Edmonton is the capital of the Canadian province of Alberta, Canada. Edmonton is on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, which is surrounded by the central region of the province. The city and its census metropolitan area had respective populations of 812,201 and 1,159,869 as of the 2011 Census Dell Latitude E5420 Battery, making it Alberta's second-largest city, Canada's fifth-largest municipality and Canada's sixth-largest metropolitan area by population. Edmonton is the northernmost North American city with a metropolitan population over one million. A resident of Edmonton is known as an Edmontonian.[6] The majority of Edmonton's metropolitan population lives within the City of Edmonton rather than in the surrounding suburban municipalities Dell Latitude E5520 Battery. Historically, Edmonton was surrounded by few other urban municipalities (Strathcona, Beverly and Jasper Place being the largest) but these were absorbed through amalgamation or annexation. Edmonton annexed a significant amount of land up until the early 1980s, and as a result it has sustained much of the region's suburban growth within its own boundaries Dell Latitude E6120 Battery. Edmonton serves as the northern anchor of the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor and is a staging point for large-scale oil sands projects occurring in northern Alberta and large-scale diamond mining operations in the Northwest Territories. Edmonton is a cultural, governmental and educational centre. It hosts a year-round slate of festivals, reflected in the nickname "The Festival City." Dell Latitude E6220 BatteryIt is home to North America's largest mall, West Edmonton Mall (the world's largest mall from 1981 until 2004), and Fort Edmonton Park, Canada's largest living history museum.[10] In 2004, Edmonton celebrated the centennial of its incorporation as a city. History Further information: History of Edmonton and Timeline of Edmonton history The first inhabitants settled in the area that is now Edmonton around 3,000 BC and perhaps as early as 12,000 BC, when an ice-free corridor opened up as the last ice age ended and timber, water, and wildlife became available in the region. Dell Latitude E6320 BatteryIn 1754, Anthony Henday, an explorer working for the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), may have been the first European to enter the Edmonton area.[13] His expeditions across the Canadian Prairies were mainly to seek contact with the aboriginal population for the purpose of establishing the fur trade, as competition was fierce between the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company Dell Latitude E6420 Battery. By 1795, Fort Edmonton was established on the north bank of the river, as a major trading post for the Hudson's Bay Company. The name of the new fort was suggested by John Peter Pruden after Edmonton, London, the home town of both the HBC deputy governor Sir James Winter Lake, and Pruden. The coming of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) to southern Alberta in 1885 helped the Edmonton economy Dell Latitude E6520 Battery, and the 1891 building of the Calgary and Edmonton Railway resulted in the emergence of a railway townsite (South Edmonton/Strathcona) on the south side of the river, across from Edmonton. The arrival of the CPR and the Calgary & Edmonton Railway facilitated the arrival of settlers and entrepreneurs from eastern Canada, Britain and continental Europe, U.S. and other parts of the world Dell Latitude D420 Battery. The fertile soil and cheap land in the Edmonton area helped attract settlers, further establishing Edmonton as a major regional commercial and agricultural centre. Some people participating in the Klondike Gold Rush passed through South Edmonton/Strathcona in 1897. Strathcona was the northernmost railway point in North America, but travel to the Klondike was still very difficult for the "Klondikers," and a majority of them took a steamship north to the Yukon from Vancouver Dell Latitude D430 Battery. Incorporated as a town in 1892 with a population of 700 and then as a city in 1904 with a population of 8,350,[16] Edmonton became the capital of Alberta when the province was formed a year later, on September 1, 1905. In November 1905, the Canadian Northern Railway (CNR) arrived in Edmonton, accelerating growth Dell Studio 1450 Battery. During the early 1900s, Edmonton grew very rapidly, causing speculation in real estate. In 1912, Edmonton amalgamated with the City of Strathcona, south of the North Saskatchewan River; as a result, the city extended south of the North Saskatchewan River for the first time. Just prior to World War I, the boom ended, and the city's population declined sharply from more than 72,000 in 1914 to less than 54,000 only two years later. Dell Studio 1457 Battery Many impoverished families moved to subsistence farms outside the city and others fled to greener pastures in other provinces.[21] Recruitment to the Canadian army during the war also contributed to the drop in population. Afterwards, the city slowly recovered in population and economy during the 1920s and 1930s and took off again during and after World War II Dell Studio 1458 Battery. Many Canadian bi-plane pilots who survived the war became bush pilots.[citation needed] Edmonton, in its role as Gateway to the North[23] established one of the earliest airfields in Canada.