperture contained one tooth. (SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) [18]

All of these examples suggest a deep conviction about the importance of body preservation, i.e., keeping the body together, ideally in an undisturbed state. Perhaps this was necessary to secure eternal life––similar to the belief that is so popular throughout all of ancient Egyptian civilization.[18]

Chinchorro mummies are the oldest deliberate mummies.

Main article: Chinchorro mummies(SONY PCG-8Z2L battery)

South American cultures provide a mixture of deliberately prepared mummies, in the dry areas on the Pacific coast of Chile and southern Peru, and naturally mummified remains, mostly found high in the Andes mountains. The prepared Chinchorro mummies, are the oldest prepared mummified bodies ever found, ranging from about 5000–3000 BC, and apparently come from a society where all human burials were prepared for mummification. (SONY PCG-8Z1L battery) The bodies were carefully prepared, using three different techniques at different periods, but the cold, dry climate also aided desiccating the corpses and preserving them intact. Bodies in the Nazca Chauchilla Cemetery, from about AD 200–900, were also carefully prepared.

Replica of the well preserved Plomo mummy

Some of the best-preserved natural mummies date from the Inca period in Peru and Chile some 500[19] years ago, where children were ritually sacrificed on the summits of mountains in the Andes(SONY PCG-7112L battery). In 1995, the frozen body, not desiccated and so not strictly a mummy, of a 11- to 14-year-old Inca girl who had died some time between 1440 and 1450 was discovered on Mount Ampato in southern Peru. Known as "Mummy Juanita" ("Momia Juanita" in Spanish) or "The Ice Maiden", some archaeologists believe that she was a human sacrifice to the Inca mountain god Inti. In Chile, there is 'Miss Chile', a well preserved Tiwanaku-era mummy.[20] She is currently kept by the Gustavo Page Museum in San Pedro de Atacama(SONY PCG-6W2L battery). The atacaman community decided to stop displaying the mummies of their ancestor, as a sign of respect to their forefathers.[21] Three child mummies, discovered in 1999 on Mount Llullaillaco, 6700 m above sea level, are on display at the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology in Salta, Argentina.[22] In addition to the ancient Chachapoyas peoples, mummies are associated with the Chazuta culture of the Peruvian Upper Amazon(SONY PCG-5K1L battery) [23]

The aboriginal guanches of the Canary Islands embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each weighing not more than 6 or 7 pounds. Their method was similar to that of the ancient Egyptians. The process of embalming seems to have varied. In Tenerife, the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins (though many areas of the island also treated the body with vegetal elements), (SONY VGP-BPS8 battery) while on other islands, a resinous substance was used to preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult to access, or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a special class, with women for female corpses, and men for male. Embalming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves or buried.

The Capuchin catacombs of Palermo are burial catacombs in Palermo, Sicily, southern ItalySony PCG-71313M battery. Today they provide a somewhat macabre tourist attraction as well as an extraordinary historical record.

Palermo's Capuchin monastery outgrew its original cemetery in the 16th century and monks began to excavate crypts below it. In 1599 they mummified one of their number, recently-dead brother Silvestro of Gubbio, and placed him into the catacombs. Originally the catacombs were intended only for the dead friars. However, in the following centuries it became a status symbol to be entombed into the Capuchin catacombsSony PCG-71212M battery.

The bodies were dehydrated on the racks of ceramic pipes in the catacombs and sometimes later washed with vinegar. Some of the bodies were embalmed and others enclosed in sealed glass cabinets. Monks were preserved with their everyday clothing and sometimes with ropes they had worn as a penanceSony PCG-71311M battery.

One of the most popular mummies at the Capuchin catacombs is that of Rosalia Lombardo who died in 1920. After Rosalia's death, her father had Alfredo Salafia mummify the girl's body, using a method which was unknown until recently. Rosalia Lombardo's body has begun to discolor, which is a sign of decomposition.[24]

Other notable catacomb mummies are located in the cities of Venzone, Urbania, Savoca, Ferentillo, Nevelli, and Arezzo.[ Sony PCG-71213M battery

Mummies that are formed as a result of naturally-occurring environmental conditions, such as extreme coldness (Ötzi the Iceman, the Ice Maiden, the Llullaillaco child mummies), acid (Tollund Man), salinity (Salt Man), or desiccating dryness (Tarim mummies), have been found all over the world. More than a thousand Iron Age corpses, so called bog bodies, have been found in bogs in northern Europe, such as the Yde Girl and the Lindow Man.[26] Natural mummification of other animal species also occursSony PCG-61211M battery; this is most common in species from shallow saline water environments, especially those with a body structure which is particularly favourable to this process, such as seahorses and starfish. Old mummies such as the dinosaurs Leonardo, Dakota, and the Trachodon mummy in America were very valuable discoveries. Currently in the Colombian town of San Bernardo, close to 30 percent of bodies buried in the local cemetery are naturally mummifiedSony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. The phenomenon began in the mid 1950s and continues today. Though some studies have been done, there is no definitive answer as to what is causing the remains to mummify. Many locals believe it is due to their diet rich the regional food, the chayote, known locally as the guatila. Others say the mummification is due to the climate or the altitude of the town. There are approximately 14 mummies on display in the mausoleum, many preserved almost completely with skin, hair and even the clothes they were buried inSony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. Groundskeepers insist the bodies are not embalmed or treated in any way before being buried. The cause remains a mystery.

Mummy in the history museum of Jingzhou

This section requires expansion. (December 2011)

In China a few mummies were found, preserved in the Tarim Basin with complete bodies and organs (brains, stomachs were also present from 2,500 year old mummies), and are able to be moved and articulated with care. These mummies were of European descent,[27] and are known today as the Tarim MummiesSony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery.

In the summer of 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. Natalia Polosmak discovered the Siberian Ice Maiden, a Scytho-Siberian woman, in a sacred area known as the Pastures of Heaven, on the Ukok Plateau in the Altay Mountains near the Mongolian border. She was a member of the Pazyryk culture and lived some time in the 5th century BC. The mummy was frozen because of the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe and never thawed. She was buried with six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journeySony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Her left arm and hand were tattooed with animal style figures, including a highly stylized deer.

The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy. The mummy's skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation. Some residents of the Altai Republic, formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union, have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, currently stored in Novosibirsk in Siberia. Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery

Another Siberian mummy, a man nicknamed "Conan," was discovered with tattoos of two monsters resembling griffins decorating his chest and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm.        

Remains of Salt Man 4 on display at Zanjan.(left) Head of Salt Man 1 on display at National Museum of Iran in Tehran (right) Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery.

In the winter of 1993, miners near the city of Zanjan, came across a body with long hair, a beard and some artifacts. Until 2010 the remains of six men have been discovered, most of them having been accidentally killed by collapsing galleries they were working in.[30] After archeological studies which included C14 dating of different samples of bones and textiles, the Salt Man was dated to about 1,700 years ago. By testing a sample of hair, the blood group B+ was determined.Three bodies are dated to the Parthian (247 BC-224 AD) and Sassanid (224-651 AD) eras, and the remainder to the Achaemenid Dynasty (550-330 BC). Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery

Natural mummification is rare, requiring specific conditions to occur, but it has produced some of the oldest known mummies. The most famous ancient mummy is Ötzi the Iceman, frozen in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps around 3300 BC and found in 1991.

Also in the Umbria region mummies were discovered in 1805[32] in Ferentillo. These are twenty natural mummies, the most ancient of which dates four centuries and the most recent is from the 19th century. During the late 1600sSony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery, a number of mummies began to be discovered in Venzone, Italy. The exact method of their preservation - although it remains a mystery even today - is known to somehow be naturally-caused.[33]

Mummified bodies in the crypt of the Capuchin monastery in Brno, Czech Republic.

About 30 bodies are preserved at the Kapucínská Krypta ("Capuchin crypt") in Brno, including that of Baron Franz von der Trenck.[34] Natural ventilation is thought to be responsible for the desiccation and preservation of the bodiesSony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. The oldest corpse is Kuneš James Rosenthal, who died in 1658.[35]

The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a grave mound in Denmark.

Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as the three Borum Eshøj mummies, the Skrydstrup Woman and the Egtved Girl, who were all found inside burial mounds, or tumulus.

In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties. Through examinationSony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery, the woman was discovered to be around 50–60 years old. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown.[38] The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath of which contained a bronze dagger. All three mummies were dated to 1351–1345. BCESony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery

The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a tumulus in Southern Jutland, in 1935. Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BCE; examination also revealed that she was around 18–19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by sprang technique.[40] She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class. Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery

The Egtved Girl, dated to 1370 BCE, was found also inside a sealed coffin inside of a tumulus, in 1921. She was wearing a bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Also found with the girl were the cremated remains of a child at her feet, and by her head a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an awlSony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery.

The United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark have produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, cold temperature and lack of oxygen combined to tan the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over timeSony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining stomach contents. A famous case is that of the Haraldskær Woman, who was discovered by labourers in a bog in Jutland in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church, Vejle, Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery where she currently remains. Another famous bog body, also from Denmark, known as the Tollund Man was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. To this day, only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head. Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery

The mummy of a six month old boy found in Qilakitsoq

In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month old baby, a four year old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found. Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery The oldest completely preserved mummy in North America is Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi ("Long ago person found" in the Southern Tutchone language of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations), found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park. It was determined that he had died about 550 years ago and that his preserved remains were the oldest discovered in North America. Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery

A momia from Guanajuato

Intentional mummification was uncommon in pre-Columbian Mexico, though some examples have been found. Regardless of context, intentionally mummified remains that have been excavated in Mexico are commonly referred to as Aztec mummies. Public knowledge of Aztec mummies was due to traveling exhibits in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these just as likely used naturally mummified human bodiesSony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery.

Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico, though the most famous are the mummies of Guanajuato.[50] A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at El Museo de las Momias in the city of Guanajuato since 1970. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified fetus).[51] It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate. Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of Encarnación de Díaz, Jalisco.

Main articles: Buddhist mummies and Sokushinbutsu

Monks whose bodies remain incorrupt without any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death. Self-mummification was practiced until the late 1800s in Japan and has been outlawed since the early 1900sSony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery.

Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know their time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting in lotus position, put into a vessel with drying agents (such as wood, paper, or lime) and surrounded by bricks, to be exhumed later, usually after three years. The preserved bodies would then be decorated with paint and adorned with goldSony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery.

Victor H. Mair claims that the self-mummification of a Tibetan monk, who died ca. 1475 and whose body was retrieved relatively incorrupt in the 1970s, was achieved by the sophisticated practices of meditation, coupled with prolonged starvation and slow self-suffocation using a special belt that connected the neck with his knees in a lotus positionSony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery.

Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt, nuts, seeds, roots, pine bark, and urushi tea.[53] Some of them were buried alive in a pine-wood box full of saltSony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery.

Jeremy Bentham wished to be mummified after he died.

In the 1830s, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the "horror at dissection originates in ignorance"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, which despite being mis-preserved, was displayed beneath his feet until theft required it to be stored elsewhere), Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E batterywhich were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and "seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought." His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in the University College LondonSony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery.

During the early 20th century the Russian movement of Cosmism, as represented by Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people. The idea was so popular that, after Vladimir Lenin's death, Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov suggested to cryonically preserve his body and brain in order to revive him in the future.[55] Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery Instead his body was embalmed and placed on permanent exhibition in the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow, where it is displayed to this day. The mausoleum itself was modeled by Aleksey Shchusev on the Pyramid of Djoser and the Tomb of Cyrus.

In the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, mummies were discovered in a cemetery of a city named Guanajuato northwest of Mexico City (near León). They are accidental modern mummies and were literally "dug up" between the years 1896 and 1958 when a local law required relatives of the deceased to pay a kind of grave taxSony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. The Guanajuato mummies are on display in the Museo de las momias, high on a hill overlooking the city. Another notable example of natural mummification in modern times is Christian Friedrich von Kahlbutz (1651–1702), whose body is on exhibit in his native Kampehl.

In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a Dominican church in Vác, Hungary from the 1729–1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery In March 2006, the body of the Greek Orthodox monk Vissarion Korkoliacos was found intact in his tomb, after fifteen years in the grave. The event has led to a dispute between those who believe the preservation to be a miracle and those who claimed the possibility of natural mummification.

In 2010, a team led by forensic archaeologist, Stephen Buckley, mummified Alan Billis using techniques based on 19 years of research of 18th dynasty Egyptian mummification. The process was filmed for television, for the documentary "Mummifying Alan: Egypt's Last Secret"[58][59]

A cat being mummified by SummumSony VAIO PCG-31114M battery.

In 1975, an esoteric organization by the name of Summum introduced "Modern Mummification", a service that uses modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods. The organization considers animals and people to have an essence that continues following the death of the body, and their mummification process is meant to preserve the body as a means to aid the essence as it transitions to a new destinationSony VAIO PCG-31113M battery.

Rather than using a dehydration process that was typical of ancient mummies, Summum uses a chemical process which includes leaving the body submerged in a tank of preservation fluid for several months. Summum claims its process preserves the body so well that the DNA will remain intact far into the future, leaving open the possibility for cloning should science perfect the technique on humansSony VAIO PCG-31112M battery.

The first person to formally undergo Summum's process of modern mummification was the founder of Summum, Summum Bonum Amen Ra aka Corky Ra, who died in January 2008. His body is encased inside a bronze mummiform (casket) that is covered in gold and stands inside the organization's pyramid.[60][61] Summum is further discussed in the book The Scientific Study of Mummies by Arthur C. Aufderheide. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery

[edit]Plastination

Main article: Plastination

Plastination is a technique used in anatomy to conserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample.

The technique was invented by Gunther von Hagens when working at the anatomical institute of the University of Heidelberg in 1978. Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotionSony VAIO PCG-41112M battery, especially as the creator and director of the Body Worlds traveling exhibitions,[64] exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally. He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg.

More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination.[65]

[edit]Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times

In the Middle Ages, based on a mistranslation from the Arabic term for bitumen, it was thought that mummies possessed healing propertiesSony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. As a result, it became common practice to grind Egyptian mummies into a powder to be sold and used as medicine. When actual mummies became unavailable, the sun-desiccated corpses of criminals, slaves and suicidal people were substituted by mendacious merchants.[66] The practice developed into a wide-scale business that flourished until the late 16th century. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties to stop bleedingSONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form as in mellified man.[67] Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; a brownish pigment known as Mummy brown, based on Mummia (sometimes called alternatively Caput mortuum, Latin for death's head), which was originally obtained by grounding human and animal Egyptian mummies. It was most popular in the 17th century, but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists who replaced the said pigment by a totally different blend -but keeping the original nameSONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery, Mummia or Mummy Brown-yielding a similar tint and based on ground minerals(oxides and fired earths) and or blends of powdered gums and oleoresins (such as myrrh and frankincense) as well as ground bitumen. These blends appeared on the market as forgeries of powdered mummy pigment but were ultimately considered as acceptable replacements, once antique mummies were no longer permitted to be destroyed.[68] Many thousands of mummified cats were also sent from Egypt to England to be processed for use in fertilizer. SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery

During the 19th century, following the discovery of the first tombs and artifacts in Egypt, Egyptology was a huge fad in Europe, especially in Victorian England. European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions.[67] These sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrateSONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery.

The use of mummies as fuel for locomotives was documented by Mark Twain,[70] but the truth of the story remains debatable. During the American Civil War, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper.[70][71] Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal.[72][73]

Lon Chaney, Jr. as Kharis in the film The Mummy's Ghost (1944)

In 1939, The Three Stooges spoofed the discovery of King Tutankhamun with their short film "We Want Our Mummy"SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery.

Mummies are commonly featured in horror genres as undead creatures. One of the earliest examples of this is The Mummy!: Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century, an 1827 novel written by Jane C. Loudon. This early, science-fiction work concerns an Egyptian mummy named Cheops, who is brought back in to life in the 22nd centurySONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery.

During the 20th century, horror films and other mass media popularized the notion of a curse associated with mummies (see Curse of the pharaohs). One of the earliest appearances was The Jewel of Seven Stars, a horror novel by Bram Stoker first published in 1903 that concerned an archaeologist's plot to revive an ancient Egyptian mummy. This book later served as the basis for the 1971 film Blood from the Mummy's TombSONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery.

Films representing such a belief include the 1932 movie The Mummy starring Boris Karloff as Imhotep; four subsequent 1940s' Universal Studios mummy films which featured a mummy named Kharis, who also was the title mummy in The Mummy, a 1959 Hammer remake of The Mummy's Hand and The Mummy's Tomb; and a remake of the original film that was released in 1999 (and later spawned two direct sequels and prequels and a spinoff movie) Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. The belief in cursed mummies probably stems in part from the supposed curse on the tomb of Tutankhamun. In 1979, the American Broadcasting Company aired a TV holiday show, The Halloween That Almost Wasn't, in which a mummy from Egypt (Robert Fitch) arrived at Count Dracula's castle without speaking.

Steps of forensic facial reconstruction of a mummy

The 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by archaeologist Howard Carter brought mummies into the mainstreamSONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Slapstick comedy trio the Three Stooges humorously exploited the discovery in the short film We Want Our Mummy, in which they explored the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy). A decade later, they played crooked used chariot salesmen in Mummy's Dummies, in which they ultimately assisted a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache.

Robot mummies featured in a Doctor Who story, Pyramids of Mars, in the 1970s, while the Hammer Horror film series had also included what had become a stock genre characterSONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. A new Hollywood series of films featuring an immortal undead High Priest began with The Mummy in 1999.[74] Even after that the world saw two more Mummy movies- The Mummy Returns 2001 and The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008).

A pyramid (from Greek: πυραμίς pyramis[1]) is a structure whose shape is roughly that of a pyramid in the geometric sense; that is, its outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the topSONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, meaning that a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces (at least four faces including the base). The square pyramid, with square base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version.

A pyramid's design, with the majority of the weight closer to the ground,[2] and with the pyramidion on top means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structuresSONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery.

Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both of Egypt, the latter the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Khufu's Pyramid is built mainly of limestone (with large red granite blocks used in some interior chambers), and is considered an architectural masterpieceSONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. It contains around 1,300,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes (5,500 lb) to 15 tonnes (33,000 lb) and is built on a square base with sides measuring about 230 m (755 ft), covering 13 acres. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees. The original height of the Pyramid was 146.5 m (488 ft), but today it is only 137 m (455 ft) high, the 9 m (33 ft) that is missing is due to the theft of the fine quality white Tura limestone covering, or casing stonesSONY PCG-8113M battery, for construction in Cairo. It is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla.

The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were brightly painted. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex which included other buildingsSONY PCG-8112M battery. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period[3] during the fourth millennium BCE. The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.[4] The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BCE. Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outsideSONY PCG-7134M battery . The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no archaeological evidence for this and the only textual evidence is from Herodotus.[5] Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summitSONY PCG-7131M battery . The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted on the ziggurat or in the rooms at its base, and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests were very powerful members of Sumerian societySONY PCG-7122M battery.

Main article: Egyptian pyramids

The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids — huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped as a reference to the rays of the sun. Most pyramids had a polished, highly reflective white limestone surface, in order to give them a shining appearance when viewed from a distance. The capstone was usually made of hard stone - granite or basalt - and could be plated with gold, silver, or electrum and would also be highly reflective. SONY PCG-7121M battery 

After 2700 BCE, the Egyptians began building pyramids, until about 1700 BCE. The first pyramid was built during the Third Dynasty by king Djoser and his architect Imhotep, as a step pyramid by stacking six mastabas. The largest Egyptian pyramids are the pyramids at Giza. "The Egyptian sun god Ra, considered the father of all pharaohs, was said to have created himself from a pyramid-shaped mound of earth before creating all other gods. The pyramid’s shape is thought to have symbolized the sun’s rays" (Donald B. Redford, Ph.D., Penn State). SONY PCG-7113M battery 

The age of the pyramids reached its zenith at Giza in 2575-2150 BCE.[7] Ancient Egyptian pyramids were in most cases placed western of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh’s soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal round. SONY PCG-7112M battery 

As of 2008, some 135 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.[8][9] The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. Until Lincoln Cathedral was finished in CE 1311, it was the tallest building in the world. The base is over 52,600 square metres (566,000 sq ft) in area. While pyramids are associated with Egypt, the nation of Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most numerous in the world. SONY PCG-8Z3M battery

The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians covered the faces of pyramids with polished white limestone, containing great quantities of fossilized seashells.[11] Many of the facing stones have fallen or have been removed and used for construction in CairoSONY PCG-8Z2M battery.