[23] It became the first licensed airfield in Canada, Blatchford Field (now Edmonton City Centre (Blatchford Field) Airport), in 1929. Dell Latitude D410 BatteryPioneering aviators such as Wilfrid R. "Wop" May and Max Ward used Blatchford Field as a major base for the distribution of mail, food, and medicine to Northern Canada; hence Edmonton's role as the "Gateway to the North" was strengthened. World War II saw Edmonton becoming a major base for the construction of the Alaska Highway and the Northwest Staging Route Dell Inspiron 9100 Battery. Geography Edmonton is located on the North Saskatchewan River, and sits at an elevation of 668 metres (2,192 ft).[26] Edmonton is the most northerly city in North America with a metropolitan population of over one million. It is at the same latitude as Hamburg, Germany, Manchester, England, and Magnitogorsk, Russia. North as it is, it is south of the geographic centre of Alberta Dell Inspiron 1320 Battery, which is located near the Hamlet of Fort Assiniboine. The terrain in and around Edmonton is generally flat to gently rolling, with ravines and deep river valleys, such as the North Saskatchewan River valley. The Canadian Rockies are located approximately 220 km (140 mi) to the southwest. The North Saskatchewan River originates at the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park and bisects the city. It empties via the Saskatchewan River Dell Inspiron 910 Battery, Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson River into Hudson Bay.[29] It runs from the southwest to the northeast and is fed by numerous creeks throughout the city, such as Mill Creek, Whitemud Creek and Blackmud Creek; this creates numerous ravines, some of which are used for urban parkland.[30] Edmonton is situated at the boundary between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north, in a transitional area known as aspen parkland Dell Inspiron 1470 Battery. However, the aspen woods and forests in and around Edmonton have long since been reduced by farming and other human activities, such as oil and natural gas exploration. Edmonton has a relatively dry humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb, USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 3a) with extreme seasonal temperatures—although the city has milder winters than either Regina or Winnipeg, both located at a latitude farther south Dell Inspiron 1570 Battery, because it is farther west and is kept relatively warm by the prevailing winds coming off the Pacific Ocean (compare Europe versus Siberia, which are at similar latitudes in Eurasia). It has warm summers and cold winters, with the average daily temperatures ranging from −11.7 °C (10.9 °F) in January to 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in July.[35] Annually, temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F) on an average of four to five days dell inspiron 500M battery (but can occur often, anytime from late April to mid September) and fall below −20 °C (−4 °F) on an average of 28 days. The highest temperature recorded within the City of Edmonton was 38.3 °C (100.9 °F), on August 5, 1998.[36] Some areas, however, such as the City of St. Albert and Sherwood Park, recorded temperatures of 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) on July 22, 2006. The lowest temperature ever recorded at City Centre Airport was −40.6 °C (−41.1 °F) on January 26 dell inspiron 600M battery, 1972[37] - this was the only time since recordings began at the airport in 1953 that a temperature below −40 °C (−40 °F) has been recorded there. The lowest overall temperature ever recorded in Edmonton was −49.4 °C (−56.9 °F), on January 19 and 21, 1886. The year 2006 was a particularly warm one for Edmonton, as temperatures reached 29 °C (84 °F) or higher more than twenty times during the year, from as early as Mid-May and again in early September. Typically, summer lasts from late June until early September dell inspiron 640M battery, and the humidity is seldom uncomfortably high. Winter lasts from November to March, and varies greatly in length and severity. Spring and autumn are both short and highly variable. Edmonton's growing season is from May 7 to September 23;[39] Edmonton averages 140 frost free days a year.[40] At the summer solstice, Edmonton receives seventeen hours and six minutes of daylight dell inspiron 6000 battery, with twilight extending throughout the entire night during summer. Edmonton receives 2,299 hours of sunshine per year and is one of Canada's sunniest cities. The Edmonton Tornado Edmonton has a fairly dry climate. On average, Edmonton receives 476.9 millimetres (18.78 in) of precipitation, of which 365.7 millimetres (14.40 in) is rain and 111.2 millimetres (4.38 in) is the melt from 123.5 centimetres (48.6 in) of snowfall per annum dell inspiron 6400 battery. Precipitation is heaviest in the late spring, summer, and early autumn. The wettest month is July, while the driest months are February, March, October, and November.[35] In July, the mean precipitation is 91.7 mm (3.61 in).[35] Droughts are not uncommon and may occur at any time of the year. Extremes do occur, such as the 114 mm (4.49 in) of rainfall that fell on July 31, 1953 dell inspiron 9200 battery. Summer thunderstorms can be frequent and occasionally severe enough to produce large hail, damaging winds, funnel clouds, and even tornadoes. However, tornadoes near Edmonton are far weaker and short-lived compared to their counterparts farther south. Dangerous weather events are rare in Edmonton, and the F4 tornado that struck Edmonton on July 31, 1987, killing 27, was unique in many respects, including severity, duration, damage, and casualties dell inspiron 9300 battery. It is commonly referred to as Black Friday due both to its aberrant characteristics and the emotional shock it generated.