The ancient pyramids of Egypt

Most pyramids are located near Cairo, with only one royal pyramid being located south of Cairo, at the Abydos temple complex. The pyramid at Abydos, Egypt were commissioned by Ahmose I who founded the 18th Dynasty and the New Kingdom.[12]

The building of pyramids began in the Third Dynasty with the reign of King Djoser.[13] Early kings such as Snefru built several pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number of pyramids until the end of the Middle KingdomSONY PCG-8Z1M battery . The last king to build royal pyramids was Ahmose,[14] with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, like in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's West Bank.[15]

In Medinat Habu, or Deir el-Medina, smaller pyramids were built by individuals. Smaller pyramids were also built by the Nubians who ruled Egypt in the Late Period, though their pyramids had steeper sides.[16]

Nubian Pyramids at Meroe with pylon-like entrances.

Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 220 of them) SONY PCG-8Y3M battery at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of Napata and Meroë. The pyramids of Kush, also known as Nubian Pyramids, have different characteristics than the pyramids of Egypt. The Nubian pyramids were constructed at a steeper angle than Egyptian ones. They were monuments to dead kings and queens.[17] Pyramids were still being built in Sudan as late as CE 300SONY PCG-8Y2M battery.

[edit]Nigeria

One of the unique structures of Igbo culture was the Nsude Pyramids, at the Nigerian town of Nsude, in Abuja, northern Igboland. Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay/mud. The first base section was 60 ft. in circumference and 3 ft. in height. The next stack was 45 ft. in circumference. Circular stacks continued, till it reached the top. The structures were temples for the god Ala/Uto, who was believed to reside at the topSONY PCG-7Z1M battery. A stick was placed at the top to represent the god's residence. The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other. Because it was built of clay/mud like the Deffufa of Nubia, time has taken its toll requiring periodic reconstruction.[18]

Main article: Greek pyramids

Pausanias (2nd century CE) mentions two buildings resembling pyramids, one, 19 kilometres (12 mi) southwest of the still standing structure at Hellenikon,[19] a common tomb for soldiers who died in a legendary struggle for the throne of Argos and another which he was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BCE. Neither of these still survive and there is no evidence that they resembled Egyptian pyramidsSONY PCG-6W2M battery.

Pyramid of Hellinikon

There are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramidsSONY PCG-5J5M battery. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure is rectangular rather than square, 12.5 by 14 metres (41 by 46 ft) which means that the sides could not have met at a point.[20] The stone used to build the pyramids was limestone quarried locally and was cut to fit, not into freestanding blocks like the Great Pyramid of GizaSONY PCG-5K2M battery.

There are no remains or graves in or near the structures. Instead, the rooms that the walls housed were made to be locked from the inside. This coupled with the platform roof, means that one of the functions these structures could have served was as watchtowers. Another possibility for the buildings is that they are shrines to heroes and soldiers of ancient times, but the lock on the inside makes no sense for such a purposeSONY PCG-5K1M battery .

The dating of these "pyramids" has been made from the pot shards excavated from the floor and on the grounds. The latest dates available from scientific dating have been estimated around the 5th and 4th centuries. Normally this technique is used for dating pottery, but here researchers have used it to try to date stone flakes from the walls of the structures. This has created some debate about whether or not these "pyramids" are actually older than EgyptSONY PCG-5J4M battery , which is part of the Black Athena controversy.[21] The basis for their use of thermoluminescence in order to date these structures is a new method of collecting samples for testing. Scientists from laboratories hired out by the recent excavators of the site, The Academy of Athens, say that they can use the electrons trapped on the inner surface of the stones to positively identify the date that the stones were quarried and put together[citation needed].

Mary Lefkowitz has criticised this research. She suggests that some of the research was done not to determine the reliability of the dating methodSONY PCG-5J1M battery, as was suggested, but to back up an assumption of age and to make certain points about pyramids and Greek civilization. She notes that not only are the results not very precise, but that other structures mentioned in the research are not in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is just a long wall, etcSONY PCG-5G2M battery. She also notes the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She also notes that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia was ignored. She argues that they undertook their research using a novel and previously untested methodology in order to confirm a predetermined theory about the age of these structures.[22]

Liritzis responded in a journal article published in 2011, stating that Lefkowitz failed to understand and misinterpreted the methodology. Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery

The Pyramids of Güímar refer to six rectangular pyramid-shaped, terraced structures, built from lava stone without the use of mortar. They are located in the district of Chacona, part of the town of Güímar on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The structures have been dated to the 19th century and their original function explained as a byproduct of contemporary agricultural techniquesSony VAIO PCG-8152M battery.

Local traditions as well as surviving images indicate that similar structures (also known as, "Morras", "Majanos", "Molleros", or "Paredones") could once have been found in many locations on the island. However, over time they have been dismantled and used as a cheap building material. In Güímar itself there were nine pyramids, only six of which surviveSony VAIO PCG-31311M battery.

Ancient Korean tomb in Ji'an, Northeastern China

Main article: Chinese pyramids

There are many square flat-topped mound tombs in China. The First Emperor Qin Shi Huang (circa 221 BCE, who unified the 7 pre-Imperial Kingdoms) was buried under a large mound outside modern day Xi'an. In the following centuries about a dozen more Han Dynasty royals were also buried under flat-topped pyramidal earthworks.

Main article: Mesoamerican pyramids

Pyramid in the Mayan city of Chichen Itza, Mexico

A number of Mesoamerican cultures also built pyramid-shaped structures. Mesoamerican pyramids were usually stepped, with temples on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramidSony VAIO PCG-31111M battery.

The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. This pyramid is considered the largest monument ever constructed anywhere in the world, and is still being excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan is also located in Mexico. There is an unusual pyramid with a circular plan at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from an eruption of the Xitle Volcano in the 1st century BCESony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. There are several circular stepped pyramids called Guachimontones in Teuchitlán, Jalisco as well.

Pyramids in Mexico were often used as places of human sacrifice. For the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed about 80,400 people over the course of four days.[24]

A diagram showing the various components of Eastern North American platform mounds

Many pre-Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large pyramidal earth structures known as platform moundsSony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. Among the largest and best-known of these structures is Monks Mound at the site of Cahokia, which has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Many of the mounds underwent multiple episodes of mound construction at periodic intervals, some becoming quite large. They are believed to have played a central role in the mound-building peoples' religious life and documented uses include semi-public chief's house platforms, public temple platformsSony VAIO PCG-7171M battery, mortuary platforms, charnel house platforms, earth lodge/town house platforms, residence platforms, square ground and rotunda platforms, and dance platforms. Cultures who built substructure mounds include the Troyville culture, Coles Creek culture, Plaquemine culture and Mississippian cultures.

Pyramid of Cestius in Rome

The 27-metre-high Pyramid of Cestius was built by the end of the 1st century BCE and still exists today, close to the Porta San Paolo. Another one, named Meta Romuli, standing in the Ager Vaticanus (today's Borgo), was destroyed at the end of the 15th centurySony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery.

There is also a Roman era pyramid built in Falicon, France.[28] There were many more pyramids built in France in this period.

[edit]Medieval Europe

Pyramids have occasionally been used in Christian architecture of the feudal era, e.g. as the tower of Oviedo's Gothic Cathedral of San Salvador.

The main gopura of the Thanjavur Temple pyramid.

Many giant granite temple pyramids were made in South India during the Chola Empire, many of which are still in religious use today. Examples of such pyramid temples include Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery the Temple of Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. However the largest temple pyramid in the area is Sri Rangam in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu. The Thanjavur temple was built by Raja raja Chola in 11th century. The Brihadisvara Temple was declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1987; the Temple of Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were added as extensions to the site in 2004. Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery

Borobudur, Central Java.

Next to menhir, stone table, and stone statue; Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structures called Punden Berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan, Cisolok and Gunung Padang, West Java. The construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode for the spirit of the ancestorsSony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery.

The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java during late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resemble Mesoamerican pyramidSony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery.

Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada

Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee

Walter Pyramid in Long Beach, California

Palace of Peace and Reconciliation in Astana, Kazakhstan

Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, California

The Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France, in the court of the Louvre Museum, is a 20.6 meter (about 70 foot) glass structure which acts as an entrance to the museum. It was designed by the American architect I. M. Pei and completed in 1989.

The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, United States, is a 30-story true pyramid with light beaming from the topSony VAIO PCG-8161M battery.

The 32-story Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee (a city named after the ancient Egyptian capital whose name itself was derived from the name of one of its pyramids). Built in 1991, it was the home court for the University of Memphis men's basketball program, and the National Basketball Association's Memphis Grizzlies until 2004.

The Walter Pyramid, home of the basketball and volleyball teams of the California State University, Long Beach, campus in CaliforniaSony VAIO PCG-8141M battery, United States, is an 18-story-tall blue true pyramid.

The 48-story Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, California, designed by William Pereira, one of the city's symbols.

The 105-story Ryugyong Hotel in Pyongyang, Northern Korea.

A former museum/monument in Tirana, Albania is commonly known as the "Pyramid of Tirana." It differs from typical pyramids in having a radial rather than square or rectangular shape, and gently sloped sides that make it short in comparison to the size of its base.

The Slovak Radio Building in Bratislava, Slovakia. This building is shaped like an inverted pyramid.

The Summum Pyramid, a 3 story pyramid in Salt Lake City, Utah, used for instruction in the Summum philosophy and conducting rites associated with Modern MummificationSony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery.

The Palace of Peace and Reconciliation in Astana, Kazakhstan.

The Pyramids at Osho Commune in Pune, India (for meditation purposes).

The three pyramids of Moody Gardens in Galveston, Texas.

The Co-Op Bank Pyramid or Stockport Pyramid in Stockport, England is a large pyramid-shaped office block in Stockport in England. (The surrounding part of the valley of the upper Mersey has sometimes been called the "Kings Valley" after the Valley of the Kings in Egypt.)

The Ames Monument in southeastern Wyoming honoring the brothers who financed the Union Pacific RailroadSony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery.

The Ballandean Pyramid, at Ballandean in rural Queensland is a 15 meter folly pyramid made from blocks of local granite.

The Karlsruhe Pyramid is a pyramid made of red sandstone, located in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It was erected in the years 1823–1825 over the vault of the city's founder, Margrave Charles III William (1679–1738).

The GoJa Music Hall in Prague.

The Muttart Conservatory greenhouses in Edmonton, Alberta.

Small pyramids similar to those of the Louvre can be found outside the lobby of the Citicorp Building in Long Island City, Queens NYSony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery

The Pyramids of the City Stars Complex in Cairo, Egypt.

Pyramid building belonging to The Digital Group (TDG), at Hinjwadi, Pune, India.[30]

The Steelcase Corporate Development Center near Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Sunway Pyramid shopping mall in Selangor, Malaysia.

Hanoi Museum with an overall design of a reversed Pyramid.

The Pyramide des Ha! Ha! by artist Jean-Jules Soucy fr:Jean-Jules Soucy in La Baie, Quebec is made out of 3 000 give way signs. Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery

The "Pyramid" culture-entertainment complex and Monument of Kazan siege (Church of Image of Edessa) in Kazan, Russia.

The "Phorum" of Expocentre business-exhibition complex in Moscow, Russia.

Few pyramids of the Marco-city shopping-entertainment complex in Vitebsk, Belarus.[32]

The Time pyramid in Wemding, Germany, a pyramid begun in 1993 and scheduled for completion in the year 3183.[33]

Triangle, a proposed skyscraper in Paris.

The Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid, a proposed project for construction of a massive pyramid over Tokyo Bay in JapanSony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery.

The tomb of Quintino Sella, outside the monumental cemetery of Oropa.

单击此处进行编辑.

Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎ / al-Jumhūrīyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūrīyah  Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south and Israel to the southwest(SONY PCG-5G2L battery). A country of fertile plains, high mountains and deserts, it is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Kurds, Armenians, Assyrians, Christians, Druze, Alawite Shias and Arab Sunnis. The latter make up the majority of the Muslim population.

In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as al-Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era(SONY PCG-5G3L battery), its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world,[6] was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.

The modern Syrian state was established after the First World War as a French mandate, and represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Arab Levant. It gained independence in April 1946(SONY PCG-F305 battery), as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949–1971. Between 1958 and 1961, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt, which was terminated by a military coup. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered to be non-democratic. (SONY PCG-5J1L battery) Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1971.[8]

Syria is a member of one International organization other than the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement; it is currently suspended from the Arab League,[9] the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,[10] and self suspended from the Union for the Mediterranean.[11]

Since March 2011, Syria has been embroiled in civil war in the wake of uprisings (considered an extension of the Arab Spring, the mass movement of revolutions and protests in the Arab world) against Assad and the neo-Ba'athist government(SONY PCG-5J2L battery).

The name Syria is derived from the ancient Greek name for Syrians: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, which the Greeks applied without distinction to the Assyrians.[12][13] A number of modern scholars argued that the Greek word related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.[14] Others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon.[15] However, the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria(SONY PCG-5K2L battery).

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene. (SONY PCG-5L1L battery)

By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Iraq. (SONY PCG-6S2L battery)

Female figurine, Syria, 5000 BC. Ancient Orient Museum.

Since approximately 10,000 BC Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture (PPNA) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime (Vaiselles blanches). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations(SONY PCG-6S3L battery). Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth.

Around the excavated city of Ebla near Idlib in northern Syria, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Anatolia and east to Iraq from 2500 to 2400 BC. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest. (SONY PCG-6V1L battery) Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages, designated as Paleo-Canaanite.[18]

However, more recent classifications of the Eblaite language has shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language.[19] The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; the city was restored, as the nation of the Amorites, a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the Hittites. (SONY PCG-6W1L battery)

Antiquity and early Christian era

Main article: Syria (Roman province)

During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the Sea Peoples. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Northern Canaan (Lebanon). Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh. (SONY PCG-7111L battery)

Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians and Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and the Seleucid Empire. Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64 BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines. (SONY PCG-71511M battery)

The population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).[21]

The Roman Emperor Alexander Severus, who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin Elagabalus, who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal at Emesa (modern Homs) in Syria(SONY PCG-6W3L battery). Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), emperor from 244 to 249.[21]

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys. (Acts 9:1–43 ) (SONY PCG-7113L battery)

Islamic era

Main articles: Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Ayyubid dynasty, Zengid dynasty, and Fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî, built in the early 7th century

By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power dramatically declined during later Ummayad rule; mainly due to the totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions by the oppressed(SONY PCG-7133L battery). The Ummayad dynasty was then overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in 750, who moved the capital of empire to Baghdad.

Arabic — made official under Ummayad rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era. In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and later by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla. (SONY PCG-7Z1L battery)

The 1299 Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. The Mongols under Ghazan defeated the Mamluks.

Sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish overlords during the Crusades of the 12th century, and were known as the Crusader state of the Principality of Antioch. The area was also threatened by Shi'a extremists known as Assassins (Hassassin). Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu needed to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery).

A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt, and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut, in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baibars, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman(SONY PCG-8Y1L battery), appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took the city, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle of Homs, which was won by the Mamluks.[23]

In 1400, Timur Lenk, invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. (SONY PCG-8Y2L battery)By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria.

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Koran, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the baraka (spiritual force or blessing) of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. (SONY PCG-8Z2L battery)]

Ottoman administration followed a unique system that lead to a peaceful coexistence for centuries. Each religious minority — Shia Muslim, Greek Orthodox, Maronite, Armenian, and Jewish—constituted a millet. The religious heads of each community administered all personal status law and performed certain civil functions as well. (SONY PCG-8Z1L battery)

In the midst of World War I two Allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed on the post war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to 'Zone B'(SONY PCG-7112L battery), or the British zone of influence.[citation needed] This border was later recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920[27] and has not changed to this date.

The inauguration of President Hashim al-Atassi in 1936

In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. (SONY PCG-6W2L battery)

In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities(SONY PCG-5K1L battery), although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty.

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi, was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it(SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate. (SONY VGP-BPS9 battery)

Independence and instability

Main articles: Syrian Republic (1930–1958), United Arab Republic, and 1963 Syrian coup d'état

Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War, aligning with the other local Arab states who were attempting to prevent the establishment of the State of Israel.[30] This defeat was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Col. Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World(SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery) since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.[30]

Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup and the parliamentary system was restored,[30] but by this time power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment. (SONY VGP-BPS9A battery) The weakness of parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy, as well as the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies, created fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, who represented disaffected elements of society, notably including religious minorities, and demanded radical reform. (SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery)

In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis,[31] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.[30] This increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war. (SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery)

On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.[29] Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party’s poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee(SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery): its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafez al-Assad. On 28 September 1961, Syria seceded, and the ensuing instability culminated in the 8 March 1963 coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members(SONY VGP-BPL9 battery).

Neo-Ba'athist rule

1966-1970

On 23 February 1966, the Military Committee carried out an intra-party overthrow, imprisoned President Amin Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.[30] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until 1970.[33] The coup led to a split within the original, pan-Arab Ba'ath Party; one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established(SONY VGP-BPS10 battery).

Conflict over the cultivation of disputed lands sparked into 7 April prewar aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.[34] After Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the June 1967 war, Syria joined the battle against Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing the entire Golan Heights in under 48 hours.[35] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next. (SONY VGP-BPL10 battery)

Quneitra village, largely destroyed before the Israeli withdrawal in June 1974.

Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.[37] The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Corrective Movement, a bloodless military overthrow that installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government. (SONY VGP-BPS11 battery)

On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.[39]

In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning the thirty-year Syrian military occupation. Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought for control over Lebanon, and attempted to stop Israel from taking over in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of proxy militias. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005(SONY VGP-BPL11 battery).

In the late 1970s, an Islamic uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, and civilians were also killed in retaliatory strike by security forces. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,[40] when some 10,000 - 40,000 people were killed by regular Syrian Army troops(SONY VGP-BPL12 battery).

Portraits of President Bashar al-Assad, and his father, former President Hafez al-Assad.

In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the US-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. Syria participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000. (SONY VGP-BPS12 battery)

Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected President in an election in which he ran unopposed.[29] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001 the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[42] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms(SONY VGP-BPS13 battery).

On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, charging it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[45] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the towns of Qameshli and Hassakeh.[46] In 2005, Syria ended its occupation of Lebanon.[47] On 6 September 2007, Israeli jet fighters carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians. (SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery)

The ongoing Syrian civil war was inspired by the Arab Spring Revolutions. It began in 2011 as a chain of peaceful protests, followed by a crackdown by the Syrian Army.[49] In July 2011, army defectors declared the formation of the Free Syrian Army and began forming fighting units. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites.[50] According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 60,000 people have been killed, primarily civilians and armed combatants. (SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery) To escape the violence, over 650,000 Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring countries of Jordan,[54] Iraq,[55] Lebanon, and Turkey.

Syria lies between latitudes 32° and 38° N, and longitudes 35° and 43° E. It consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important agricultural areas.[58] The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east(SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of civilization".[59]

The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.[58] Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. (SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery) The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.[29]

Syria is formally a unitary republic. The constitution adopted in 2012 effectively transformed Syria into a semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for individuals to be elected which do not form part of the National Progressive Front. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery) The President is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head of Government.[61] The Peoples Council is the Syria's legislature responsible for passing laws, approving government appropriations and debating policy.[62] While presidency is an independent office, the Government of Syria is subject to the confidence of the Peoples Council in order to govern. In the event of a vote of no confidence by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President. (SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery)

The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents, the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim[64] but does not make Islam the state religion.

The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution(SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery), and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.[65] According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election.

Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,[65] with two thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition. (SONY VGP-BPS21B battery) On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The armed anti-government rebels, however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections. Article 8 of the old Syrian constitution stated that "the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party leads the state and society(SONY VGP-BPS21 battery)." The 2012 constitution does not contain this provision any longer. The President is the Secretary-General of the party, and the leader of the National Progressive Front governing coalition. The minor parties in the coalition are the Arab Socialist Movement, Arab Socialist Union, Communist Party of Syria (Unified), Communist Party of Syria (Bakdash), Social Democratic Unionists, Socialist Unionists, Syrian Social Nationalist Party, Democratic Socialist Unionist Party, Arabic Democratic Unionist Party, National Vow Movement. Outside of the coalition are 14 illegal Kurdish political parties. (SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery)

Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law. (SONY VGP-BPS13S battery) The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[68]

Main article: Human rights in Syria

Syria's human rights situation is currently among the worst in the world, according to human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch.[69] Freedom House ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World survey. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery)

The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread.[71] Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called 'Honour killing'. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery) As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as 2 years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang raped by security services officers.[72][73] People opposing President Assad's rule claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012. (SONY VGP-BPS14 battery)

The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011.[68] It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights.

Syrian soldier wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask aiming a Chinese Type-56 assault rifle

Main article: Military of Syria(SONY VGP-BPL14 battery)

The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.[75] The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.[76] About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades. (SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery)

The breakup of the Soviet Union — long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces — may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s, Scud-C missiles with a 500-kilometer range were procured from North Korea, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometers, is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Zisser. (SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery)

Syria received significant financial aid from Persian Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending.

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Bashar al-Assad's foreign policy(SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian civil war.

Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Gulf States. (SONY VGP-BPS22 battery)

From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Yemen, Lebanon, Sudan, and Iraq. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 2012. Syria continues to foster good relations with her traditional allies, Iran, China, and Russia, who are among the few countries which have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition(SONY VGP-BPS22 battery).

Syria considers the Hatay Province of Turkey as part of its own territory.[79]

Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, although the Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.

The Syrian occupation of Lebanon began in 1976 as a result of the civil war and ended in April 2006 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery).

Syria is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country."[80] The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves.[81] Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture(SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery), rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.[81] The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.[29]

Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange. (SONY VGP-BPS22A battery)

Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development. Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Syria’s economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery)

Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.[83] As of 2012, due to the ongoing Syrian civil war(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery), the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two thirds, from the figure of $12 billion USD in 2010 to only $4 billion USD in 2012.[84]

Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,[85] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.[86]

As of 2012, Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with $5 billion USD lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.[84] Reconstruction needed due to the ongoing civil war will cost as much as $10 billion USD.[84] Sanctions have sapped the government's finance. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery)

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m3/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 140,000 bbl/d (22,000 m3/d) in 2012.[88] Syria exported roughly 200,000 bbl/d (32,000 m3/d) in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country's export income(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery). Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves around 8.5 trillion cubic feet (240 km3). While the government has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced is consumed domestically.[29]

Main article: Transport in Syria

Syria has three international airports (Damascus, Aleppo and Lattakia), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery).

The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Chemins de Fer Syriens (the Syrian railway company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively under developed country Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery)

Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about 99 per km² (258 per square mile). According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers number approximately 1,852,300(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery). The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from the former British Mandate of Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.[92]

Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people, closely related to their immediate neighbours, like Lebanese people, Palestinians, and Jordanians.[93][94] Syrian Arabs, together with some 400,000 UNRWA Palestinian Arabs make up over 90% of the population.[81] In addition, approximately 1,300,000 Iraqi refugees were estimated to live in Syria in 2007.[92] As of 1987, approximately 100,000 Circassians lived in Syria. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery)

Syria also hosts non-Arab ethnic minorities. The largest of these groups, Kurds, constitutes about 9% of the population, or approximately 2 million people.[96] Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the Kurmanji variant of the Kurdish language. The majority of Syrian Turkmen live in Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia and number around 500,000-1,000,000. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery)

The Assyrians/Syriacs number around 877,000 and mainly live in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah), many of whom still retains several Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken languages.[98] Their numbers have been boosted by many Iraqi refugees since the Iraq War.[99] Armenians number approximately 190,000. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery).

The largest concentration of Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil, which has millions of people of Arab ancestry.[100] The majority of Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.

Sunni account for 74% of the population,[102] while 13% are Shia (Alawite, Twelvers, and Ismailis combined),[102] 10% Christian[102] (the majority Antiochian Orthodox, the rest include Greek Catholic, Assyrian Church of the East, Armenian Orthodox, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% Druze.[102] Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of Jabal al-Druze. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery)

President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.[104]

Christians (2.5 million), a sizable number of which are found among Syria's population of Palestinian refugees, are divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox make up 35,7% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Melkite, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Maronite, Chaldean Catholic and Latin) make up 26,2%(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery); the Armenian Apostolic Church 10,9%, the Syrian Orthodox make up 22,4%; Assyrian Church of the East and several smaller Christian denominations account the remainder. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.[105]

Languages

Arabic is the official language. Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life, most notably Levantine in the west, Mesopotamian in the northeast. Kurdish (in its Kurmanji form) is widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery). Armenian and Turkish (South Azeri dialect) are spoken among the Armenian and Turkmen minorities.

Before the advent of Arabic, Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region and is still spoken among Assyrians and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac denominations. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma`loula as well as two neighbouring villages, 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus. Many educated Syrians also speak English and French(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery).

Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.[106] Importance is placed on family, religion, education and self-discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their variations and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery)

The Literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Muhammad Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery).

Ba'ath Party rule, since the 1966 coup, has brought about renewed censorship. In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman, Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian folk narrative, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery). Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent.

The Music of Syria and its capital, Damascus, has long been one of the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of classical Arab music. Syria has also produced several pan-Arab stars, including Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash and singer Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for its muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as popular stars like Sabah Fakhri(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery).

Television in Syria was formed in 1960, when Syria and Egypt (which adopted television that same year) were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcasted in black and white until 1976. Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.[108]

Nearly all of Syria’s media outlets are state owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers.[109] The authorities operate several intelligence agencies[110] among them Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya, employing a large number of operatives. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery)

Sports

The most popular sports in Syria are football, basketball, swimming, and tennis. Damascus was home to the fifth and seventh Pan Arab Games. Many popular football teams are based in Damascus, Aleppo, Homs, Latakia, etc.

The Abbasiyyin Stadium in Damascus is home to the Syrian national football team. The team enjoyed some success, having qualified for four Asian Cup competitions. The team's first international was on 20 November 1949, losing to Turkey 7–0. The team was ranked 115th in the world by FIFA as of November 2011(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery).

The Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients and is linked to the region of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves, the word yapra' derıves from the Turkish word 'yaprak' meaning leaf) (Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery).

The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, pastırma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'œuvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze(Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery).

Drinks in Syria vary depending on the time of the day and the occasion. Arabic coffee, also known as Turkish coffee is the most well-known hot drink usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. Arak, an alcoholic drink, is also a well-known beverage served mostly on special occasions. More examples of Syrian beverages include Ayran, Jallab, White coffee, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark. (Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery)

Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females(Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery).

Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party.[115]

There are 6 state universities in Syria,[116] and 15 private universities.[117] The top two state universities are University of Damascus (180,000 students),[118] and University of Aleppo.[119] The top private universities in Syria are: Syrian Private University, Arab International University, University of Kalamoon and International University for Science and Technology(Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). There are also many higher institutes in Syria like the Higher Institute of Business Administration which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.

Damascus (Arabic: دمشق‎ Dimashq, Metropolitan Arabic: Dimisheʼ ), commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham (Arabic: الشام‎ ash-Shām) and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine (Arabic: مدينة الياسمين‎ Madīnat al-Yāsmīn), is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo. It borders Quneitra, Daraa and As-Suwayda to the south, Jordan to the east, Homs to the north, and Lebanon to the west(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). It is also the capital city of one of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of the Levant. The city has an estimated population of 1,711,000 (2009 est.).[1]

Located in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area of 2.6 million people (2004).[3] Geographically embedded on the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range 80 kilometres (50 mi) inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level, Damascus experiences a semi-arid climate due to the rain shadow effect. The Barada River flows through Damascus(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery).

First settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery). Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries. During the ongoing civil war in Syria, Damascus has witnessed intense anti-government protests and violent government responses in which hundreds of people died.

The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC.[4] The etymology of the ancient name "T-m-ś-q" is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery). It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq (דמשק) in Old Aramaic and Dammeśeq (דמשק) in Biblical Hebrew. The Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name often include an intrusive resh (letter r), perhaps influenced by the root dr, meaning "dwelling". Thus, the Qumranic Darmeśeq (דרמשק), and Darmsûq (ܕܪܡܣܘܩ) in Syriac.[5][6] The English and Latin name of the city is "Damascus" which was imported from Greek: Δαμασκός, which originated in Aramaic: דרמשק‎;(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery) "a well-watered place".[7][8] In Arabic, the city is called Dimashqu sh-Shām (دمشق الشام), although this is often shortened to either Dimashq or ash-Shām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbors. Ash-Shām is an Arabic term for "Levant" and for "Syria"; the latter, and particularly historical Greater Syria, is called Bilādu sh-Shām (بلاد الشام / "land of the Levant").

Carbon-14 dating at Tell Ramad, on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC.[9] However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists, although no large-scale settlement was present within Damascus walls until the second millennium BC. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery)

Damascus was part of the ancient province of Amurru in the Hyksos Kingdom, from 1720 to 1570 BC.[11] Some of the earliest Egyptian records are from the 1350 BC Amarna letters, when Damascus-(called Dimasqu) was ruled by king Biryawaza. The Damascus region, as well as the rest of Syria, became a battleground circa 1260 BC, between the Hittites from the north and the Egyptians from the south,[12] ending with a signed treaty between Hattusili and Ramesses II where the former handed over control of the Damascus area to Ramesses II in 1259 BC. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery) The arrival of the Sea Peoples, around 1200 BC, marked the end of the Bronze Age in the region and brought about new development of warfare.[13] Damascus was only the peripheral part of this picture which mostly affected the larger population centers of ancient Syria. However, these events had contributed to the development of Damascus as a new influential center that emerged with the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery)

Damascus is mentioned in Genesis 14:15 as existing at the time of the War of the Kings.[14] (However, the verse can also be understood to mean that Damascus existed when Genesis was written – by tradition around the 13th century BC, and several centuries later according to some[who?] scholars – regardless of whether Damascus existed at the time of the War of the Kings.) (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) According to the 1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, Damascus (along with Trachonitis), was founded by Uz, the son of Aram. Elsewhere,[where?] he stated:

Nicolaus of Damascus, in the fourth book of his History, says thus: "Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of Canaan(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery), but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham.

Damascus is not documented as an important city until the arrival of the Aramaeans, Semitic people from Mesopotamia(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery), in the 11th century BC. By the start of the 1st millennium BC, several Aramaic kingdoms were formed, as Aramaeans abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and formed federated tribal states. One of these kingdoms was Aram-Damascus, centered on its capital Damascus.[15] The Aramaeans who entered the city without battle, adopted the name "Dimashqu" for their new home. Noticing the agricultural potential of the still-undeveloped and sparsely populated area, (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery) they established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the river Barada. The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of the city today.[17] The Aramaeans initially turned Damascus into an outpost of a loose federation of Aramaean tribes, known as Aram-Zobah, based in the Beqaa Valley. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery)

The city would gain preeminence in southern Syria when Ezron, the claimant to Aram-Zobah's throne who was denied kingship of the federation, fled Beqaa and captured Damascus by force in 965 BC. Ezron overthrew the city's tribal governor and founded the independent entity of Aram-Damascus. As this new state expanded south, it prevented the Kingdom of Israel from spreading north and the two kingdoms soon clashed as they both sought to dominate trading hegemony in the east. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery) Under Ezron's grandson, Ben-Hadad I (880–841 BC), and his successor Hazael, Damascus annexed Bashan (modern-day Hauran region), and went on the offensive with Israel. This conflict continued until the early 8th century BC when Ben-Hadad II was captured by Israel after unsuccessfully besieging Samaria. As a result, he granted Israel trading rights in Damascus. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery)

Another possible reason for the treaty between Aram-Damascus and Israel was the common threat of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was attempting to expand into the Mediterranean coast. In 853 BC, King Hadadezer of Damascus led a Levantine coalition, that included forces from the northern Aram-Hamath kingdom and troops supplied by King Ahab of Israel, in the Battle of Qarqar against the Neo-Assyrian army. Aram-Damascus came out victorious(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery), temporarily preventing the Assyrians from encroaching into Syria. However, after Hadadzezer was killed by his successor, Hazael II, the Levantine alliance collapsed. Aram-Damascus attempted to invade Israel, but was interrupted by the renewed Assyrian invasion. Hazael ordered a retreat to the walled part of Damascus while the Assyrians plundered the remainder of the kingdom. Unable to enter the city, they declared their supremacy in the Hauran and Beqa'a valleys. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery)

By the 8th century BC, Damascus was practically engulfed by the Assyrians and entered a dark age. Nonetheless, it remained the economic and cultural center of the Near East as well as the Arameaen resistance. In 727, a revolt took place in the city, but was put down by Assyrian forces. After Assyria went on a wide-scale campaign of quelling revolts throughout Syria, Damascus became totally subjugated by their rule(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). A positive effect of this was stability for the city and benefits from the spice and incense trade with Arabia. However, Assyrian authority was dwindling by 609–605 BC, and Syria-Palestine was falling into the orbit of Pharaoh Necho II's Egypt. In 572, all of Syria had been conquered by the Neo-Babylonians, but the status of Damascus under Babylon is relatively unknown. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery)

The Straight Street of Damascus, the Biblical "Street called Straight"

Damascus was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires. The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other. Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals, made Antioch the capital of his vast empire, which led to the decline of Damascus' importance compared with new Seleucid cities such as Latakia in the north(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). Later, Demetrius III Philopator rebuilt the city according to the Greek hippodamian system and renamed it "Demetrias".

In 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey annexed the western part of Syria. The Romans occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the Decapolis because it was considered such an important center of Greco-Roman culture. According to the New Testament, Saint Paul was on the road to Damascus when he received a vision of Jesus(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), and as a result accepted Him as the Messiah. In the year 37, Roman Emperor Caligula transferred Damascus to Nabataean control by decree.[citation needed] The Nabataean king Aretas IV Philopatris ruled Damascus from his capital Petra. However, around the year 106, Nabataea was conquered by the Romans, and Damascus returned to Roman control(Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery).

Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the 2nd century and in 222 it was upgraded to a colonia by the Emperor Septimius Severus. During the Pax Romana, Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper. Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern Arabia, Palmyra, Petra, and the silk routes from China all converging on it. The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).

Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect. The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) by 750 metres (2,460 ft), surrounded by a city wall. The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate (Bab Sharqi) remains from the Roman period. Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to five meters (16.4 ft) below the modern city(Sony VGN-NR110E Battery).

The old borough of Bab Tuma was developed at the end of the Roman/Byzantine era by the local Eastern Orthodox community. According to the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Paul and Saint Thomas both lived in that neighborhood. Roman Catholic historians also consider Bab Tuma to be the birthplace of several Popes such as John V and Gregory III(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).

After most of the Syrian countryside was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the reign of Caliph Umar, Damascus itself was conquered by the Muslim-Arab general Khalid ibn al-Walid in September–August 635 CE. His army had previously attempted to capture the city in April 634, but without success.[20] With Damascus now in Muslim-Arab hands, the Byzantines, alarmed at the loss of their most prestigious city in the Near East, had decided to wrest back control of it(Sony VGN-CR11S Battery). Under Emperor Heraclius, the Byzantines fielded an army superior to that of the Rashidun in manpower. They advanced into southern Syria during the spring of 636 and consequently Khalid ibn al-Walid's forces withdrew from Damascus to prepare for renewed confrontation.[21] In August, the two powers met along the Yarmouk River where they a fought a major battle which ended in a decisive Muslim victory, solidifying the latter's rule in Syria and Palestine. (Sony VGN-CR11M Battery)

While the Muslims administrated the city, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—Eastern Orthodox and Monophysite—with a growing community of Muslims from Mecca, Medina, and the Syrian Desert.[23] The governor assigned to the city which had been chosen as the capital of Islamic Syria was Mu'awiya I. After the death of Caliph Ali in 661, Mu'awiya was chosen as the caliph of the expanding Islamic empire(Sony VGN-CR11E Battery). Because of the vast amounts of assets his clan, the Ummayads, owned in the city and because of its traditional economic and social links with the Hijaz as well as the Christian Arab tribes of the region, Mu'awiya established Damascus as the capital of the entire Caliphate.[24] With the ascension of Caliph Abd al-Malik in 685, an Islamic coinage system was introduced and all of the surplus revenue of the Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery). Arabic was also established as the official language, giving the Muslim minority of the city an advantage over the Aramaic-speaking Christians in administrative affairs.[25] It is critical to note that, at the time Damascus was conquered by the Muslims, the majority of Arabs were either pagans or Christians. Damascus itself was predominantly Aramaic with Arab speaking people(Sony VGN-CR21S Battery).