[42] A massive cluster of thunderstorms occurred on July 11, 2004, with large hail and over 100 mm (3.94 in) of rain reported within the space of an hour in many places.[43] This "1-in-200 year event" flooded major intersections and underpasses and damaged both residential and commercial properties. The storm caused extensive damage to West Edmonton Mall dell inspiron 9400 battery; a small glass section of the roof collapsed under the weight of the rainwater, causing water to drain onto the mall's indoor ice rink. As a result, the mall was forced to undergo an evacuation as a precautionary measure. Parkland and environment See also: North Saskatchewan River valley parks system Streambed in Hawrelak Park Edmonton's river valley constitutes the longest stretch of connected urban parkland in North America, and Edmonton has the highest per capita area of parkland of any Canadian city; the river valley is 22 times larger than New York City's Central Park dell inspiron e1505 battery. The public river valley parks provide a unique urban escape area, with park styles ranging from fully serviced urban parks to campsitelike facilities with few amenities. This main "Ribbon of Green" is supplemented by numerous neighbourhood parks located throughout the city, to give a total of 111 km2 (27,400 acres) of parkland. Within the 7,400 ha (18,000 acres) dell inspiron e1705 battery, 25 km (16 mi)-long river valley park system, there are 11 lakes, 14 ravines, and 22 major parks, and most of the city has accessible bike and walking trail connections.[47] These trails are also part of the 235 km (146 mi) Waskahegan walking trail. The City of Edmonton has named five parks in its River Valley Parks System in honour of each of "The Famous Five". Edmonton's streets and parklands are also home to one of the largest remaining concentrations of healthy American elm trees in the world dell latitude d820 battery, unaffected by Dutch elm disease, which has wiped out vast numbers of such trees in eastern North America. Jack pine, lodgepole pine, white spruce, white birch, aspen, mountain ash, Amur maple, Russian olive, green ash, basswood, various poplars and willows, flowering crabapple, Mayday tree and Manitoba maple are also abundant; bur oak, silver maple, hawthorn and Ohio buckeye are increasingly popular. Other introduced tree species include white ash dell latitude d830 battery, blue spruce, Norway maple, red oak, sugar maple, common horse-chestnut, McIntosh apple, and Evans cherry. Three walnut species—butternut, Manchurian walnut, and black walnut—have survived in Edmonton. Several golf courses, both public and private, are also located in the river valley; the long summer daylight hours of this northern city provide for extended play from early morning well into the evening. Dell Latitude E5500 BatteryGolf courses and the park system become a winter recreation area during this season, and cross-country skiing and skating are popular during the long winter. Four downhill ski slopes are located in the river valley as well, two within the city and two immediately outside. Neighbourhoods See also: List of neighbourhoods in Edmonton Oliver, Edmonton Edmonton has numerous distinct neighbourhoods.[53] Downtown Edmonton consists of the Commercial Core, the Arts District, Rice Howard Way, McKay Avenue, Jasper-West, the Warehouse District and the Government Precinct (also known as Grandin) Dell Latitude E5400 Battery. The Commercial Core and Rice Howard Way double as Edmonton's Central Business District and the Arts District is home to most of Edmonton's main cultural buildings like the Art Gallery of Alberta. The Warehouse District is home to some old brick warehouses (most have been converted to lofts and condominiums) from when the area was the City's main industrial area and at the same time is one of the most up and coming districts in the City with lots of new construction underway or planned DELL Latitude E5410 Battery. McKay Avenue is home to many residential towers and some of the Downtown hotels and is fairly quiet, compared to the Government District which is home to the lively Alberta Legislature and many government offices. Radiating from the core are many older urban neighbourhoods. Oliver, immediately west of Downtown Edmonton, is often mistakenly considered as part of the Downtown due to its high density condos and apartments dell latitude e6400 battery. Between the old character homes of Westmount and mid and high rises of Oliver is 124 Street which is home to many art galleries and restaurants. Further west of Westmount is Glenora, where the Royal Alberta Museum is located and lots of beautiful old Scottish-inspired mansions. To the east of Downtown is Boyle Street which is one of the lower income neighbourhoods of the city and has many walk up apartments and old brick buildings dell latitude e6500 battery. Northeast of Downtown is McCauley, which is one of the most ethnically diverse areas of the city and home to Edmonton's Little Italy and part of Edmonton's Chinatown. Also northeast of Downtown is Alberta Avenue and Parkdale, which are formerly run-down neighbourhoods that are undergoing revitalization with young families and artists moving in DELL Latitude E6510 Battery. Immediately across the river from Downtown Edmonton is Strathcona, which is full of character and home to the vibrant Whyte