Abd al-Malik's successor, al-Walid initiated construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus (known as the Umayyad Mosque) in 706. The site originally had been the Christian Cathedral of St. John and the Muslims maintained the building's dedication to John the Baptist.[26] By 715, the mosque was complete. Al-Walid died that same year and he was succeeded at first by Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Umar II(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery), who each ruled for brief periods before the reign of Hisham in 724. With these successions, the status of Damascus was gradually weakening as Suleiman had chosen Ramla as his residence and later Hisham chose Rusafa. Following the murder of the latter in 743, the Caliphate of the Umayyads—which by then stretched from Spain to India— was crumbling as a result of widespread revolts. During the reign of Marwan II in 744, the capital of the empire was relocated to Harran in the northern Jazira region. (Sony VGN-CR31S Battery)

The dome of Damascus' treasury in the Umayyad Mosque

On 25 August 750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the Battle of the Zab in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by Baghdad, the new Islamic capital. Within the first six months of Abbasid rule, revolts began erupting in the city, albeit too isolated and unfocused to present a viable threat(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). Nonetheless, the last of the prominent Umayyads were executed, the traditional officials of Damascus ostracized, and army generals from the city were dismissed. Afterward, the Umayyad family cemetery was desecrated and the city walls were torn down, reducing Damascus into a provincial town of little importance. It roughly disappeared from written records for the next century and the only significant improvement of the city was the Abbasid-built treasury dome in the Umayyad Mosque in 789. In 811, distant remnants of the Umayyad dynasty staged a strong uprising in Damascus that was eventually put down. (Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery)

Ahmad ibn Tulun, a dissenting Turkish governor appointed by the Abbasids, conquered Syria, including Damascus, from his overlords in 878-79. In an act of respect for the previous Umayyad rulers, he erected a shrine on the site of Mu'awiya's grave in the city. Tulunid rule of Damascus was brief, lasting only until 906 before being replaced by the Qarmatians who were adherents of Shia Islam. Due to their inability to control the vast amount of land they occupied(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery), the Qarmatians withdrew from Damascus and a new dynasty, the Ikhshidids, took control of the city. They maintained the independence of Damascus from the Arab Hamdanid dynasty of Aleppo and the Baghdad-based Abbasids until 967. A period of instability in the city followed, with a Qarmatian raid in 968, a Byzantine raid in 970, and increasing pressures from the Fatimids in the south and the Hamdanids in the north. (Sony VGN-CR41S Battery)

The Shia Fatimids gained control in 970, inflaming hostilities between them and the Sunni Arabs of the city who frequently revolted. A Turk, Alp Takin drove out the Fatimids five years later, and through diplomacy, prevented the Byzantines from attempting to annex the city. However, by 977, the Fatimids under Caliph al-Aziz, wrested back control of the city and tamed Sunni dissidents. The Arab geographer, al-Muqaddasi, visited Damascus in 985(Sony VGN-CR41E Battery), remarking that the architecture and infrastructure of the city was "magnificent", but living conditions were awful. Under al-Aziz, the city saw a brief period of stability that ended with the reign of al-Hakim (996–1021). In 998, Hundreds of Damascene leaders were rounded up and executed by him for incitement. Three years after al-Hakim's mysterious disappearance, the Arab tribes of southern Syria formed an alliance to stage a massive rebellion against the Fatimids, but they were crushed by the Fatimid Turkish governor of Syria and Palestine(Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery), Anushtakin al-Duzbari, in 1029. This victory gave the latter mastery over Syria, displeasing his Fatimid overlords, but gaining the admiration of Damascus' citizens. He was exiled by Fatimid authorities to Aleppo where he died in 1041.[30] From that date to 1063, there are no known records of the city's history. By then, Damascus lacked a city administration, had an enfeebled economy, and a greatly reduced population. (Sony VGN-CR42S Battery)

With the arrival of the Seljuq Turks in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I starting in 1079 and he was succeeded by his son Abu Nasr Duqaq in 1095. The Seljuqs established a court in Damascus and a systematic reversal of Shia inroads in the city. The city also saw an expansion of religious life through private endowments financing religious institutions (madrasas) and hospitals (maristans) (Sony VGN-CR42E Battery). Damascus soon became one of the most important centers of propagating Islamic thought in the Muslim world. After Duqaq's death in 1104, his mentor (atabeg), Toghtekin, took control of Damascus and the Burid line of the Seljuq dynasty. Under Duqaq and Toghtekin, Damascus experienced stability, elevated status and a revived role in commerce. In addition, the city's Sunni majority enjoyed being a part of the larger Sunni framework effectively governed by various Turkic dynasties who in turn were under the moral authority of the Baghdad-based Abbasids. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery)

While the rulers of Damascus were preoccupied in conflict with their fellow Seljuqs in Aleppo and Diyarbakir, the Crusaders, who arrived in the Levant in 1097, conquered Jerusalem, Mount Lebanon and Palestine. Duqaq seemed to have been content with Crusader rule as a buffer between his dominion and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Toghtekin, however, saw the Western invaders as a viable threat to Damascus which, at the time, nominally included Homs(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery), the Beqaa Valley, Hauran, and the Golan Heights a part of its territories. With military support from Sharaf al-Din Mawdud of Mosul, Toghtekin managed to halt Crusader raids in the Golan and Hauran. Mawdud was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque in 1109, depriving Damascus of northern Muslim backing and forcing Toghtekin to agree to a truce with the Crusaders in 1110.[33]

Following Tughtakin's death in 1128, his son, Taj al-Din Buri, became the nominal ruler of Damascus. Coincidentally, the Seljuq prince of Mosul, Imad al-Din Zengi, took power in Aleppo and gained a mandate from the Abbasids to extend his authority to Damascus(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). In 1129, around 6,000 Isma'ili Muslims were killed in the city along with their leaders. The Sunnis were provoked by rumors alleging there was a plot by the Isma'ilis, who controlled the strategic fort at Banias, to aid the Crusaders in capturing Damascus in return for control of Tyre. Soon after the massacre, the Crusaders aimed to take advantage of the unstable situation and launch an assault against Damascus with nearly 60,000 troops. However, Buri allied with Zengi and managed to prevent their army from reaching the city. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery) Buri was assassinated by Isma'ili agents in 1132; he was succeeded by his son, Shams al-Mulk Isma'il who ruled tyrannically until he himself was murdered in 1135 on secret orders from his mother, Safwat al-Mulk Zumurrud; Isma'il's brother, Shihab al-Din Mahmud, replaced him. Meanwhile, Zengi, intent on putting Damascus under his control, married Safwat al-Mulk in 1138. Mahmud's reign then ended in 1139 after he was killed for relatively unknown reasons by members of his family. Mu'in al-Din Unur, his mamluk ("slave soldier") took effective power of the city(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery), prompting Zengi—with Safwat al-Mulk's backing—to lay siege against Damascus the same year. In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem to resist Zengi's forces. Consequently, Zengi withdrew his army and focused on campaigns against northern Syria.[35]

In 1144 Zengi conquered Edessa, a crusader stronghold, which led to a new crusade from Europe in 1148. In the meantime Zengi was assassinated and his territory was divided among his sons, one of whom, Nur ad-Din, emir of Aleppo, made an alliance with Damascus(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). When the European crusaders arrived, they and the nobles of Jerusalem agreed to attack Damascus. Their siege, however, was a complete failure. When the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls, and were driven back. By 1154, Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control.[36]

The Statue of Saladin near the Citadel of Damascus(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery).

In 1164, King Amalric of Jerusalem invaded Fatimid Egypt, which requested help from Nur ad-Din. The Nur ad-Din sent his general Shirkuh, and in 1166 Amalric was defeated at the Battle of al-Babein. When Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as Saladin, who defeated a joint crusader-Byzantine siege of Damietta.[37] Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery). He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions.[38] In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the Battle of Montgisard, despite his numerical superiority.[39] Saladin also besieged Kerak in 1183, but was forced to withdraw. He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery), and annihilated the crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in July. Acre fell to Saladin soon after, and Jerusalem itself was captured in October. These events shocked Europe, resulting in the Third Crusade in 1189, led by Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, though the last drowned en route.[40]

The surviving crusaders, joined by new arrivals from Europe, put Acre to a lengthy siege which lasted until 1191(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery). After re-capturing Acre, Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf in 1191 and the Battle of Jaffa in 1192, recovering most of the coast for the Christians, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom. The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the Treaty of Ramla in 1192. Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the crusaders to fulfill their vows, after which they all returned home. The native crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery)

Saladin died in 1193, and there were frequent conflicts between different Ayyubid sultans ruling in Damascus and Cairo. Damascus was the capital of independent Ayyubid rulers between 1193 and 1201, from 1218 to 1238, from 1239 to 1245, and from 1250 to 1260. At other times it was ruled by the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt. The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the Silk Road, gave the English language "damask"(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery).

Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1260, and following the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut in the same year, Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire, ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal. The Black Death of 1348–1349 killed as much as half of the city's population. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery)

In 1400 Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, besieged Damascus. The Mamluk sultan dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including Ibn Khaldun, who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal he put the city to sack. The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at Samarkand. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name burj al-ru'us, originally "the tower of heads"(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery).

Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until 1516.

In early 1516, the Ottoman Turks, wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian Safavids, started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On 21 September, the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on 2 October the khutba in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of Selim I. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On 15 December(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery), he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, tekkiye and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi in al-Salihiyah. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery).

The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great Hajj caravans to Mecca, Damascus was treated with more attention by the Porte than its size might have warranted—for most of this period, Aleppo was more populous and commercially more important. In 1560 the Tekkiye al-Sulaimaniyah, a mosque and khan for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, and soon afterwards a madrasa was built adjoining it(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery).

Under Ottoman rule, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis and were allowed to practice their religious precepts. The Damascus affair that took place in 1840 was an incident in which the accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus. In addition the massacre of Christians in 1860 was also one of the most notorious incidents of these centuries, when fighting between Druze and Maronites in Mount Lebanon spilled over into the city(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery). Several thousand Christians were killed, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile Abd al-Qadir and his soldiers (three days after the massacre started), who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the citadel. The Christian quarter of the old city (mostly inhabited by Catholics), including a number of churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls (mostly Orthodox) were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbours(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery).

American Missionary E.C. Miller records that in 1867 the population of the city was 'about' 140,000, of whom 30,000 were Christians, 10,000 Jews and 100,000 'Mohammedans' with fewer than 100 Protestant Christians.[43]

Damascus in flames as a result of the French air raid on 18 October 1925

In the early years of the 20th century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political colouring, largely in reaction to the turkicisation programme of the Committee of Union and Progress government established in Istanbul in 1908(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery). The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha, governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916 further stoked nationalist feeling, and in 1918, as the forces of the Arab Revolt and the British Imperial forces approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.

On 1 October 1918, T. E. Lawrence entered Damascus, the third arrival of the day, the first being the 3rd Australian Light Brigade, led by Major A.C.N. 'Harrry' Olden.[44] Two days later, 3 October 1918, the forces of the Arab revolt led by Prince Faysal also entered Damascus. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery) A military government under Shukri Pasha was named and Faisal ibn Hussein was proclaimed king of Syria. Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new Bolshevik government in Russia revealed the Sykes-Picot Agreement whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the "complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks." (Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery) The Syrian National Congress in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the Versailles Conference had granted France a mandate over Syria, and in 1920 a French army commanded by the General Mariano Goybet crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the Battle of Maysalun and entered Damascus. The French made Damascus capital of their League of Nations Mandate for Syria(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery).

When in 1925 the Druze revolt in the Hauran spread to Damascus, the French suppressed it brutally, bombing and shelling the city on 9 May 1926. As a result the area of the old city between Al-Hamidiyah Souq and Medhat Pasha Souq was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as al-Hariqa ("the fire"). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armored cars(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery).

On 21 June 1941, 3 weeks into the Allied Syria-Lebanon campaign, Damascus was captured from the Vichy French forces by a mixed British Indian and Free French force.

On 29 May 1945, the French once more bombed Damascus, but on this occasion British forces intervened and the French agreed to withdraw, thus leading to the full independence of Syria in 1946. Damascus remained the capital(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery).

Main articles: Syrian civil war and Damascus clashes (2011–present)

See also: Casualties of the Syrian civil war

The uprising started with peaceful protests in the spring of 2011 and had grown to a civil war over the past year. On 6 January 2012, a car bomb exploded in Damascus killing over than 26 people, most of them civilians. State media said it was a suicide attack and blamed terrorists.[46] In January 2012, clashes between the regular army and rebels reached the outskirts of Damascus, reportedly preventing people from leaving or reaching their houses, especially when security operations there intensified from the end of January into February. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery)

On 17 March 2012, twin car bombs hit the heart of the city, targeting the Air Force Intelligence Service and the headquarters of the Security Forces killing at least 27 people, most of them civilians.[48] An Islamic Jihadi faction called "Jabhat al-Nusra" claimed responsibility for the bomb attacks.[49] In the early morning of 19 March, firefights and explosions broke out in the West Villas section of the heavily guarded and upscale Mezzeh neighborhood. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery)

By June 2012, bullets and shrapnel shells smashed into homes in Damascus overnight as troops battled the Free Syrian Army in the streets. At least three tank shells slammed into residential areas in the central Damascus neighborhood of Qaboun, according to activist. Intense exchanges of assault-rifle fire marked the clash, according to residents and amateur video posted online.[51]

Since the Battle of Damascus, the city has witnessed a security crackdown(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery). Checkpoints have sprung up in the city, and the sight of red dirt spilling from sandbags and IDs held out the window, of Kalashnikov-toting Shabiha and soldiers have become widespread. Traffic jams, like unemployment, became widespread and countryside refugees sleep in city parks.

Damascus in spring seen from Spot satellite

Damascus lies about 80 km (50 mi) inland from the Mediterranean, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon mountains. It lies on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level. The city has an area of 105 km2 (41 sq mi), out of which 77 km2 (30 sq mi) is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery)

One of the rare periods the Barada river is high, seen here next to the Four Seasons hotel in downtown Damascus

The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river Barada which is almost dry (3 cm left). To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighborhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery). In the 19th century outlying villages developed on the slopes of Jabal Qasioun, overlooking the city, already the site of the al-Salihiyah neighborhood centred around the important shrine of Sheikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi. These new neighborhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as al-Akrad (the Kurds) and al-Muhajirin (the migrants). They lay two to three kilometres (2 mi) north of the old city(Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery).

From the late 19th century on, a modern administrative and commercial centre began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centred on the area known as al-Marjeh or the meadow. Al-Marjeh soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall on it. The courts of justice, post office and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanised residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Marjeh and al-Salihiyah(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery). The commercial and administrative centre of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.

In the 20th century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis. From 1955 the new neighborhood of Yarmouk became a second home to thousands of Palestinian refugees. City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later 20th century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezzeh neighborhood and most recently along the Barada valley in Dummar in the north west and on the slopes of the mountains at Berze in the north-east(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery). Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.

Damascus used to be surrounded by an oasis, the Ghouta region (الغوطة al-ġūṭä), watered by the Barada river. The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, used to provide the city with drinking water. The Ghouta oasis has been decreasing in size with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city and it is almost dry. It has also become polluted due to the city's traffic, industry, and sewage(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery).

Damascus has a hot arid climate (Köppen Bsh), due to the rain shadow effect of the Anti-Lebanon mountains[53] and the prevailing ocean currents. Summers are dry and hot with less humidity. Winters are mild and comparatively rainy, sometimes snowy. Annual rainfall is around 130 mm (5 in), occurring from October to May(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery).

The historical role that Damascus played as an important trade center has changed in recent years due to political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade.[57] Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to Countries of the Arabian peninsula.[57] Damascus also holds an annual international trade exposition in the fall since 1955. (SONY VGP-BPS10A battery)

Damascus has the potential for a highly successful tourism industry. The abundance of cultural wealth in Damascus has been modestly employed since the late 1980s with the development of many accommodation and transportation establishments and other related investments.[57] Since the early 2000s, numerous boutique hotels and bustling cafes opened in the old city which attract plenty of European tourists and Damascenes alike. (SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery)

The real-estate sector is booming in Damascus. Real-estate adviser Cushman & Wakefield listed Damascus office space as the eighth most expensive in the world in 2009.[59] The office market in Damascus is rather immature and the demand for premium office space surpasses supply. However, new supply of office space is expected to be delivered in 2009.[60] Damascus is home to a wide range of industrial activity, such as Textile, food processing(SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery), Cement and various Chemical industries.[57] The majority of factories are run by the state, however. Limited privatization in addition to economic activities let by the private sector were permitted starting in the early 2000s with the liberalization of trade that took place.[57] Traditional handcrafts and artisan copper engraving are still produced in the old city.[57]

The Damascus stock exchange formally opened for trade in March 2009, and the exchange is the only stock exchanges in Syria. (SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery) It is currently located in the Barzeh district, within Syria's financial markets and securities commission. Its final home is to be the upmarket business district of Yaafur.[62]

Three Damascene women; lady wearing qabqabs, a Druze, and a peasant, 1873

The estimated population of Damascus in 2011 was 1,711,000. But Damascus is the centre of an over-crowded metropolitan area with an estimated population of 5 million. The metropolitan area of Damascus includes the cities of Douma, Harasta, Darayya, Al-Tall and Jaramana.

The majority of the inhabitants of Damascus—about 85%—are Muslims, of which more than half (65%) are Sunni Muslims, the remainder being alawites(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E battery), shiites and Muslims of other heterodox sects. It is believed that there are more than 2,000 mosques in Damascus, the most well-known being the Umayyad Mosque.[63][verification needed] Christians represent 10% of the population.[citation needed] There are few Christian districts in the city, such as Bab Tuma, Qassaa and Ghassani, with many churches, most notably the ancient Chapel of Saint Paul. At the suburb Soufanieh a series of apparitions of the Virgin Mary have reportedly been observed between 1982 and 2004. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L battery)

There is a small Jewish community namely in what is called Haret al-Yahud the Jewish quarter. They are the remnants of an ancient and much larger Jewish presence in Syria, dating back at least to Roman times, if not before to the time of King David.[65]

Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet (2.4 m) (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M battery) below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The Damascus Straight Street (referred to in the conversion of St. Paul in Acts 9:11), also known as the Via Recta, was the decumanus (East-West main street) of Roman Damascus, and extended for over 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Tuma (St. Thomas's Gate). Medhat Pasha Souq is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Midhat Pasha(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S battery), the Ottoman governor of Syria who renovated the Souk. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of Ananias, an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the body of St. John the Baptist. The mausoleum where Saladin was buried is located in the gardens just outside the mosque(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G battery). Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque, the shrine of the youngest daughter of Husayn ibn Ali, can also be found near the Umayyad Mosque. The ancient district of Amara is also within a walking distance from these sites. Another heavily visited site is Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque, where the tomb of Zaynab bint Ali is located.

Shias, Fatemids and Dawoodi Bohras believe that after the battle of Karbala (680 AD), in Iraq, the Ummayad caliph Yezid brought Imam Husain's head to Damascus, where it was first kept in the courtyard of Yezid Mahal(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L battery), now part of Umayyad Mosque complex. All other remaining members of Imam Husain's family (left alive after Karbala) along with heads of all other companions, who were killed at Karbala, were also brought to Damascus. These members were kept as prisoners on the outskirts of the city (near Bab al-Saghir), where the other heads were kept at the same location, now called "Raous-us-sohda-e-karbala", visited by all Shias. There is a qibla (place of worship) marked at the place, where Imam Ali-Zain-ul-Abedin used to pray while in captivity(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E battery).

The Old City of Damascus with an approximate area of 128 hectares[66] is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are seven extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel:

Bab Sharqi ("eastern gate") in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan

Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate has been closed and turned into Saint Paul Chapel marking this event(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E/B battery),

Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souk Midhat Pasha, in the south-west.

Other areas outside the walled city also bear the name "gate": Bab al-Faraj, Bab Mousalla and Bab Sreija, both to the south-west of the walled city.

Due to the rapid decline of the population of Old Damascus (between 1995–2005 more than 20,000 people moved out of the old city for more modern accommodation), a growing number of buildings are being abandoned or are falling into disrepair. In March 2007, the local government announced that it would be demolishing Old City buildings along a 1,400-metre (4,600 ft) stretch of rampart walls as part of a redevelopment scheme(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18E battery). These factors resulted in the Old City being placed by the World Monuments Fund on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world. It is hoped that its inclusion on the list will draw more public awareness to these significant threats to the future of the historic Old City of Damascus.

[edit]Current state of old Damascus

In spite of the recommendations of the UNESCO World Heritage Center:[67]

Souk El Atik, a protected buffer zone, was destroyed in three days in November 2006;

King Faysal Street, a traditional hand-craft region in a protected buffer zone near the walls of Old Damascus between the Citadel and Bab Touma, is threatened by a proposed motorway(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18G battery).

In 2007, the Old City of Damascus and notably the district of Bab Tuma have been recognized by The World Monument Fund as one of the most endangered sites in the world.[68]

In October 2010, Global Heritage Fund named Damascus one of 12 cultural heritage sites most "on the verge" of irreparable loss and destruction.[69]

The main airport is Damascus International Airport, approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) away from the city, with connections to many Asian, European, African, and recently, South American cities. Streets in Damascus are often narrow, especially in the older parts of the city, and speed bumps are widely used to limit the speed of vehicles(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18S battery).

Public transport in Damascus depends extensively on minibuses. There are about one hundred lines that operate inside the city and some of them extend from the city center to nearby suburbs. There is no schedule for the lines, and due to the limited number of official bus stops, buses will usually stop wherever a passenger needs to get on or off. The number of buses serving the same line is relatively high, which minimizes the waiting time(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18T battery). Lines are not numbered, rather they are given captions mostly indicating the two end points and possibly an important station along the line and Taxicab.

Served by Chemins de Fer Syriens, the former main railway station of Damascus was al-Hejaz railway station, about 1 km west of the old city. The station is now defunct and the tracks have been removed, but there still is a ticket counter and a shuttle to Damacus Kadam station in the south of the city, which now functions as the main railway station(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E battery).

In 2008, the government announced a plan to construct a Damascus Metro with opening time for the green line scheduled for 2015.[70] The green line will be an essential West-East axis for the future public transportation network, serving Moadamiyeh, Sumariyeh, Mezzeh, Damascus University, Hijaz, the Old City, Abbassiyeen and Qaboun Pullman bus station. A four-line metro network is expected be in operation by 2050(SONY Vaio VGN-SR11M Battery).

Damascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture.[71] The Arab Capital of Culture is an initiative undertaken by UNESCO, under the Cultural Capitals Program to promote and celebrate Arab culture and encourage cooperation in the Arab region.[72] The preparation for the festivity began in February 2007 with the establishing of the Administrative Committee for "Damascus Arab Capital of Culture" by a presidential decree(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/B Battery).

Popular sports include football, basketball, swimming, tennis, table tennis, equestrian and chess. Damascus is home to many football clubs that participate in the Syrian Premier League including Al-Jaish, Al-Shurta, Al-Wahda and Al-Majd. Many Other sport clubs are located in several districts of the city: Barada SC, Qasioun SC, Nidal SC, al-Muhafaza SC, al-Fayhaa SC, al-Thawra SC, Dummar SC and al-Arin SC(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/P Battery).

The fifth and the seventh Pan Arab Games were held in Damascus in 1976 and 1992 respectively.

Damascus has quite busy midnights. Coffeehouses, where —in addition to Arabic coffee and tea— nargileh (water pipes) are served, proliferate Damascus. Card games, tables (backgammon variants), and chess are activities frequented in cafés.[74]

Tishreen Park is one of the largest and popular parks in Damascus. It is home to the yearly-held Damascus Flower Show. Other parks include: al-Jahiz, al-Sibbki, al-Tijara, al-Wahda, etc. Damascus' Ghouta (Oasis) is also a popular weekend-destination for recreation(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/S Battery). Many recreation centres operate in the city including sport clubs, swimming pools and golf courses. The Syrian Arab Horse Association in Damascus offers a wide range of activities and services for horse breeders and riders.[75]

Madaya: a small mountainous town well known holiday resort.

Bloudan: a town located 51 km north-west of the Damascus, its moderate temperature and low humidity in summer attracts many visitors from Damascus and throughout Syria, Lebanon and the Persian Gulf(Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery).

Zabadani: a city in close to the border with Lebanon. Its mild weather along with the scenic views, made the town a popular resort both for tourists and for visitors from other Syrian cities.

Maaloula: a town dominated by speakers of Western Neo-Aramaic.

Saidnaya: a city located in the mountains, 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) above sea level, it was one of the episcopal cities of the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/P battery).

Qatar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of BahrainSony PCG-71313M battery.

Qatar has been ruled as an absolute and hereditary emirate by the Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly one of the poorest Gulf states, the mainly barren country was noted mainly for pearl hunting. It was a British protectorate until it gained independence in 1971. Since then, it has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenuesSony PCG-71212M battery. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he deposed his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état.[9] The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations CenterSony PCG-71311M battery.

Qatar has proven reserves of oil and natural gas.[10] Qatar tops the list of the world's richest countries by Forbes. In 2010, Qatar had the world's highest GDP per capita, while the economy grew by 19%, the fastest in the world. The main drivers for this rapid growth are attributed to ongoing increases in production and exports of liquefied natural gas, oil, petrochemicals, and related industries. Qatar has the second-highest human development in the Arab World after the United Arab EmiratesSony PCG-71213M battery. In 2009, Qatar was the United States’ fifth-largest export market in the Middle East, trailing behind the U.A.E., Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.

With a small citizen population of fewer than 250,000 people, foreign workers outnumber native Qataris. Foreign expatriates come mainly from other Arab nations (20% of population), the Indian subcontinent (India 20%, Nepal 13%, Pakistan 7%, Sri Lanka 5%), Southeast Asia (Philippines 10%), and other countries (5%).Sony PCG-61211M battery Qatar has attracted an estimated $100 billion in investment, with approximately $60 to $70 billion coming from the United States in the energy sector. It is estimated that Qatar will invest over $120 billion in the energy sector in the next ten years.

The name may derive from Qatara, believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. Another possibility is that it comes from the Persian word Gwadar which means port. There are similar places in the region with that name, such as Gwadar in the Islamic Republic of PakistanSony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery.

In Standard Arabic the name is pronounced [ˈqɑtˤɑr], while in the local dialect it is [ˈɡitˤar].[8] In English-language broadcast media within Qatar—for example, television commercials for Qatar Airways and advertisements concerning economic development in Qatar—the name is pronounced "KA-tar" (not "ka-TAR").

Zubarah Fort located in the town of Zubarah in the municipality of Madinat ash ShamalSony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery.

Human habitation of the Qatar Peninsula dates as far back as 50,000 years when small groups of inhabitants built coastal encampments, settlements, and sites for working flint that were dated to be from the Neolithic era, according to archaeological evidence.

Recent discoveries in Wadi Debay’an, a site located a few kilometers south of Zubarah, indicate human presence from 7,500 years ago. Amongst the findings were a wall built of stone, possibly used as a fish trap. Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery Discovery of a 6th millennium BC site at Shagra, in southeastern Qatar revealed the key role the sea (the Persian Gulf) played in the lives of Shagra’s inhabitants. Excavations at Al Khor in northeastern Qatar, Bir Zekrit and Ras Abaruk, and the discovery there of pottery, flint, flint-scraper tools, and painted ceramic vessels indicates Qatar’s connection with the Al-Ubaid civilisationSony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery, which flourished in the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq during the period of 5th–4th millennium BC. It is thought that Mesopotamian fisherman working the rich fishing banks off the Arabian coast visited local settlements, bringing pottery with them and exchanging it for fresh meat in an improvised barter-based trade system.[14] The first potsherds of the Ubaid Mesopotamia were found by a Danish expedition in Al Da'asa in 1961Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery, but not identified until later. A second expedition was held in 1973–74 led by Beatrice De Cardi.[16] Contact between the people of Mesopotamia and the eastern Arabian coast (including Qatar) continued over centuries.

In the early 3rd millennium, Sumerians settled on Tarut Island, off the Saudi coast, approximately 100 kilometers north-west of Qatar. Later, from 2450–1700 BC, Dilmun, a peaceful trading civilization, was centered in Bahrain.Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery Evidence that Qatar was part of the complex trading network is found from the presence of Barbar pottery, a product of the Dilmun civilization, in Ras Abrouk.[18]

Qatar then emerged as one of the richest places in the Persian Gulf, with regard to the trade and commerce between the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. This period witnessed the spread of the Bronze Age cultures and civilizations from Mesopotamia to the Indus Valley settlements of IndiaSony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. Trade between Mesopotamia and Indus Valley was channeled through the Persian Gulf, with the western coast of Qatar playing a vital role in the transshipment of the commercial goods as the discovery of fragments of Barbar pottery in Ras Abaruk reveals it. Qatar also attracted seasonal migrants during the period of the Bronze Age.[14]

Kassite of the Zagros Mountains, which is located in the province of LorestanSony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery, assumed power in Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after circa 1531 BC to circa 1155 BC and spread their influence throughout the Persian Gulf region including a small island on the bay of Al Khor in the north of Doha. Ceramics, which were of Kassite origin that were unearthened while excavating in Al Khor for archaeological evidences, clearly indicate the close links between Qatar and Babylonia during this period. Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery

The Greco-Roman trade between Europe and India was carried on via the Persian Gulf during 140 BC. Archaeological evidence found in Qatar suggests the Greek and Roman influences in the peninsula, particularly at Ras Abaruk, included stone structures, such as dwellings, cairns, hearths and low mounds containing large quantities of fish bonesSony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. Excavation of the dwelling revealed two chambers; linked by a cross-wall, with a third room open to the sea. Ras Abaruk was a temporary fishing station where periodic landing were made to dry fish during this period. In fact, pearls and dried fish were the major items for exportation from Qatar during the Greco-Roman period. Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery

The whole Persian Gulf region afterwards emerged as the most important trade centre, linking between the West and the East, during the time of the Sassanid Persian Empire in the 3rd century AD. Cargoes of copper, spices, sandalwood, teak, blackwood, etc., arriving from the East were exchanged for shipments of purple dye, clothing, pearls, dates, gold and silver. Qatar played a pre-eminent role in that commercial activity contributing at least two of these commodities to the Sassanid trade – purple dye and precious pearls. Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery

Although the peninsula land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history, the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by Nomadic tribes.

Islam was spread in the entire Arabian region by the end of the 7th century resulting in the Islamization of the native Arabian pagans. With the spread of Islam in Qatar, the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, sent his first military envoy, Al Ala Al-HadramiSony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery, to Al-Mundhir Ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi, the ruler of Bahrain (which extended from the coast of Kuwait to the south of Qatar, including Al-Hasa and Bahrain Islands), in the year 628, inviting him to accept Islam as he had invited other kingdoms and empires of his time such as Byzantium and Persia. Mundhir, in response to Muhammad, announced his acceptance of Islam, and the inhabitants of Qatar became MuslimSony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery, heralding the beginning of the Islamic era in Qatar. However, it is likely that some settled populations in Qatar did not instantaneously convert. An important seventh-century saint and mystic, named Isaac of Nineveh, became a leader in the Syrian church.

During the Umayyad and the Abbasid rules in Damascus and Baghdad respectively, there was further growth of trade and commerce in Qatar. Yaqut Al Hamawi, an Arab historian and biographer, who died in 1229Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, considered Qatar as a village and famous for camel and horse breeding centre during the Umayyad period. During the ascendancy of the Abbasid in Baghdad, the pearling industry in the rich waters around Qatar developed considerably and the demand for Qatari pearl increased in the East, which extended as far as China. With the expansion of the mercantile activities on the coasts of Qatar, settlements began to grow on the north of Qatar, particularly at Murwab in the Yoghbi area between Zubarah and Umm el-Ma with more than 100 small stone built houses. Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Portuguese Empire enhanced their power and influence over the Persian Gulf of the Arabian Peninsula after establishing hold over the Strait of Hormuz. The Portuguese Empire settled its commercial relations with many Gulf harbors including Qatar, where it exported gold, silver, silk textiles, Dianthus, all kinds of pearls, amber and horses. Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery

In the 18th century, migrants established pearling and trading settlements along the coast of present-day Qatar. The Bani Khalid, which established their hold over Eastern Arabia, extended their power in the area from Qatar to Kuwait in the first half of the 18th century. Zubarah, which already emerged as one of the most salient sea ports in the Persian Gulf in view of the increased exportation of pearls to the different parts of the worldSony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery, became the headquarters of the Bani Khalid administration in Qatar and the principal transit port for their Eastern and the Central Arabian territories. The importations made from Surat of India to the port of Zubarah were Surat blue and other piece goods, cambay, chauders, shawls, bamboo, coffee, sugar, pepper, spices, iron, tin, oil, ghee, rice, etc. A part of these importations was retained at Zubarah for the consumption there and its immediate vicinities and the remainder were conveyed by means of camels to Dariyah in Nejd and to Al Hasa including the other districts under the jurisdiction of Bani Khalid. Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery

In 1783, the Al Khalifa family of Bahrain invaded and annexed Qatar.[20]

In 1821, as punishment for piracy, an East India Company vessel bombarded Doha, destroying the town and forcing hundreds of residents to flee. The residents of Doha had no idea why they were being attacked. As a result, Qatari rebel groups began to emerge in order to fight the Al-Khalifas and to seek independence from Bahrain. In 1825, the House of Thani was established with Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed as the first leaderSony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery.

Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867 the Al Khalifas launched an effort to crush the Qatari rebels, sending a massive naval force to Al Wakrah. This resulted in the maritime Qatari–Bahraini War of 1867–1868, where Bahraini forces sacked and looted Doha and Al Wakrah. Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation of the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. This attack, and the Qatari counterattack, prompted the British political agent, Colonel Lewis Pelly, to impose a settlement in 1868. His mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the peace treaty that resulted were milestones in Qatar's history because they implicitly recognized the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of Sheikh Mohammed bin ThaniSony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery, an important representative of the peninsula's tribes. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar on 18 December 1878 (for this reason, the date of 18 December is celebrated each year as Qatar National Day). In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from QatarSony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery.

The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatar’s status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. The Al Thanis had taken relatively little part in Persian Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their hegemony as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this daySony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. The results of the negotiations left the nation with a new-found sense of political identity, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.

Qatar in Adolf Stieler map in 1891

Under military and political pressure from the Governor of the Ottoman vilayet of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the House of Thani in Qatar submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871.[22] By the end of that year, Ottoman rule extended from Kuwait to Qatar.[22] The Ottoman government imposed reformist (Tanzimat) measures concerning taxation and land registration to fully integrate these areas into the empire. Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery

In March 1893, at the Battle of Wajbah (10 miles west of Doha), Shaikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani defeated the Ottomans. Although Qatar did not gain full independence from the Ottoman Empire, the result of the battle forced a treaty that would later form the basis of Qatar emerging as an autonomous separate country within the Ottoman Empire. Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery

The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India; although, the discovery of petroleum and other hydrocarbons in the early 20th century would reinvigorate their interest. During the 19th century, the time of Britain’s formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the westSony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery.

The Ottoman Empire fell into disorder after losing battles in different fronts in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Qataris took part in the Arab revolt against the Ottomans. The revolt was a success and Ottoman rule in Qatar collapsed.

The United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire accorded their recognition to Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani and his successors’ right to rule over the whole of the Qatari PeninsulaSony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. The Ottomans renounced all their rights to Qatar and following the outbreak of the First World War; Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani, who was pro-British, forced the Ottomans to abandon Doha in 1915.[24]

As a result of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, Qatar became a British protectorate on 3 November 1916. On that day, the United Kingdom, in order to bring Qatar under its Trucial System of Administration, signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al ThaniSony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. While Sheikh Abdullah agreed not to enter into any relations with any other power without prior consent of the British Government, Percy Zachariah Cox, the Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, who signed the treaty on behalf of his government, guaranteed the protection of Qatar ‘from all aggression by sea’.[24]

On 5 May 1935, Sheikh Abdullah signed another treaty, which was able to obtain Britain’s agreement for the protection of Qatar from inside as well as any attacks from external forces. Sony VAIO PCG-31114M batteryOil reserves were first discovered in 1939. However, exploitation was delayed by World War II.

The reach of the British Empire diminished after World War II, especially following Indian independence in 1947. In the 1950s, oil was beginning to replace pearling and fishing as Qatar's main source of revenue. Oil revenues began to fund the expansion and modernisation of Qatar's infrastructure. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Persian Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British granted Kuwait’s independence in 1961Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically (though not economically) from the Persian Gulf in three years’ time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes, however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the United Arab EmiratesSony VAIO PCG-31112M battery.

Independence (1971-Present)

On 3 September 1971, Qatar officially gained its independence from the British Empire and became an independent sovereign state.[14] In 1972, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani seized power in a palace coup after infighting in the ruling family.

In 1991, Qatar played a significant role in the Persian Gulf War, particularly during the Battle of Khafji in which Qatari tanks rolled through the streets of the town providing fire support for Saudi Arabian National Guard units which were fighting against units of the Iraqi ArmySony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Qatar also allowed Coalition troops from Canada to use the country as an airbase to launch aircraft on CAP duty.

Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a moderate degree of liberalization, including the launch of the Al Jazeera TV station (1996) Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery, the endorsement of women's suffrage or right to vote in municipal elections (1999), drafting its first written constitution (2005), and inauguration of a Roman Catholic church (2008). In 2010, Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and will be the first country in the Middle East to host the tournament. The emir says Qatar will hold its first national legislative elections in 2013Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery.

Qatar is increasingly active on the regional stage. It served as the US Central Command headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.[25] In March 2005, a suicide bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theater, shocking for a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. The bombing was carried out by Omar Ahmed Abdullah AliSONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, an Egyptian residing in Qatar, who had suspected ties to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.[26][27] In 2011, Qatar joined NATO operations in Libya and reportedly armed Libyan opposition groups.[28] It is also currently giving assistance to rebel groups in Syria. Qatar is pursuing an Afghan peace deal and in January 2012 the Afghan Taliban said they were setting up a political office in Qatar to facilitate talks.

The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (161 km) north into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 27° N, and longitudes 50° and 52° ESONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery.

Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid (“Inland Sea”), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Persian Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.

The highest point in Qatar is Qurayn Abu al Bawl at 103 metres (338 ft)[29] in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcroppings running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border. The Jebel Dukhan area also contains Qatar’s main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsulaSONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery.

Qatar signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 21 August 1996.[30] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 18 May 2005.[31]

The country's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan states that 508 animal species have been recorded from terrestrial sites in Quatar. SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery These comprise amphibians (1 species), birds (242 species), invertebrates (228 species), mammals (8 species) and reptiles (29 species). This count is unlikely to be exhaustive, particularly for invertebrates. One mammal (the Arabian oryx), and ten birds (cinereous bunting, corncrake, ferruginous duck, great snipe, greater spotted eagle, houbara bustard, lesser kestrel, pale harrier, sociable lapwing and Socotra cormorant) are treated by the plan as endangeredSONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery.

A further 553 animal species have been recorded from marine habitats. These comprise birds (20 species), fish (136 species), invertebrates (379 species), mammals (3 species) and reptiles (15 species). Of these, 10 are treated by the plan as endangered (black finless porpoise, blacktip shark, brown shark, dugong, green turtle, hawksbill turtle, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, leatherback turtle, loggerhead turtle and olive ridley turtle) SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery.

A total of 142 fungal species have been recorded from Qatar.[32] Almost all of these are microscopic species isolated from soil samples, the predominating genera being Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botryotrichum, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Microascus, Penicillium and Stachybotrys. As with animals, the list is unlikely to be exhaustive. With the exception of brief comment about the importance in Qatari culture of desert truffles SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery (species of Terfezia which live in association with Helianthemum species), the country's biodiversity strategy and action plan contained no mention of fungi living on animals (as symbionts or on dung), on plant material (as symbionts or saprobes), or in marine habitats. No lichen-forming fungi were mentioned. The total number of fungi actually occurring in Quatar is thus likely to be greater than the 142 species listed in the planSony VAIO PCG-81112M battery.

In terrestrial habitats, Quatar has 371 species of flowering plants, belonging in 236 genera. A further 402 plant species were listed from marine habitats.

For two decades Qatar has had the highest per-capita carbon dioxide emissions in the world, at 49.1 metric tons per person in 2008.[33] This is about 60 per cent more than one of the next highest per-capita emitting country, which is Kuwait at 30.7 metric tons, more than the double of the emissions of people in the United StatesSONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Other sources state that by 2007, Qatar’s emission rate increased to 69 tons per person per year.[34] Qatar had the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions for the past 18 years. These emissions are largely due to high rates of energy use in Qatar. Major uses of energy in Qatar include air conditioning, natural gas processing, water desalination and electricity production. Between 1995 and 2011 the electricity generating capacity of Qatar will have increased to six times the previous levelSONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. The fact that Qataris do not have to pay for either their water or electricity supplies is thought to contribute to their high rate of energy use. They are also one of the highest consumers of water per capita per day, using around 400 litres.

Qatar is an absolute monarchy under the leadership of the Al Thani family, whose origins can be traced back to the Banu Tamim tribe. The Al Thani dynasty has been ruling Qatar since the family house was established in 1825. SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery

The supreme chancellor has the exclusive power to appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, comprise the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive authority in the country.[37] The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation. Laws and decrees proposed by the Council of Ministers are referred to the Advisory Council (Majilis Al Shura) for discussion after which they are submitted to the Emir for ratification. SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery

A Consultative Assembly or Majlis al-Shura has limited legislative authority to draft and approve laws, but the Emir has final say on all matters. No legislative elections have been held since 1970 when there were partial elections to the body.[29] Elections to the Majlis al-Shura have been announced, and then postponed, several times.[38] In 2011 the emir announced that elections to the council would be held in the second half of 2013SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery.