Avenue. Straddled between the main campus of University of Alberta and Strathcona is Garneau, which has many independent cafes and French-Canadian inspired homes. To the southeast of Downtown are neighbourhoods such as Cloverdale and Bonnie Doon DELL Precision M2400 Battery, which are relatively quiet. Bonnie Doon Shopping Centre is located within Bonnie Doon and the Muttart Conservatory is located within Cloverdale. McCauley Edmonton then gives way to matured suburbs that first began to appear in the 1940s through to around 1970. Neighbourhoods such as Strathearn, Rundle Heights, Jasper Park, and Empire Park have many 1950s and 1960s style walk up apartments and townhouse complexes alongside single family homes and mom and pop businesses dell xps m1210 battery. These neighbourhoods tend to not be thought of as much as suburbs as the post-1970 suburbs. Post-1970 suburbs are much less matured and tend to not have back alleys for houses and instead opt for front-car garages so that cars are more convenient. One of the most well-known suburbs from the 1970s and 1980s is Mill Woods, a collection of neighbourhoods in southeast Edmonton. It is often incorrectly referred to as "Millwoods," DELL Precision M6400 Battery due to a typographical mistake on street signs dating back to the neighbourhood's inception. Other areas where new suburbs popped up in the 1970s and 1980s into the early 1990s are Belmont and Kirkness in the area generally considered "Clareview" in Northeast Edmonton; areas around Blue Quill and Lendrum Place in the southwest; and areas around Belmead and Callingwood in the west DELL Precision M6500 Battery. Most of the newer suburban growth in the City of Edmonton has occurred in Southwest Edmonton around Terwillegar. More recently, many new suburban neighbourhoods have begun to pop up outside of Edmonton's ring road, Anthony Henday Drive, such as Summerside, Ellerslie, Windermere, The Hamptons, and Rutherford. Many of these are home to small recreational lakes and newer suburban strip malls dell xps m1330 battery. Still, there are many new neighbourhoods going up within the ring road, such as The Meadows, east of Mill Woods and Carlton and Cumberland in Northwest Edmonton east of St. Albert Trail. Several transit-oriented developments (TOD) have begun to appear along the LRT line at Clareview, with future developments planned at Belvedere (part of the Old Town Fort Road Redevelopment Project). Another TOD, called Century Park dell xps m1530 battery, is being constructed at the site of what was once Heritage Mall, at the southern end of the LRT line. Century Park will eventually house up to 5,000 residents. The Edmonton City Centre airport is planned to be developed into a TOD. Metropolitan area Main article: Edmonton Capital Region Edmonton is at the centre of Canada's sixth largest census metropolitan area (CMA) that includes Edmonton and 34 other municipalities in the surrounding area. Larger communities include the Urban Service Area of Sherwood Park (part of Strathcona County) dell xps m1710 battery, the cities of St. Albert, Leduc, Spruce Grove and Fort Saskatchewan, and the towns of Stony Plain, Beaumont, Morinville, and Devon. Major employment areas outside of Edmonton but within the CMA include the Nisku Industrial Business Park and the Edmonton International Airport (including a planned inland port logistics support facility in support of the Port Alberta initiative)[58] in Leduc County, the Acheson Industrial Area in Parkland County dell xps m1730 battery, Refinery Row in Strathcona County and Alberta's Industrial Heartland within portions of Fort Saskatchewan, Strathcona County and Sturgeon County. Alberta's Industrial Heartland also extends beyond the CMA's northeastern boundary into a portion of Lamont County. The individual economic development interests and costs of service delivery in certain municipalities within the region has led to intermunicipal competition, strained intermunicipal relationships and overall fragmentation of the region Dell Vostro 1710 Battery. Although several attempts have been made by the City of Edmonton to absorb surrounding municipalities[59] or annex portions of its neighbours,[60] the city has not absorbed another municipality since the Town of Jasper Place joined Edmonton on August 17, 1964 and the city has not annexed land from any of its neighbours since January 1, 1982 Dell Vostro 1720 Battery. After years of mounting pressure in the early 21st century, the Province of Alberta formed the Capital Region Board (CRB) on April 15, 2008.[63] The CRB consists of 24 member municipalities – 22 of which are within the Edmonton CMA and two of which are outside the CMA. Main article: Demographics of Edmonton Sacred Heart Church, on "Church Street" (96 Street) in Edmonton's inner city area. The population of the City of Edmonton according to its 2012 municipal census is 817,498, a 4.5% increase over its 2009 municipal census population of 782,439 dell studio xps 1340 battery. In the 2011 Census, the City of Edmonton had a population of 812,201 living in 324,756 of its 348,672 total dwellings, an 11.2% change from its 2006 population of 730,372. With a land area of 684.37 km2 (264.24 sq mi), it had a population density of 1,186.786/km2 (3,073.763/sq mi) in 2011 dell studio xps 13 battery. According to the 2006 census, there were 730,372 residents within the city of Edmonton proper, compared to 3,290,350 for all of Alberta. The total population of the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) was 