In 2003, Qatar adopted a new constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of Advisory Council.[29][38] As of 2012, the Council is composed entirely of members appointed by the Emir.[29]

An elected 29-member Central Municipal Council (CMC) has limited consultative authority aimed at improving municipal services.[29] The CMC makes recommendations to the Ministry for Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Disagreement between the CMC and the Ministry can be brought to the Council of Ministers for resolution. SONY PCG-8113M batteryMunicipal elections are scheduled for every four years.[38] The most recent elections for the council were in May 2011.[29] Before 1999, members of the CMC were appointed by the government.

Qatar is a civil law jurisdiction.[citation needed] However, Shari'a or Islamic law is applied to aspects of family law, inheritance, and certain criminal acts.[40]

Alcohol consumption is legal in Qatar, with many restrictions. Luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their adult non-Muslim customers. SONY PCG-8112M battery  Consumption of alcohol by Muslims is punishable by law. Foreign nationals may obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and operates the only liquor stores in the country.[43] Pork is also legally imported through the Qatar Distribution Company, and may be purchased by holders of a liquor permitSONY PCG-7134M battery.

Until recently, restaurants on the Pearl-Qatar (a man-made island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks. In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol. No explanation was given for the ban.[41][42] Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country’s first election of a royal advisory body and rumors of a financial dispute between the government and the resort’s developers. SONY PCG-7131M battery

Many cases of ill-treatment of immigrant labour have been observed. Qatar does not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labor. Under the provisions of Qatar’s sponsorship law, sponsors have the unilateral power to cancel workers’ residency permits, deny workers’ ability to change employers, report a worker as “absconded” to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country.[45] As a result, sponsors may restrict workers’ movements and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights. SONY PCG-7122M battery

As of 2005, certain provisions of the Qatari Criminal Code allowed punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions. The UN Committee Against Torture found that these practices constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture. Qatar retains the death penalty, mainly for threats against national security.

Main article: Foreign relations of QatarSONY PCG-7121M battery

Qatar was also an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is a member of the Arab League. The country has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.[29]

Qatar has bilateral relationships with a variety of foreign powers. It has allowed American forces to use an air base to send supplies to Iraq and Afghanistan.[48] It has also signed a defense cooperation agreement with Saudi Arabia,SONY PCG-7113M battery  with whom it shares the largest single non-associated gas field in the world. It was the second nation, the first being France, to have publicly announced its recognition of the Libyan opposition's National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya amidst the 2011 Libyan civil war.[50]

The history of Qatar’s alliances provides insight into the basis of their policy. Between 1760 and 1971, Qatar sought formal protection from the high transitory powers of the Ottomans, British, the Al-Khalifa’s from Bahrain, the Persians, and the Wahhabis from Saudi Arabia. SONY PCG-7112M battery

According to leaked documents published in The New York Times, Qatar's record of counter-terrorism efforts was the "worst in the region" although Qatar had been a generous host to the American military.[52] The cable suggested that Qatar’s security service was "hesitant to act against known terrorists out of concern for appearing to be aligned with the U.S. and provoking reprisals".SONY PCG-8Z3M battery

Qatar has hosted academic, religious, political, and economic conferences. The 11th annual Doha Forum recently brought in key thinkers, professionals of various backgrounds, and political figures from all over the world to discuss democracy, media and information technology, free trade, and water security issues. This year was the first year the forum featured the Middle East Economic Future conferenceSONY PCG-8Z2M battery.

The economic growth of Qatar has been almost exclusively based on its petroleum and natural gas industries, which began in 1940.[57] The country has experienced rapid growth over the last several years due to high oil prices, and in 2008 posted its eighth consecutive budget surplus. Economic policy is focused on developing Qatar's non-associated natural gas reserves and increasing private and foreign investment in non-energy sectorsSONY PCG-8Z1M battery, but oil and gas still account for more than 50% of GDP; roughly 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues.

Oil and gas have made Qatar one of the highest per-capita income countries, and one of the world's fastest growing. The World Factbook states that Qatar has the second-highest GDP per capita in the world, after Liechtenstein. Proved oil reserves of 15 billion barrels should enable continued output at current levels for 37 years. Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas are nearly 26 trillion cubic metres, about 14% of the world total and the third largest in the worldSONY PCG-8Y3M battery.

Before the discovery of oil, the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearl hunting. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry crashed. However, the discovery of oil, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economySONY PCG-8Y2M battery . Now, the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state. It relies heavily on foreign labor to grow its economy, to the extent that 94% of its labour is carried out by foreigners. Labor laws in Qatar have improved over recent years, and Qatar is now the only state in the GCC to allow labour unionsSONY PCG-7Z1M battery .

Qatar’s national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil reserves of 15 billion barrels, while gas reserves in the giant North Field (which straddles the border with Iran and is almost as large as the peninsula itself) are estimated to be between 80 trillion cubic feet (2.3×1012 m3) to 800 trillion cubic feet (23×1012 m3) (1 trillion cubic feet of gas is equivalent to about 180 million barrels (29×106 m3) of oil) SONY PCG-6W2M battery. Qataris’ wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World, according to the International Monetary Fund (2010)[58] and the CIA World Factbook.[59] With no income tax, Qatar (along with Bahrain) is one of the countries with the lowest tax rates in the world. Qatar has been ranked as the world's richest country per capita in a new list compiled by US-based Forbes magazineSONY PCG-5J5M battery. Blessed with the third-largest natural gas reserves in the world, the Persian Gulf emirate of 1.7 million people is benefitting from a rebound in oil prices. Adjusted for purchasing power (PPP), Qatar has an estimated gross domestic product per capita of $88,222.

While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar’s economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a “knowledge economy” SONY PCG-5K2M battery. In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Doha Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off an official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October 2007. SONY PCG-5K1M batteryIts bid was finally eliminated from consideration in June 2008. Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.

The Qatari government hopes that large-scale investment in all social and economic sectors will lead to the development of a strong financial market.

The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with world-class services in investment, margin and no-interest loans, and capital support. These platforms are situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resourcesSONY PCG-5J4M battery , specifically its exportation of petroleum. It has been created with a long-term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.

Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise capital to finance projects of more than $130 billion, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial institutions to access nearly $1 trillion of investments which stretch across the GCC (Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf) as a whole over the next decade. Commercial ties between the United States and Qatar have been expanding at a rapid pace over the last five yearsSONY PCG-5J1M battery, with trade volumes growing by more than 340%, from $738 million in 2003 to $3.2 billion in 2009. Over the same period, U.S. exports increased by 580% to $2.7 billion, making the United States the largest import partner for Qatar. U.S. companies look to play key role in the $60 billion dollars that Qatar will invest in roads, infrastructure development, housing and real estate, health/medical and sanitation projects in the next decadeSONY PCG-5G2M battery .

The new town of Lusail, the largest project ever in Qatar, is under construction.

Boats as seen from the corniche (waterfront promenade) in Doha

The primary means of transportation in Qatar is by road, due to the very cheap price of petroleum. The country as a result has an advanced road system undergoing vast upgrades in response to the country's rapidly rising population, with several highways undergoing upgrades and new expressways within Doha under construction. A large bus network connects Doha with other towns in the country, and is the primary means of public transportation in the citySony VAIO PCG-8131M battery.

The Salwa International Highway currently connects Doha to the border with Saudi Arabia, and a causeway with both road and rail links to Bahrain at Zubarah is due to begin construction shortly. The causeway will become the largest in the world, and will be the second to connect Bahrain to the Arabian PeninsulaSony VAIO PCG-8152M battery.

Currently, no rail networks exist in the country. In November 2009, however, the government signed a $26 billion contract with the German company Deutsche Bahn to construct a railway system over the next 20 years. The network will connect the country itself, and will include an international link with neighbouring states as part of a larger rail network being constructed across the countries of the Gulf Cooperation CouncilSony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. A railway link is also under construction between Qatar and Bahrain as part of the Qatar Bahrain Causeway.

Qatar's main airport is the Doha International Airport, which served almost 15 million passengers in 2007. In comparison, the airport served only 2 million passengers in 1998. As a result of the much larger volumes of passengers flying into and through the country today, the New Doha International Airport is currently under construction, and will replace the existing airport in 2013Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery.

Out of the total population of approximately 1.5 million (May 2008 est.), the make up of ethnic groups is as follows: Qatari (Arab) 20%; other Arab 20%; Indian 20%; Filipino 10%; Nepali 13%; Pakistani 7%; Sri Lankan 5%; other 5%.[11] Arabic, English, Urdu, Hindi, Tagalog, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Punjabi, Persian and Pashto are the most widely spoken languages.

Islam is the predominant religion. According to the 2004 census, 77.5% of the population are Muslim, 8.5% are Christian and 14% are "Other".Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery Shi'as comprise between 5% to 10% of the Muslim population in Qatar.[68]

Qatar is the only other Wahhabi state in the Arabian Peninsula. The other one being Saudi Arabia.[69]

The majority of non-citizens are from South and Southeast Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts, accompanied by family members in some cases.[citation needed] Non-citizens can be Sunni or Shi'a Muslims, Protestant or Catholic Christians, Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, or Bahá'ísSony VAIO PCG-7186M battery.

The government uses Sunni law as the basis of its criminal and civil regulations. Some religious tolerance is granted. Foreign nationals are free to affiliate with their faiths other than Islam, e.g. Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bahai, as long as they are religious in private and do not offend 'public order' or 'morality'Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery.

In March 2008, a Roman Catholic church, Our Lady of the Rosary, was consecrated in Doha. No missionaries were allowed in the community. The church will have no bells, crosses or other Christian symbols on it and its premises.

The Christian population consists nearly completely of foreigners. Active churches are Mar Thoma Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church from Southern India, Arab Evangelicals from Syria and Palestine, and Anglicans,[70] about 50,000 Catholics and Copts from Egypt. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M batteryNo foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country,[72] but the government allows churches to conduct Mass. Since 2008 Christians have been allowed to build churches on ground donated by the government.[73]

This section requires expansion. (January 2013)

Arabic is the official language of Qatar. English is also widely spoken.[74] Reflecting the multicultural make-up of the country, many other languages are also spoken, including French, Hindi, Malayalam, Urdu and Tagalog. Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery

Qatari culture (music, art, dress, and cuisine) is similar to that of other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf; see Culture of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf. Arab tribes from Saudi Arabia migrated to Qatar and other places in the Persian Gulf; therefore, the culture in the Persian Gulf region varies little from country to countrySony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery.

Qatar explicitly uses Sharia law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: حنبلى) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (the other three being Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgments and jurisprudenceSony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgments on particular matters.[68]

The Qatar National Day hosted every 18 December is the day Qataris celebrate their national identity and history. On that day, expressions of affection and gratitude are conveyed to the people of Qatar who cooperated in solidarity and vowed allegiance and obedience to Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani as a leader in 1878Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery.

Al Jazeera is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.

Print media is going through expansion, with over three English dailies and Arabic titles. Qatar Today is the only monthly business magazine in the country. It is published by Oryx Advertising, which is the largest magazine publisher in QatarSony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. The group also publishes several titles such as Qatar Al Youm, the only monthly business magazine in Qatar in Arabic language, Woman Today, the only magazine for working women, and GLAM,[78] the only fashion magazine. In December 2009, Oryx launched T Qatar: The New York Times Style Magazine,[79] which marks the entry of an international magazine into QatarSony VAIO PCG-8141M battery.

Khalifa International Stadium, home stadium of the Qatar national football team.

Main article: Sport in Qatar

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Qatar. The Qatar under-20 national football team finished second in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship after a 4–0 defeat to Germany in the final.

The Asian Football Confederation's 2011 AFC Asian Cup finals was held in Qatar in January 2011. It was the fifteenth time the tournament has been held, and the second time it has been hosted by Qatar, the other being the 1988 AFC Asian CupSony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery.

Doha, Qatar, is also home to Qatar Racing Club, a drag racing facility. Sheik Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani is very involved in the sport and owner of Al-Anabi Racing.

Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha, Qatar, hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open annually.

On 2 December 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery

Nasser Al-Attiyah of Qatar won the 2011 Dakar Rally and the Production World Rally Championship in 2006. In addition, he has also won gold medals at the 2002 Asian Games and 2010 Asian Games as part of the Qatari skeet shooting team, as well as a bronze medal in the individual skeet event at the 2010 Games in Guangzhou. In the 2012 Summer Games, he won the bronze medal in clay pigeon shooting. Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery

Since 2002, Qatar has hosted the annual Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February, riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km, though the time trial usually is a shorter distance. Tour of Qatar is organised by the Qatar Cycling Federation for professional riders in the category of Elite Men. Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery

Cornell University's Weill Medical College in Qatar

In recent years, Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Citizens are required to attend government-provided education from kindergarten through high school.[83] Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, a number of leading universities from other countries have opened branch campuses in the Education CitySony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery.

In 2008, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, the College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary, also operate campuses in Doha. Other for-profit universities have also established campuses in the city. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery

In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani created the Supreme Education Council.[85] The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the “Education for a New Era”[86] reform initiative.

Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC)—affiliated with Cornell University—is the premier non-profit health care provider in Doha, Qatar. Established by the Emiri decree in 1979, HMC manages five highly specialised hospitals and a health care centreSony VAIO PCG-9131L battery: Hamad General Hospital, Rumailah Hospital, Women’s Hospital, Psychiatric Hospital and the Primary Health Care Centres and Al Khor Hospital. These hospitals are quite sophisticated by the standards of the region, with most hosting advanced fMRI and other scanning machines.

Other private hospitals and polyclinics consist of Sidra Hospital, Al-Ahli Hospital, Doha Clinic, Al-Emadi Hospital, The American Hospital, Apollo Clinic, Future Medical Center, Future Dental Center, and Tadawi MedicalSony VAIO PCG-8161L battery. Qatar has among the highest rates in the world for obesity, diabetes and genetic disorders.

Doha (Arabic: الدوحة‎, ad-Dawḥa or ad-Dōḥa, literally: "the big tree") is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008,[1] and is also one of the municipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 60% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the countrySony VAIO PCG-8152L battery.

Doha also serves as the seat of government of Qatar, which is ruled by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Doha is home to the Education City, an area devoted to research and education. Doha was the site of the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. The city of Doha held the 2006 Asian Games, which was the largest Asian Games ever heldSony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Doha also hosted the 2011 Pan Arab Games and most of the games at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Doha hosted the UNFCCC Climate Negotiations (COP 18) December 2012 and will host a large number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The World Petroleum Council held the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha in December 2011Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery.

In 1825, the city of Doha was founded under the name Al-Bidda. The name "Doha" came from the Arabic ad-dawḥa, "the big tree." The reference might be to a prominent tree that stood at the site where the original fishing village arose, on the eastern coast of the Qatar peninsula. Or it might have been derived from "dohat" — Arabic for bay or gulf — referring to the Doha Bay area surrounding Corniche. In 1825, during the war between Qatar and BahrainSony VAIO PCG-81312L battery, Doha had been severely damaged and Abu Dhabi was helping Bahrain.[3] In 1882, Al Rayyan built the Al Wajbah fortress, in southwestern Doha. The following year, Sheikh Qassim bin Mohammed Al Thani led a Qatari army to victory against the Ottomans.

The city was made capital of the British protectorate of Qatar in 1916, and became the nation's capital following the independence of Qatar in 1971.

In 1917, the Al Koot Fort fortress, which is located in the center of the city, was built by Sheikh Abdulla Bin Qassim Al-ThaniSony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. Still, during the early 20th century, much of Qatar's economy depended on fishing and pearling, and Doha had about 350 pearling boats. However, after the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearls in the 1930s, the whole region, including the town of Doha, suffered a major depression and Qatar was plunged into poverty. This lasted until in the late 1930s, when oil was discovered. However, the exploration and exportation was halted due to the second world warSony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. Today the nation as a whole produces over 800,000 barrels of oil daily. In 1969, the Government House opened. Today it is considered to be Qatar's most prominent landmark.

The first mention of Al Bidda in English sources appeared in 1765, on a rather inaccurate map by Carsten Niebhur, in which Al Bidda is referred to as Guttur. Carsten had not visited Qatar personally, and had relied on the knowledge of local Arabs and English sea captains to fill in this section of his mapSony VAIO PCG-81114L battery. In the nineteenth century, Doha was little more than a small village which was known as Al Bidda. In 1820, Major Colebrook described it thus:

"Guttur – Or Ul Budee [Al Bidda], once a considerable town, is protected by two square Ghurries near the sea shore; but containing no fresh water they are incapable of defence except against sudden incursions of Bedouins, another Ghurry is situated two miles inland and has fresh water with it. This could contain two hundred men. There are remaining at Uk Budee about 250 men, but the original inhabitants, who may be expected to return from BahreinSony VAIO PCG-81113L battery, will augment them to 900 or 1,000 men, and if the Doasir tribe, who frequent the place as divers, again settle in it, from 600 to 800 men.''"

However, the small size of the place didn't stop it from being bombarded by the British vessel Vestal in 1821, after the city had been deemed to have broken a general treaty of peace. They were bombed again in 1841 after Al-Suwaidi, the Sudanese chief who then ruled Al Bidda, was accused of habouring an outlawSony VAIO PCG-7142L battery, and the village was destroyed in 1847 after its leader – Bin Tarif Bin Salamah – had been killed in battle against the Al Khalifas of Bahrain near Fuweirat. These major disturbances were probably also punctuated by the customary raids of the nomadic Bedouin;]: raids which would not stop for another hundred yearsSony VAIO PCG-7141L battery.

At some point after this destruction, the Al Thani family moved from Fuwairet to Al Bidda, for when the British Resident visited the village he found that Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani was now chief of Doha. Doha was now a separate village close to Al Bidda, and in between Al Bidda and Doha lay little Doha, only four hundred yards form Al Bidda. Paradoxically, the roots of its future as the capital of Qatar lay when Doha, along with Al WakrahSony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, were attacked again – by Bahrain in 1867, aided by Abu Dhabi. Doha and Al Wakra attempted to retaliate in a very bloody sea battle.

The British, who wished to avoid disruption to trade and were angry that the Al Khalifas of Bahrain had broken a treaty forbidding maritime warfare in the area, came to Qatar and were met by the headman of Al Bidda, Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani, on behalf of "all the Sheikhs and tribes" in the peninsulaSony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. This meeting was, eventually, to lead to Qatar becoming a nation state under the Al Thanis. For a time Ottomans took up a rather nominal control of the country, with a base in Doha, with the acquiescence of Qassim Al Thani, who wished to consolidate his control of the area. However, disagreement over tribute and interference in internal affairs arose which eventually led to battle in 1893. The Ottomans were defeated and retreated to their small fort in the centre of DohaSony VPCY21S1E/L battery, where they remained until they finally left during the first world war. Partly as a result of the departure of the Ottomans, Qatar was made a formal British protectorate in 1916, with Doha as its capital.

At about 1900 Doha had a population of around 12,000 and around 350 pearling boats. However, the growth of trade in cultured pearls from Japan began to impact upon the region, and this was exacerbated by the depression of the 1930sSony VPCY21S1E/G battery.

The exploitation of Qatar's oil reserves after the end of the second world war was to save the city, although it was to be some time before the source of their current and future wealth – natural gas – was exploited.

Buildings at the time were simple dwellings of one or two rooms, built from mud, stone and coral. However, the Amirs of Qatar were not long in exploiting the new-found wealth, and slum areas were quickly razed to be replaced by more modern buildingsSony VPCY11S1E/S battery. As with other countries in the region, in this rush to modernize much of the country’s heritage was lost, and in Doha now there is only a single remaining wind tower. The astonishing development of Doha, and the changing shape of the bay, can be seen to this day in Qatar’s National Museum. Doha was a port of some local significanceSony VPCY11S1E battery. However, the shallow water of the bay prevented bigger ships from entering the port until the 1970s, when its deep-water port was completed. Further changes followed with extensive land reclamation, which led to the crescent-shaped bay that we can see today.

In 1973, the University of Qatar opened, and in 1975 the Qatar National Museum opened in what was originally the ruler's palace in 1912. The Al Jazeera Arabic satellite television news channel began broadcasting from Doha in 1996Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani currently rules in what some consider to be Qatar's most beautiful city.

By 2010, Qatar had a population of 1,696,563, making it one of the world's fastest-developing countries.

Doha has a subtropical arid climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Temperatures average over 38 °C (100 °F) from May to September, and humidity is variable. Dewpoints can surpass 25 °C (77 °F) in the summer. During the summer months, the city averages almost no precipitation, and less than 20 mm (0.79 in) during other months. Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery Rainfall is scarce, at an average of 75 mm (2.95 in) per annum, falling on isolated days mostly between October to March. Winters are mild, and the temperature rarely drops below 7 °C (45 °F).

The demography of Doha is unusual in that the majority of residents are expatriates, with Qatari nationals forming a minority. The largest portion of expatriates in Qatar are from South-East and South Asian countriesSony VPCZ12M9E/B battery, mainly Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, with large numbers of expatriates also coming from the Levant Arab countries, North Africa, and East Asia. Doha is also home to expatriates from Germany, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia as well as many other countries from all over the worldSony VPCZ12X9E/X battery.

In the past, expatriates in Qatar were not allowed to own land; however, now people who are not Qatari citizens can buy land in several areas of Doha, including the West Bay Lagoon, the Qatar Pearl and the new Lusail City. Ownership by foreigners in Qatar entitles them to a renewable residency permit, which allows them to live and work in QatarSony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery.

Each month, thousands emigrate to Qatar, and as a result, Doha has witnessed explosive growth rates in population. Doha's population currently stands at around one million,[6] with the population of the city more than doubling in the past decade. Due to the high influx of expatriates, the Qatari housing market saw a shortage of supply which led to a rise in prices and increased inflation. The gap in the housing market between supply and demand has narrowedSony VPCZ13M9E/B battery, however, and property prices have fallen in some areas following a period which saw rents triple in some areas.[7]

Several churches have recently been constructed in Doha, following decrees by the Emir for the allocation of land to churches. In March 2008, the first Catholic Church in Doha, Our Lady of the Rosary, was opened. The church structure is discreet and Christian symbols are not displayed on the outside of the building.[8] Today, several churches exist in DohaSony VPCZ13M9E/X battery, including the Malankara Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church (affiliated with the Anglicans, but not part of the Communion), CSI Church, Syro-Malankara Church and the Pentecostal Church.

According to Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning,[16] in year 1963, the first municipality was the Municipality of Qatar, created under Law No. 11. Later in the same year, its name was changed to Municipality of Doha by Law No. 15. Since 2004, Qatar has been divided into seven municipalities.[17] Doha is the most populated municipality among them with a population of 998,651 as of 2008Sony VPCZ13V9E battery.

Much of Qatar's oil and natural gas wealth is visible in Doha, which is the economic centre of Qatar. Doha is home to the headquarters of the country's largest oil and gas companies, including Qatar Petroleum, Qatargas and RasGas. Doha's economy is built on the revenue the country has made from its oil and natural gas industries, and the Qatari government is rapidly trying to diversify the Qatari economy in order to move away from this dependence on oilSony VPCZ13V9E/X battery. As a result, Doha is currently experiencing a very large boom, with the city developing very rapidly – this is mostly the result of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa's modernization program.

Like the nearby city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, Doha's economy is moving away from its dependency on the oil and natural gas industries, although unlike Dubai, Doha's main focus is not tourism. Doha is seeing huge amounts of growth, with the population of the city increasing by more than 30,000 between 2004 and 2006Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery; this has caused a boom in the real estate sector, with real estate prices skyrocketing.[18] According to the BBC, as of late January 2007, Doha is now a more expensive city than Dubai in terms of real estate prices. This rate of growth has led to projects such as the Lusail City project, which is being constructed north of Doha and will eventually house 200,000 people. Construction is also booming in Doha, a result of increasing corporate and commercial activity in DohaSony VPCZ21M9E battery. This is most visible with the changing skyline of the city, as Doha has over 50 towers currently being constructed, the largest of which is the Dubai Towers. At the same time, 39 new hotels are joining Qatar's booming tourism market, adding about 9,000 new rooms by 2009.

Qatar Airways is headquartered in the Qatar Airways Tower in Doha.[19]

Doha was included in Fortune's 15 best new cities for business for the year 2011.

Doha has recently[when?] been undergoing a huge expansion to its transportation network, including the addition of new highwaysSony VPCZ21Q9E battery, the construction of a new airport, and the planned construction of a metro system. This has all been as a result of Doha's massive growth in a short space of time, which has resulted in congestion on its roads.

Education has been a major focus of the Qatari government in recent years. In addition to Qatar University, established in 1973, the government has solicited other universities to establish campuses in Doha, most notably at Education CitySony VPCZ21V9E battery.

Education City is one of the main projects of the non-profit organization Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. It has also launched the World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE), a global forum that brings together education stakeholders, opinion leaders and decision makers from all over the world to discuss educational issues. The first edition will be held in Doha, Qatar from November 16 to 18, 2009Sony VPCEH3T9E battery.

A key player in the educational field in Qatar is the Supreme Council of Communication and Information Technology ictQATAR. Through its e-education program, ictQATAR is bringing together the power of education and ICT in Qatar.

Doha is also home to many international schools established for its expatriate communities, with dozens of different private schools currently operating in the city, such asSony VPCEH3N6E battery

Doha is home to a number of sports stadiums, many of which were renovated in preparation for the 15th Asian Games, held in December 2006, which Doha spent $2.8 billion for preparation. Doha also hosted the 3rd West Asian Games in December 2005. Doha is also expected to host the 2011 Asian Indoor Games; Doha was also host the finals for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Qatar is aiming to be the region's sports capitalSony VPCEH3N1E battery.

Khalifa International Stadium – Main venue for the 2006 Asian Games.

Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex

Qatar Sports Club Stadium

ASPIRE Academy, launched in 2004, is a sports academy which aims to create world-class athletes. It is situated in the Doha Sports City Complex, which also includes the Khalifa International Stadium, the Hamad Aquatic Centre and the Aspire Tower.

The MotoGP motorcycling grand prix of Doha is held annually at Losail International Circuit, located just north of the citySony VPCEH3D0E battery.

Doha is also the location of the Grand Prix of Qatar for the F1 Powerboat World Championship, hosting a round annually out in the bay which the city overlooks.

Under-construction stadiums/sport facilities:

The Wall Stadium would become the world's largest underground stadium, dwarfing the Fjellhallen ice-hockey arena in Norway, and would be the main venue for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup.[24] The stadium is estimated to cost 20 million dollars. The stadium will have the latest technology and roads leading to the stadium will be easySony VPCEH3B1E battery. While the New Paralympic stadium south of the new City of Lusail will be the most advance Paralympic stadium.

In 2001, Qatar also became the first country in the Middle East to hold a women's tennis tournament: Qatar holds both the Qatar Open for Women and the ladies ITF tournament. Since 2008 and at least for 3 years, the Sony Ericsson Championships (equivalent to the ATP's season-ending Championships) takes place in DohaSony VPCEH2Z1E battery, in the Khalifa International Tennis Complex, and features record prize money of $4.45 million (check of $1,485,000 for the winner, which represents the largest single guaranteed payout in women's tennis today[25]).

Doha submitted a bid for the 2016 Olympics.[26] On June 4, 2008, the city was eliminated from the shortlist for the 2016 Olympic Games. On August 26, 2011 it was confirmed that Doha would bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[27] Doha however failed to become a Candidate City for the 2020 GamesSony VPCEH2S9E battery.

In November 2009, Doha hosted the The Oryx Cup World Championship. This is a hydroplane boat race in the H1 Unlimited season. The race took place in Doha Bay on the Persian Gulf. The H1 Unlimited and the Qatar Marine Sports Federation (QMSF) agreed to have the final race of the 2009 H1 Unlimited unlimited hydroplane season in Doha. Ten of the fastest racing boats in the world traveled to Doha November 2009 for the inaugural Oryx Cup event—the H1 Unlimited World Championship—as a result of an Agreement in Principle reached January 9 between the ABRA and the QMSFSony VPCEH2Q1E battery.

In December 2010, Qatar won the rights to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and bring the event to the region for the first time. As a result of Qatar's harsh summers and the small population of the country, the bid contained several unique elements which were unprecedented in World Cup history. The winning bid proposed that all stadiums constructed to host the World Cup would be built as air conditioned indoor venues, in order to ensure that the event could be held in summer.

In April 2012 Doha was awarded the 2014 FINA World Swimming Championships [29] and the 2012 World Squash ChampionshipsSony VPCEH2P0E battery.

Lebanon, officially the Lebanese Republic[nb 1] (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية‎ Al-Jumhūrīyah Al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. (SONY PCG-5G2L battery)

The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history.[8] Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years (c.1550–539 BC). In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, and eventually became one of the Empire's leading centers of Christianity(SONY PCG-5G3L battery). In the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion and identity. However, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, a religious divide that would last for centuries. During the Crusades the Maronites established strong ties with the Roman Catholic invaders, ties that influenced the region into the modern era(SONY PCG-F305 battery).

The region eventually came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, a situation that lasted for centuries. Following the collapse of the Empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronites and Druze, to include more Muslims(SONY PCG-5J1L battery). Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing a unique political system – "confessionalism" – that is a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities. Bechara El Khoury (independent Lebanon's first President) and Riad El-Solh (Lebanon's first Prime Minister) are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946. (SONY PCG-5J2L battery)

Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the country experienced a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, and banking.[10] Because of its financial power and diversity, Lebanon was known in its heyday as the "Switzerland of the East".[11] It attracted large numbers of tourists,[12] such that the capital Beirut was referred to as "Paris of the Middle East." (SONY PCG-5K2L battery) At the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.

The name Lebanon comes from the Semitic root LBN, meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.[14]

Occurrences of the name have been found in different texts from the library of Ebla,[15] which date to the third millennium BC, nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (perhaps as early as 2100 BC).[16]

The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L(SONY PCG-5L1L battery).

Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world,[8] and date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. (SONY PCG-6S2L battery)

Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants – the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[19] Their most famous colonies were Carthage in today’s Tunisia and Cadiz in today’s Spain. The Phoenicians are best known as the inventors of the alphabet, among many other things. After two centuries of Persian rule(SONY PCG-6S3L battery), Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Egyptian Empire, Persian, Assyrian, Hellenistic, Roman, Eastern Roman, Arab, Seljuk, Mamluk, the Crusader's state of County of Tripoli founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse that encompassed most of present day Lebanon, and the Ottoman Empire(SONY PCG-6V1L battery).

[edit]Maronites, Druze, and the Crusades

The Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289

The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the religion. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition, focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism(SONY PCG-6W1L battery), near the Syrian mountain range known as Mount Lebanon. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among the Syrians in the region. These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.[20]

During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or Byzantines as the Eastern Romans are sometimes called) (SONY PCG-7111L battery). Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community in particular clung stubbornly to its faith and managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria(SONY PCG-71511M battery).

During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Shia Islam. The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Mount Lebanon until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by Arab culture(SONY PCG-6W3L battery).

Following the fall of Roman/Christian Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Romans put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks in Western Europe to reclaim the former Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant) (SONY PCG-7113L battery). The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.[21] These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region though their control was limited and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks.

One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e. the French) and the Maronites(SONY PCG-7133L battery). Unlike most other Christian communities in the eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region(SONY PCG-7Z1L battery).

[edit]Ottoman Era and French mandate

See also: Sidon Eyalet and Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate

French expeditionary corps landing in Beirut, 16 August 1860

Maronite villagers building a church in Mount Lebanon, 1920s

In 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became successor to Korkmaz. He was a skilled politician and described as a pupil of Machiavelli. Fakhr-al-Din II adjusted to the lifestyles of the Druze, Christianity and Islam, according to his needs. He paid tribute to the Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire and shared the spoils of war with his masters. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sultan of Mt. Lebanon(SONY PCG-7Z2L battery), with full authority. He was considered one of the greatest rulers of the region, also across the Middle of Lebanon. But, his enemies and governors angered the Ottoman Sultanate. Hence, a campaign, calling for the arrest of Fakhr-al-Din II, found the deposed leader in Istanbul, where he was executed by hanging.[22] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mt. Lebanon that lasted more than 500 years was replaced, instead of the emirate meteor. Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druzes in 1860. (SONY PCG-8Y1L battery)

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, until 1918 when the area became a part of the French influence, following World War I. By the end of the war, famine had killed an estimated 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, about 30% of the total population.[24]

In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites(SONY PCG-8Y2L battery).

On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.[25] Lebanon was a largely Christian country (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims (including Druze). (SONY PCG-8Z2L battery)On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government.

Martyrs' Square in Beirut during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from Rashayya prison on November 22, 1943

Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[26] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation(SONY PCG-8Z1L battery). The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon(SONY PCG-7112L battery), de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison(SONY PCG-6W2L battery). In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and recognized the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox. (SONY PCG-5K1L battery)

U.S. Marines moving into Beirut during the 1958 Lebanon crisis

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[28]

In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government(SONY VGP-BPL8 battery), and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[29] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[30] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[31]

During the war, some 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, while Israel did not permit their return at the end of hostilities. (SONY VGP-BPS9 battery) Palestinians, previously prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work in some 20 professions after liberalization laws.[33] Today, more than 400,000 refugees remain in limbo, about half in camps.[34]

In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic(SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on July 15. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab.

With the defeat of PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their Armed resistance against the occupation in Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians vs. the Maronites and other Lebanese factions(SONY VGP-BPS9A battery).

In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976 Syria sent in its own troops, ostensibly to restore peace. In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force, which was charged with restoring calm. (SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery)

In 1982, the PLO presence in Lebanon led to an Israeli invasion. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. It returned in September 1982 after the assassination of Bashir Gemayel and the subsequent Sabra and Shatila massacre carried out by the Christian Phalange militia against Palestinians(SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984.[35]

In September 1988 the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians and the Muslims and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi- Moroccan-Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return. (SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery)

In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Accord, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalisation of the Lebanese political system.[35] The war ended at the end of 1990, after sixteen years. It resulting in massive loss of human life and property, and devastating the country's economy(SONY VGP-BPL9 battery). It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[36] Some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes.[37] Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[38] The Taif Accord has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon’s political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines(SONY VGP-BPS10 battery).

21st century

The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.[39]

Part of Rue Minet al Hosn, where Rafik Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005(SONY VGP-BPL10 battery)

On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion.[40] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,[41] while the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials claimed that the Mossad was behind the assassination.[42] The UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination. (SONY VGP-BPS11 battery) The UN International Independent Investigation Commission published its preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that high-ranking members of the Syrian and Lebanese governments were involved in the assassination.

The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing, (SONY VGP-BPL11 battery) and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.[49][50] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.[51]

Building in Ghaziyeh bombed by Israeli forces during the 2006 war

On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two.[52] Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War(SONY VGP-BPL12 battery). The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire.[53] Some 1,191 Lebanese[54] and 160 Israelis[55] were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military infrastructure was deeply embedded among the civilian population. (SONY VGP-BPS12 battery)

In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize. (SONY VGP-BPS13 battery)

Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president(SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery).

On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut,[58] leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon.[59] The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.[60] At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.[61] On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting(SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,[62] Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.[58] The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.[61]

In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon(SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery), which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.[63] The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.[64] Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.[65] A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the case an indictment against its members is issued by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. (SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery)

The 2012 Syrian civil war threatens to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.[67]

Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges

Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N, and longitudes 35° and 37° E(SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery).

The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.[68] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms. (SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery)

Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains.

The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches(SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10 km and 56 km; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine(SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180 km long and 10 to 26 km wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft). (SONY VGP-BPS21 battery)

The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.[68]

Nahr Ibrahim running through the lush Adonis gorge

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually(SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery) drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range. (SONY VGP-BPS13S battery)

Voice of America report about the replanting of the cedars as described.

In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees, the national emblem of the country.[72] As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old Cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth(SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri. In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20% that is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year. (SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery) The plan, which was funded the U.S. development agency, USAID, and overseen by the U.S. Forest Service, and the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, was inaugurated in 2011 by planting of seedlings, such as cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir and oak, in five regions around Lebanon.[76] The forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;[77] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season. (SONY VGP-BPS14 battery)

One of the many protests that occurred at Martyrs' Square

Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.[79] This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.[80][81] High-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim(SONY VGP-BPL14 battery), the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament Greek Orthodox.[82][83]

Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon. Its 128 seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.[84] Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians(SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery); however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[82] The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.[6]

The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-third majority(SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). The president appoints the Prime Minister,[85] following consultations with the parliament. The President and the Prime Minister form the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

The next nation-wide elections are scheduled for 2013.

The Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (heritage, marriage, divorce, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law. (SONY VGP-BPS22 battery) For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims. personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court. (SONY VGP-BPS22 battery)

The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the French Civil Code.[87] Capital punishment is still used to sanction certain crimes.[87]

The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds(SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.[89]

Main article: Foreign relations of Lebanon

Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization(SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery).

Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, Syria and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009(SONY VGP-BPS22A battery).

Soldiers of the Lebanese army, 2009

The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,[90] including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.[91] The motto of the Lebanese Armed Forces is "Honor, Sacrifice, Loyalty" (Arabic: "شرف · تضحية · وفاء"‎ – Sharaf.Tadhia.Wafa'). The Lebanese Armed Forces Emblem consists of a Lebanon Cedar tree surrounded by two laurel leaves, positioned above the symbols of the three branches(SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery): the ground forces represented by the two swords, the navy represented by an anchor, and the air force represented by two wings.

The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery)

Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.[93] With $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.[94]

Main articles: Governorates of Lebanon, Districts of Lebanon, and Municipalities of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —‎;singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة‎) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery) (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[95] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Lebanon’s economy follows a laissez-faire model.[96] Most of the economy is dollarized, and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.[96] The Lebanese government’s intervention in foreign trade is minimal. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery)

The Lebanese economy grew 8.5% in 2008 and a revised 9% in 2009[97] despite a global recession.[98] Real GDP growth is estimated to have slowed from 7.5% in 2010 to 1.5% in 2011, according to IMF preliminary estimates, with nominal GDP estimated at $41.5 billion in 2011.[96] The Banque du Liban projects real GDP growth could reach 4% in 2012, with 6% inflation (versus 4% in 2011). (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery) The political and security instability in the Arab world, especially in Syria, is expected to have a negative impact on the domestic business and economic environment.[96]

Lebanon faces major financial challenges, notably a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.[96] The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.[6] Finance minister Mohamad Chatah stated that the debt reached $47 billion in 2008 and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery) The Daily Star wrote that exorbitant debt levels have "slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects."[100]

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[101] Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[102] Remittances from Lebanese abroad total $8.2 billion[103] and account for one fifth of the country's economy.[104] Lebanon has the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery)

The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon. In 2001, Investment Law No.360[106] was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission.

The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,[91] cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[6] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery), begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery)

Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[110] and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.[12] The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,[111] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery) The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[112]

Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$ 1.5 billion pledged), (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery) the European Union (with about $1 billion)[114] and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[115]

Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world,[116] it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting only 12% of the total workforce, (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery)agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[10]

Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources.The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery)

Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[117] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[10]

The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)[117] attain employment in the services sector(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[10] However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.[119]

Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy have given it significant, though no longer dominant, economic status among Arab countries. Given the frequent turmoil it has faced, the Lebanese banking system has adopted a conservative approach(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery), with strict regulations imposed by the central bank to protect the economy from political instability. These regulations have generally left Lebanese banks unscathed by the Financial crisis of 2007–2010. Lebanese banks remain, under the current circumstances, high on liquidity and reputed for their security.[120] Lebanon was one of the only seven countries in the world in which the value of the stock markets increased in 2008. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery)

The tourism industry has been historically important to the local economy and remains a major source of revenue to this day. Between 2005 and 2007, a state of turmoil led to a sharp fall in tourism. Lebanon has seen a recovery in tourism since 2006.[122] Lebanon managed to attract around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as rank 79 out of 191 countries. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery) In 2009, the New York Times ranked Beirut the No. 1 travel destination worldwide due to its Unique Nightlife and Hospitality.[124] In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.[122] In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery)

Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan are the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.[126] The recent influx of Japanese tourists is probably the reason for the recent rise in popularity of Japanese Cuisine in Lebanon.[127]

Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon.