1,034,945. In the five years between 2001 and 2006, the population of the city of Edmonton proper grew by 9.6%, compared with an increase of 10.4% for the Edmonton CMA and 10.6% for Alberta as a whole dell Studio XPS 16 battery. The population density of the city of Edmonton proper averaged 1,067.2 people per square kilometre (2,764/sq mi), compared with an average of 5.1 people per square kilometre (13.2/sq mi) for Alberta altogether. In mid-2006, 11.9% of Edmonton's population were of retirement age (65 and over for males and females) compared with 13.7% in Canada. The median age was 35.3 years of age, compared to 37.6 years of age for all of Canada dell Studio XPS 1640 battery. Also, according to the 2006 census, 50.5% of the population within the city of Edmonton proper were female, while 49.5% were male. Children under five accounted for approximately 5.6% of the resident population of Edmonton. This compares with 6.2% in Alberta, and almost 5.3% for Canada overall. In 2006, people of European ethnicities formed the largest cluster of ethnic groups in Edmonton, mostly of English, Scottish, German, Irish, Ukrainian, and French origin dell Studio XPS 1645 battery. According to the 2006 census, the city of Edmonton was 71.8% White and 5.3% Aboriginal, while visible minorities accounted for 22.9% of the population. Religion Main article: Religion in Edmonton According to the 2001 census, 31.2% of Edmonton residents are Protestant and 29.4% are Catholic. 5.5% belong to other Christian denominations, 2.9% are Muslim, 0.6% are Jewish, 5.1% are adherents of other religions, and 24.4% profess no religion dell Studio XPS 1647 battery. One of Alberta's two Bahá'í Centres is located in Edmonton. The first mosque established in Canada-the Al-Rashid Mosque, founded by Abdullah Yusuf Ali—is situated in Edmonton. Edmonton also hosts a Maronite Catholic church, on 76 Avenue/98 Street, with services in English on Saturdays and Arabic on Sundays. The Lebanese community also has a Druze Community Centre on the north side of the city dell Studio 17 battery. The Edmonton Alberta Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was dedicated on December 11, 1999. The Hindu Community in Edmonton is served by the Hindu Society of Alberta[92] (North Indian Temple) and the Maha Ganapathy Society of Alberta (South Indian Temple).[93] The Sikh community in Edmonton is served by four gurdwaras dell Studio 1749 battery. The Jewish Community in Edmonton is served by Jewish Federation of Edmonton.[94] The region is served by five synagogues. Edmonton is also home to two of Alberta's four Unitarian Universalist congregations—the Unitarian Church of Edmonton and the Westwood Unitarian Congregation;[97] the other two are located in Calgary and Lethbridge dell Studio 1745 battery. Economy See also: Economy of Alberta Edmonton is the major economic centre for northern and central Alberta and a major centre for the oil and gas industry. In its autumn 2007 Metropolitan Outlook, the Conference Board of Canada forecast that Edmonton's GDP for 2007 will be $44.1-billion (2007 dollars), a 3.6% increase over 2006. The Edmonton Economic Development Corporation estimated that as of January 2005 dell Studio 1747 battery, the total value of major projects under construction in northern Alberta was $81.5-billion, with $18.2-billion occurring within Greater Edmonton. Jasper Avenue, a hub of major offices and the financial centers. Edmonton traditionally has been a hub for Albertan petrochemical industries, earning it the nickname "Oil Capital of Canada" in the 1940s. Supply and service industries drive the energy extraction engine Dell Inspiron 1440 Battery, while research develops new technologies and supports expanded value-added processing of Alberta's massive oil, gas, and oil sands reserves. These are reported to be the second-largest in the world, after Saudi Arabia.[102] Despite the apparent focus on oil and gas, Edmonton's economy is one of the most diverse in Canada.[103] Major industrial sectors include a strong technology sector anchored by major employers such as IBM, Telus, Intuit Canada Dell Inspiron 1750 Battery, Canadian Western Bank, BioWare, Matrikon, General Electric, and Stantec Inc.[104] The associated biotech sector, with companies such as Afexa Life Sciences Inc. (formerly CV Technologies). The National Institute for Nanotechnology (NINT) Much of the growth in technology sectors is due to Edmonton's reputation as one of Canada’s premier research and education centres. Research initiatives are anchored by educational institutions such as the University of Alberta as well as government initiatives underway at the Alberta Research Council and Edmonton Research Park Dell Inspiron 1464 Battery. Recently, the National Institute for Nanotechnology was constructed on the University of Alberta campus. During the 1970s and 1980s, Edmonton started to become a major financial centre, with both regional offices of Canada's major banks and locally based institutions opening.[106] However, the turmoil of the late-1980s economy radically changed the situation. Locally based operations such as Principal Trust and Canadian Commercial Bank Dell Inspiron 1564 Battery would fail, and some regional offices were moved to other cities. The 1990s saw a solidification of the economy, and Edmonton is now home to Canadian Western Bank, the only publicly traded Schedule I chartered bank headquarters west of Toronto.