The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 4,125,247 in July 2010,[6] however no official census has been taken since 1932 due to the sensitive confessional political balance between Lebanon's various religious groups. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery)Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity since in reality, the Lebanese “are descended from many different peoples who have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world,” making Lebanon, “a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures”.[129] While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, “for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict”. (Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery)

Millions of people of Lebanese descent are spread throughout the world, mostly Christians,[130] especially in Latin America.[131] Brazil has the largest expatriate population.[132] (See Lebanese Brazilians). Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to West Africa,[133] particularly to the Ivory Coast (home to over 100,000 Lebanese) and Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese).[135] Australia is home to over 270,000 Lebanese (1999 est.). (Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery)

As of 2012, Lebanon was host to over 460,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 405,425 Palestinians,[6] 50,000–60,000 from Iraq,[137][138] over 80,000 from Syria,[139] and 4,500 from Sudan. Their primary sources of income are UNRWA aid and menial labor sought in competition with about 300,000 Syrian guest workers. (Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery)

In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive armed conflicts have ravaged the country. The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships. In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected in some way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict. (Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery)

Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East.[142]

Lebanon's population of the major religions are estimated to be 59% Muslim (30% Shia; 24% Sunni; 5% Druze), 41% Christian (21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Melkite Catholic, 7% other Christian groups such as Armenian Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant).[143] The rest of the population in Lebanon include those of other religions and non believers(Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery).

Over the past 60 years, there has been a steady decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.[144] The most recent study conducted by Statistics Lebanon, a Beirut-based research firm, found that approximately 27% of the population was Sunni, 27% Shi'a, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery) 5% Greek Catholic, and 7% other Christian sects such as Armenians who are 4% of the population and Syriac Orthodox.[144] There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – 4 Muslim, 12 Christian, 1 Druze, and 1 Jewish.

The Shi'a community is estimated to be 27%[144] of Lebanon's total population. Shi'a residents primarily live in South Beirut, the Beqaa Valley, and southern Lebanon.[145]

The Sunni community is estimated to be 27% of Lebanon's total population.[144] Sunni residents primarily live in West Beirut, the southern coast of Lebanon, and northern Lebanon. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery) Kurds in Lebanon are Sunni Muslims.

The Maronite community is estimated to be approximately 21% of Lebanon's total population.[144] Maronite residents tend to live in East Beirut and the mountains of Lebanon.[145] They are the largest Christian community in Lebanon.[145]

The Greek Orthodox community is estimated to be approximately 8% of Lebanon's total population(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery). Greek Orthodox residents primarily live in Koura, Beirut, Zahleh, Rachaya, Matn, Aley, Akkar, Tripoli, Hasbaya and Marjeyoun. They are the second largest Christian community in Lebanon and the 4th largest religious community in the country.

Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language may be used".[146] The majority of Lebanese people speak Lebanese Arabic, while Modern Standard Arabic is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery). Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% "partial francophone," and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.[147] By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.[147] The use of French is a legacy of the post-World War I League of Nations mandate over Lebanon given to France; as of 2004, some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery) It should be noted, however, that Arabic is increasingly becoming less and less used by Lebanon's educated youth, who prefer to speak in French and English.

The advent of social networks and internet communications made Lebanese people adopt a romanization system for writing Lebanese Arabic, which is based on transcription of the spoken syllables. This system [151] has rapidly gained wide adoption since it allows communication with the Lebanese diaspora overseas(Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery), and helps in teaching Lebanese Arabic online [152] without requiring a specific keyboard.

English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.[153] Lebanese people of Armenian, Assyrian, or Greek descent often speak Armenian, Neo-Aramaic, or Greek with varying degrees of fluency. There are currently around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery)

The culture of Lebanon is the cross culture of various civilizations over thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population(Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery), composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine.

Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they “share an almost common culture”.[155] Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted “in wider Mediterranean and Levantine norms”.[155]

In literature, Khalil Gibran is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into more than twenty different languages. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schehadé.

In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. Many more contemporary artists are currently active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist currently residing in New York. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery)

In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of +400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection(Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery).

The Music of Lebanon is pervasive in Lebanese society.[159] While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity.[160] Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian[161] and modern French, English, American, and Latin tunes. (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery)

Cinema of Lebanon, according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only other cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, beside Egypt's, that could amount to a national cinema.[163] Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films, (Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery)

The Media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.[165] According to Press freedom's Reporters Without Borders, "the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country".[166] Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is "at the core of a regional media network with global implications".(Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery)

Main article: Public holidays in Lebanon

Lebanon celebrates national and both Christian and Muslim holidays. Christian holidays are celebrated following both the Gregorian Calendar and Julian Calendar. Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestant, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December. Armenian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar(Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son to God,the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning) (Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day.

Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.[168] Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Byblos International Festival, Beiteddine International Festival, Broumana Festival, Batroun Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival. These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's Ministry of Tourism(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.[170]

Both summer and winter sports thrive in Lebanon because of the unique geography. In autumn and spring, for example, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.[171] At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon’s most popular sports(Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the AFC Asian Cup and the Pan Arab Games.

Lebanon has six ski resorts, with opportunities also available for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access hiking trails, with views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.

Rugby league is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon. The Lebanon national rugby league team participated in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery), and narrowly missed qualification for the 2008 and 2013 tournaments. Lebanon also took part in the 2009 European Cup where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated Ireland to finish 3rd in the tournament. Lebanon international Hazem El Masri holds the record as the all-time highest points scorer in Australia's National Rugby League, having moved from Lebanon to Australia as a child(Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery).

The strongest sport in Lebanon is Basketball with the Lebanese National Team qualifying for the FIBA World Championship 3 times in a row. Considered as one of the basketball power houses in Asia, Lebanon was able to defeat strong teams such as Venezuela and France. In 2010 FIBA World Championship, Lebanon defeated Canada national men's basketball team but failed to qualify to the second round(Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery). Lebanese Rony Seikaly played in the NBA for over a decade, and Fadi El Khatib is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League. Dominant Basketball teams in Lebanon are Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, who are the current Arab and Asian champions, Club Sagesse who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before, along with Champville SC, Al Mouttahed Tripoli, and Hoops Club,and Byblos(Sony VGN-NR11S Battery).

Football is also one of the more popular sports in the country with the Lebanese Premier League with its most successful clubs being Al-Ansar Club and Nejmeh SC with notable players being Roda Antar and Youssef Mohamad, the first Arab to captain a European premier league team.

Lebanon hosted the 2009 Jeux de la Francophonie from 27 September to 6 October, and have participated in every Olympic Games since its independence, winning a total of four medals(Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).

Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include Samir Bannout, Mohammad Bannout and Ahmad Haidar.

The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating. (Sony VGN-CR11S Battery)

All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Some of the 1400 private schools offer IB programs,[173] and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, Arabic, and at least one secondary language (either French or English) (Sony VGN-CR11M Battery).

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all) (Sony VGN-CR11E Battery). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offers a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks sufficient opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery).

Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively. Another prestigious and internationally recognized university is the Lebanese American University.[178] Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English. (Sony VGN-CR21S Battery)

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery), in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The university academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery).

Beirut (Arabic: بيروت‎ Bayrūt, Greek: Βηρυττός, Latin: Berytus, Aramaic: Birot בירות, French: Beyrouth) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As there has been no recent population census, the exact population is unknown; estimates in 2007 ranged from slightly more than 1 million to slightly less than 2 million. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). The Beirut metropolitan area consists of the city and its suburbs. The first mention of this metropolis is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters, dating from the 15th century BC. The city has been inhabited continuously since then.

Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in its Central District, Hamra Street, Rue Verdun and Ashrafieh(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). The city is the focal point of the region's cultural life, renowned for its press, theatres, cultural activities and nightlife. After the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beirut underwent major reconstruction, and the redesigned historic city centre, marina, pubs and nightlife districts have once again made it a tourist attraction.

Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[5] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year. (Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery)

In 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5 billion.[7]

Several prehistoric archaeological sites were discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic, and through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.

Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as "Beyrouth ville" by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut. (Sony VGN-CR41S Battery) The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[10] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[11]

Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by Burkhalter to have been north of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around one hundred meters above sea level. The site was built on and destroyed by 1948.[11]

Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland. (Sony VGN-CR41E Battery) P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area. (Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery)

Beirut IV, or Furn esh Shebbak, river banks, was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[10] Raoul Describes[13] and Auguste Bergy. (Sony VGN-CR42S Battery) Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. A large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings(Sony VGN-CR42E Battery).

Beirut V, or Nahr Beirut (Beirut River), was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[14] The area has now been built on. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery)

Beirut VI, or Patriarchate, was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the Néolithique Ancien or Néolithique Moyen periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery)

Beirut VII, or Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[11] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery)

The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby. The port or harbor was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city.[17] Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities under Hicham Sayegh, a B.A. graduate from the Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching at Marburg in Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). The exact function of site BEY194 may now never be discovered, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.

Beirut's history goes back more than 5,000 years.[21] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, its antiquity is indicated by its name, derived from the Canaanite be'erot ("wells"), referring to the underground water table that is still tapped by the local inhabitants for general use. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery), Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader and Ottoman remains.[24] The first historical reference to Beirut dates from the 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the cuneiform[23] tablets of the Amarna letters, three letters that Ammunira of Biruta[25] (Beirut) sent to the pharaoh of Egypt.[26] Biruta is also referenced in the letters from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). The oldest settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up. The city was known in antiquity as Berytus. This name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut.[27]

In 140 BC the city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Macedonian Seleucid monarchy. Beirut was soon rebuilt on a more conventional Hellenistic plan and renamed Laodicea in Phoenicia (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery) (Greek: Λαοδικεια ή του Φοινίκη) or Laodicea in Canaan in honor of a Seleucid Laodice. The modern city overlies the ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the end of the civil war in 1991. Large sites in the devastated city center have now been opened to archaeological exploration. A dig in 1994 established that one of Beirut's modern streets, Souk Tawile, still follows the lines of an ancient Greek and Roman one(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery).

Mid first century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. Beirut was conquered by Agrippa in 64 BC. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery)

In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colonia and was named Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus. Its law school was widely known;[32] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. After the 551 Beirut earthquake the students were transferred to Sidon. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery)

View of Beirut with snow-capped Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century

[edit]Middle Ages

Beirut passed into Arab control in 635[29][35] and was ruled by the Arslan Family, Arabs from Yemen descended from the Lakhmids,[citation needed] from 635 to 1110.[citation needed] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin-el-Fil in Beirut in 759 AD. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery) As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291 it was in the hands of the Crusaders' Kingdom of Jerusalem. John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut (1179–1236) rebuilt the city after the battles with Saladin and also built the Ibelin family palace in Beirut.[35]

Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[36] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century,[37] but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery) With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[38] Beirut began its revival(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery).

View of Beirut's Grand Serail- circa 1930

By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery), power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[39] This in turn altered the ethnic composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future ethnic and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery). This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[40]

In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[41] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[42] By this time, Beirut had grown into a very cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. (Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery) It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned impressive educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbor in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery). French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners. At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery). Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city.

An aerial panoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century

The Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became its capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery). This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country.[43][44] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[45] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976) (Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly bombed the eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery). In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.

Promenading on Avenue de Paris section of the Corniche Beirut

Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, and by the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual center in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery). The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has been host to the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant eight times, 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery).

Former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Bay in Beirut. A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut. The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[53] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[54] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008. (Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery)

During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the poorer and largely Shiite South Beirut.

In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army. After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery). The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's camp in the capital was removed.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Beirut seen from SPOT satellite

Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea[56] about 94 km (58 mi) north of the Lebanon-Israel border.[57] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape(Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery), largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[56] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.

Beirut has a Mediterranean climate characterized by warm days and nights, yet summers can be virtually rainless. Autumn and spring are cool, with rainy winters(Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery). August is considered the only really hot month, with a monthly average high temperature of 32 °C (90 °F), and January and February are the coldest months, with a monthly average low temperature of 11 °C (52 °F). The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea(Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery).

The average annual rainfall is 901 millimetres (35.5 in), with the majority falling in winter, autumn and spring. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over a large number of days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall is common due to the region's high altitudes. Large snowstorms, (Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery) however, occurred in 1920, 1942 and 1950.

No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[63] and estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940[64] through 1,303,129[65] to as high as 2,012,000.[66]

Saint George Maronite Cathedral and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque coexist side by side in Beirut's central district(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery).

Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[67] The city boasts significant Christian and Muslim communities. There are nine major religious groups in Beirut: Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Protestant, Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim, and Druze. Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system) (Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Until the mid-20th century, Beirut was also home to a Jewish community in the Bab Idriss sector of Zokak el-Blat. In the 2009 Lebanese general elections, 435,462 people voted in Beirut: 192,910 (45%) were Sunni Muslims, 60,202 (14%) Shia Muslims, 46,744 (11%) Armenian Orthodox, 42,728 (10%) Greek Orthodox, 24,800 (6%) Maronite Catholics, 18,923 (4%) Greek Catholics, 9,623 (2%) Armenian Catholics, 6,883 (1%) Protestants, 21,806 (5%) other Christians, 5,374 (1%) Jews, 5,251 (1%) Druze, 218 Alawis(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery).

Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict. East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Muslim majority with sizeable minorities of Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half(SONY VGP-BPS10A battery). The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. Northern Beirut has also had a large Lebanese Protestant community since the 19th century.

The city has five dioceses within its territory. The Maronite Catholic Church has had an episcopal see since 1577, currently under Archbishop Paul Youssef Matar, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, under Archbishop Cyril Salim Bustros(SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery). It also has the Armenian Church under the jurisdiction of Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni, as well as the Chaldean Catholic Church which has had a presence in the city since 1957. It also has the Syriac Catholic Church under the jurisdication of Ignatius Joseph III Yonan.[citation needed]

The city is also home to a small number of Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar(SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery).

The Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut’s historical and geographical core, the “vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country."[68] It is an area thousand of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments. (SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery)Due to the devastation incurred on the city center from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organizations(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E battery), reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city center.[70]

Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centers.[71] The district's total area is 4,690,000 square meters(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L battery), the majority of which is dedicated to office space (1,565,000 sq meters). The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totaling to an area of 96 acres (39 ha) of open spaces. This makes the BCD home to 50% of the entire public spaces in Beirut(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M battery).

The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S battery), recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterized the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades.[73] Solidere, the company entrusted with the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organizes music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival... etc(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G battery).

The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries.

From the 1950s to the start of the conflict in 1975, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[74] Middle East Airlines has its head office in Beirut,[75] and the Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, is headquartered there. The governor of the Central Bank of Lebanon is Riad Salameh. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L battery)

Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[77] The Lebanese Parliament,[78] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[79] The Beirut Governorate is one of six mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, a state governorate). The others are Beqaa, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Mount Lebanon and Nabatiye(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E battery).

The city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[82][83] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[84] the Union of Arab Banks[85] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[86] are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[87] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[88] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18E battery).

Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by technical and vocational institutes, university colleges, university institutes and universities. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[89] The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university Institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18G battery)

Among the private schools in Beirut are the American Community School, the City International School, the Collège Notre-Dame de Jamhour, International College, the Carmel Saint-Joseph, the Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[90] the Collège Protestant Français, the Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, the Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, the Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, the Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18S battery), the Armenian Evangelical Central High School, the German School of Beirut and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College Djemaran.

The higher education system is based on the Lebanese Baccalaureate, but the French Baccalaureate is accepted as equivalent. Before being admitted to any higher education institution, one must pass the Baccalaureate examinations. Baccalaureate technique is an alternative to credentials. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18T battery)

Foreign students who wish to study in Lebanese higher education institutions must also meet Lebanese qualifications. Their examinations must be equivalent to the Baccalaureate system before they are granted admission. They are not subject to any special quota system, and scholarships are granted within the framework of bilateral agreements concluded with other countries. (Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19VN battery) Degrees obtained outside Lebanon must be certified by the Lebanese embassy abroad and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Lebanon. Candidates must then go in person to the Secretariat of the Equivalence Committee with required documents.

The museum of the American University of Beirut

The American University of Beirut is the oldest university in the country and the region. Founded by American Protestant missionaries in 1862, it opened in 1866 as the Syrian Protestant College, with Dr. Daniel Bliss as its first president, and 16 students(SONY Vaio VGN-SR11M Battery). It was renamed the American University of Beirut in 1920. The university and several of its programs and faculties are accredited by US bodies, and its degrees are recognized by the Lebanese government through the equivalence committees of the Ministry of Education and Higher Education(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/B Battery).

Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies. LAU also offers an architecture degree equivalent to the French DEA, allowing graduates to practice in the European Union.

Other universities in Beirut include the University of Balamand (Faculty of Health Sciences), Université Saint-Joseph, and École Supérieure des Affaires (business school) and Beirut Arab University, as well as the Lebanese International University (LIU) with its many campuses across Lebanon(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/P Battery).

The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. It can be reached by any means of transport, whether buses or taxis. The service taxis are cheaper than normal taxis, but to avoid misunderstandings, the price should be agreed before setting off on a journey.[97] The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/S Battery). As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by ferry from Cyprus via the city of Jounieh or by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[97]

Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery)

The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congested-chocked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars. Beirut is the city in the world where vehicles enter and exit the greatest on a daily basis, in ratio to its size and population(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/B battery).

The Garden Show & Spring Festival at the Beirut Hippodrome

The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. The ruins of downtown Beirut have been found to contain seven layers of civilization. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/P battery)

Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[99][100] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/S battery)

Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[104] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[105] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as 'The Alleyway' in Hamra Street(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery).

The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[106] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artifacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery) Sursock Museum was built by the Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa and then donated to the Lebanese state. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings and numerous works of Islamic art, and temporary exhibitions are shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery)Planet Discovery is a children’s science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[109] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery)

Beirut is the main center in Lebanon for the television, newspaper, and book publishing industries. The television stations include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, New TV, Al-Manar, NBN, ANB and Future TV Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, LBC Sat, Fox, Al Jazeera, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF. Newspapers include An-Nahar, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery), Al Anwar, Al Sharq, French language L'Orient Le Jour and the English language Daily Star. Together with Cairo and Dubai, Beirut is one of the main media hubs in the Arab world.

Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup. There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium.

Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently,[when?] four Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League Division 1: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Hoops Club and Antranik SC(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery).

Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut.

There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. There are more than 5000 active artists[citation needed] and equal numbers are producing music(Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery), design, architecture, theatre, film, photography and other forms of art in Lebanon. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. Recently,[when?] the inauguration of the Beirut Art Center in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, bookstore, cafe and terrace(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery). Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs.

A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[113] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery)

Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[114] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked 9th best city in the world.[115] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[116] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery) Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[117] In 2012, San Diego television channel WealthTV will feature Beirut, its culture and its people as a part of the travel series Uncover. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery)

The ministry of tourism began an initiative in early 2012 to publicize Lebanon outside of the Middle East for the first time with the aim of attracting more tourists to the country. The "Only Lebanon" campaign, an enlargement of the original government-owned tourism publicity, has grown popularity among foreigners who knew little or nothing about Lebanon. The main tourist seasons in the country are the beach seasons in Summer and the skiing season in Winter(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery). Beirut witnesses the largest number of tourists in the country with its luxurious hotels, refurbished central district and sea promenade, and its glitzy nightlife and shopping areas.