[108] Other major financial centres include ATB Financial, Servus Credit Union (formerly Capital City Savings), TD Canada Trust and Manulife Financial. Dell Inspiron 1764 BatteryEdmonton has been the birthplace of several companies that have grown to international stature, such as PCL Construction, Stantec Inc. and more recently, Capital Power Corporation. The local retail market has also seen the creation of many successful store concepts, such as The Brick, Katz Group, AutoCanada, Boston Pizza, Pizza 73, Liquor Stores GP (which includes Liquor Depot, Liquor Barn, OK Liquor, and Grapes & Grains) Dell Studio 1440 Battery, Planet Organic, Empire Design, Running Room, Booster Juice, Earl's, Fountain Tire and XS Cargo. Edmonton's geographical location has made it an ideal spot for distribution and logistics. CN Rail's North American operational facility is located in the city, as well as a major intermodal facility that handles all incoming freight from the port of Prince Rupert in British Columbia. Dell Studio 1535 BatteryEdmonton was judged to have the "best economic potential" of any North American city by the Financial Times publication, FDi magazine.[114] In a 2007 study, FDI placed Edmonton immediately ahead of Mississauga, Ontario; Charlotte, North Carolina; Tijuana, Mexico and Calgary among cities with populations between 500,000 and two million. Edmonton's economic potential, expanding infrastructure, human resources Dell Studio 1536 Battery, cost effectiveness, and high standard of living place it in the No. 4 spot on FDi’s list of top-ten North American large cities. The survey also named Edmonton in the top-five large North American cities for business development and investment promotion.[115] Edmonton is known for its exceptional environmental stewardship, strong life-science sector, and burgeoning high-tech industry economy Dell Studio 1537 Battery. West Edmonton Mall. Edmonton is home to several shopping malls, including Canada's first mall, Westmount Centre and West Edmonton Mall, one of the world's largest malls and presently the largest in North America. Other malls include Bonnie Doon Shopping Centre, Edmonton City Centre (a combination of the former Edmonton Centre and Eaton Centre malls) Dell Studio 1557 Battery, Southgate Centre, Kingsway Mall, Northgate Centre, Abbotsfield Mall, Londonderry Mall, Capilano Mall, and Mill Woods Town Centre. Edmonton also has many big box shopping centres and power centres. Some of the major ones include South Edmonton Common (North America's largest open air retail development), Skyview Power Centre, Terra Losa Centre, Oliver Park, Southpark Centre, The Meadows, Christy's Corner, and Westpoint. In 2008, construction started on the Windermere power centre Dell Studio 1735 Battery. In contrast to suburban centres, Edmonton has many urban retail locations. The largest of them all, Old Strathcona, includes many independent stores between 99 Street and 109 Street on Whyte Avenue and area. In around the downtown of Edmonton, there are a small handful of shopping districts such as previously mentioned Edmonton City Centre mall, Jasper Avenue and 104 Street. Near Oliver, 124 Street is home to a significant amount of retail stores Dell Studio 1737 Battery. Edmonton is the Canadian testing-ground for many American retailers such as Bath & Body Works and Calvin Klein. Arts and culture See also: List of attractions and landmarks in Edmonton Many events are anchored in the downtown Arts District, centred around the recently renovated Churchill Square (named in honour of Sir Winston Churchill). On the south side of the river, the University district and Whyte Avenue contain theatres, concert halls, and various live music venues. Edmonton's current poet laureate is Ann Marie Swell Dell Inspiron Mini 12 Battery. The Francis Winspear Centre for Music The Francis Winspear Centre for Music[123] was opened in 1997 after years of planning and fundraising. Described as one of the most acoustically perfect concert halls in Canada, it is home to the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra and hosts a wide variety of shows every year. It seats 1,932 patrons and houses the $3-million Davis Concert Organ, the largest concert organ in Canada Dell Latitude E4300 Battery. An interesting aspect of the hall's design is its separation into acoustically separate areas that are insulated from each other through acoustical barriers built into the structure. Patrons and artists can see these in the form of double-door "sound locks." Across 102 Avenue is the Citadel Theatre, named after The Salvation Army Citadel in which Joe Shoctor first started the Citadel Theatre Company in 1965. It is now one of the largest theatre complexes in Canada Dell Latitude E4310 Battery, with five halls, each specializing in different kinds of productions. For instance, the Maclab Theatre features a thrust stage surrounded by a U-shaped seating arrangement, while the Shoctor Theatre is a traditional stage setup. On the University of Alberta grounds is the 2,534-seat Northern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium, which recently went through a year of heavy renovations carried out as part of the province's centennial celebrations Dell Vostro 1310 Battery. Both it and its southern twin in Calgary were constructed in 1955 for the province's golden jubilee and have hosted many concerts, musicals, and ballets. The Edmonton Opera uses the Jubilee as its base of operations. On the front of the building is a quote from Suetonius' Life of Augustus: "He found a city built of brick—left it built of marble Dell Vostro 1320 Battery." Old Strathcona is home to the Theatre District, which holds the Transalta Arts Barns (headquarters of the Edmonton International Fringe Festival), The Walterdale Playhouse, Catalyst Theatre, and the Varscona Theatre (base of operations for several theatre companies, including Teatro la Quindicina, Shadow Theatre, Rapid Fire Theatre, Die-Nasty, and Oh Susanna!). Edmonton was named cultural capital of Canada in 2007 Dell Vostro 1510 Battery. Ukrainian Dnipro Ensemble of Edmonton, organized in 1953, preserves the Ukrainian musical culture within the parameters of the Canadian multicultural identity. Edmonton is home to world famous Ukrainian Dance ensembles such as the Cheremosh Ukrainian Dance Company and Shumka. In 1917 the hadrosaur Edmontosaurus was named after the Edmonton Formation in Central Alberta, Edmontosaurus's name means "reptile from Edmonton" Dell Vostro 1520 Battery. Festivals Main article: Festivals in Edmonton The 2001 Sourdough Raft Race, passing beneath the High Level Bridge's Great Divide waterfall during Klondike Days. Edmonton plays host to several large festivals each year, contributing to its local nickname, "The Festival City."[131] Downtown Edmonton's Churchill Square host numerous festivals each summer. The Works Art & Design Festival, which takes place from late June to early July Dell Vostro 2510 Battery, showcases Canadian and international art and design from well-known award-winning artists as well as emerging and student artists. The Edmonton International Street Performer's Festival takes place in mid-July and showcases street performance artists from around the world. Edmonton's main summer festival is K-Days, formerly Klondike Days, Capital Ex and originally the Edmonton Exhibition Dell Vostro 1014 Battery. Founded in 1879, the Edmonton Exhibition was originally an annual fair and exhibition that eventually adopted a gold rush theme, becoming Klondike Days in the 1960s. Northlands, the operators, renamed the festival to "Edmonton's Capital Ex" or "Capital Ex" in 2006. In 2012, Edmonton Northlands conducted a poll to rename the festival that resulted in changing the name to "K-Days". Activities include carnival rides and fairways, music, trade shows, and daily fireworks Dell XPS M2010 Battery. Since 1960, the Sourdough Raft Races have also been a popular event. Later in November, Edmonton plays host to the Canadian Finals Rodeo and Farmfair; this is a significant event in Canada's rodeo circuit and second only to the National Finals Rodeo in Las Vegas in prestige. The Edmonton International Fringe Festival, held in mid-August, is the largest fringe theatre festival in North America and second only to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival worldwide Dell Inspiron 1520 Battery. In August, Edmonton is also host to the Edmonton Folk Music Festival, one of the most successful and popular folk music festivals in North America. Another major summer festival is the Edmonton Heritage Festival, which is an ethnocultural festival that takes place in Hawrelak Park on the Heritage Day long weekend. Many other festivals exist, such as the Free Will Shakespeare Festival Dell Inspiron 1521 Battery, the Dragon Boat Festival, the Whyte Avenue Art Walk, and the Edmonton International Film Festival. Museums and galleries Art Gallery of Alberta. Buildings on the grounds of the Royal Alberta Museum. The main building of the Telus World of Science. There are many museums in Edmonton of various sizes. The largest is the Royal Alberta Museum (RAM), which was formerly known as the Provincial Museum of Alberta until it was renamed in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 2005 Alberta centennial visit. The RAM houses over 10 million objects in its collection and showcases Dell Inspiron 1720 Battery the culture and practices of the diverse aboriginal tribes of the region. The main building, overlooking the river valley west of the city centre in the Glenora neighbourhood, was opened in 1967 and is now in the early stages of large-scale redevelopment. The Telus World of Science is located in the Woodcroft neighbourhood northwest of the city centre. It opened in 1984 and has since been expanded several times. It contains five permanent galleries Dell Inspiron 1721 Battery, one additional gallery for temporary exhibits, an IMAX theatre, a planetarium, an observatory, and an amateur radio station. The Alberta Aviation Museum, located in a hangar at the City Centre Airport, was built for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. Its collection includes both civilian and military aircraft, the largest of which are a Boeing 737 and two CF-101 Voodoos. It also has one of only 3 BOMARC missiles in Canada Dell Vostro 1500 Battery. The Prince of Wales Armouries Heritage Centre is also home to the Loyal Edmonton Regiment Military Museum. The museum is dedicated to preserving the unique military heritage and the sacrifices made by the people of Edmonton and Alberta in general. The museum features two galleries and several smaller exhibits. The collection includes historic firearms, uniforms, souvenirs, memorabilia, military accoutrements Dell Vostro 1700 Battery, as well as a large photographic and archival collection spanning the pre-World War One period to the present. The museum recently opened an exhibit on the role of the 49th Battalion, CEF in Canada's Hundred Days Offensive. The Alberta Railway Museum is located in the rural northeast portion of the city. It contains a variety of locomotives and railroad cars from different periods, and includes a working steam locomotive Dell Inspiron 1420 Battery. Since most of its exhibits are outdoors, it is only open between Victoria Day and Labour Day. The Telephone Historical Centre is a telephone museum also located in the Prince of Wales Armouries Heritage Centre in central Edmonton. In addition to a collection of artifacts tracing the history of the telephone, the museum has its own theatre featuring a brief film led by the robot Xeldon Dell Vostro 1400 Battery. The Edmonton Valley Zoo is in the river valley to the southwest of the city centre. The Art Gallery of Alberta (AGA) is the city's largest single gallery. Formerly housed in an inconspicuous 1970s building downtown, the AGA collection had over 5,000 pieces of art. The former AGA building was demolished in July 2007 to make way for construction of a new facility designed by Randall Stout Dell Latitude D620 Battery. It was estimated to cost over $88-million and the amount that Edmonton City Council donated towards its construction was met with some controversy. The AGA officially opened the weekend of January 30/31, 2010. Independent galleries can be found throughout the city, especially along the 124 Street/Jasper Avenue corridor (known as the gallery walk). Fort Edmonton Park, Canada's largest living history museum, is located in the river valley southwest of the city centre sony vgp-bps2 battery. Edmonton's heritage is displayed through historical buildings (many of which are originals moved to the park), costumed historical interpreters, and authentic artifacts. In total, it covers the region's history from approximately 1795 to 1929 (represented by Fort Edmonton), followed chronologically by 1885, 1905, and 1920 streets, and a recreation of a 1920s midway. A steam train, streetcars, automobiles and horse drawn vehicles may be seen in operation sony vgp-bps3 battery (and utilized by the public) around the park. It is open from Victoria Day until the end of September, with other themed events throughout the year. The University of Alberta operates its own internal Museums and Collections service. The John Walter Museum and Historical Area (c. 1875 to 1901) is on the Canadian Register of Historic Places. Further information: List of people from Edmonton#Musicians Edmonton is home to a thriving music scene. Along with the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra, notable past and present local musicians include Faunts sony vgp-bps4 battery, Tommy Banks, Tim Feehan, Cadence Weapon, Captain Tractor, Five O'Clock Charlie, Kreesha Turner, Mad Bomber Society, The Mark Birtles Project, P.J. Perry, The Smalls, SNFU, Social Code, Stereos, Ten Second Epic, Tupelo Honey, Christian Hansen & The Autistics, Hot Panda, Shout Out Out Out Out, and numerous others sony vgp-bps5 battery. Nightlife There are several key areas of nightlife in the city of Edmonton. The most popular is the Whyte Avenue (82 Avenue) strip, located between 109 Street and 99 Street; it has the highest number of heritage buildings in Edmonton,[150] and the nightlife (bars, clubs, and restaurants) are located throughout, but mostly west of Gateway Boulevard (103 Street) sony vgp-bps7 battery. Once the heart of the town of Strathcona (annexed by Edmonton on February 1, 1912), it fell into disrepair during the middle of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970s, a coordinated effort to revive the area through the establishment of a Business Revitalization Zone has produced an area rich with restored historical buildings and pleasant streetscapes sony vgp-bpl7 battery. Its proximity to the University of Alberta has led to a high number of establishments ranging from restaurants and pubs to trendy clubs while hosting a wide variety of retail and specialty shops during the day. This area also contains two independent movie theatres: the Garneau and Princess theatres, as well as several live theatre, music, and comedy venues sony vgp-bps8 battery. Downtown Edmonton has undergone a continual process of renewal and unprecedented growth since the mid-1990s. Many buildings were demolished during the oil boom, starting in the 1960s and continuing into the 1980s, to make way for office towers. As such, there have always been numerous pub-type establishments, as well as many hotel lounges and restaurants sony vgp-bps8a battery. The past decade has seen a strong resurgence in more mainstream venues. Edmonton also has a high demand for pub crawl tours in the city. Various clubs are also to be found along Edmonton's main street, Jasper Avenue. The Edmonton City Centre mall also houses an Empire Theatres movie theatre, featuring nine screens. The nonprofit Metro Cinema shows a variety of alternative or otherwise unreleased films every week sony vgp-bps8b battery. West Edmonton Mall holds several after-hour establishments in addition to its many stores and attractions. Bourbon Street has numerous eating establishments; clubs and casinos can also be found within the complex. Scotiabank Theatre (formerly known as Silver City), at the west end of the mall, is a theatre that features twelve screens and an IMAX sony vgp-bpl8 battery. Sports and recreation Main article: Sport in Edmonton Edmonton Grand Prix. Edmonton has numerous professional sports teams, including the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League, Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League, Edmonton Rush of the National Lacrosse League, Edmonton Energy of the International Basketball League, and FC Edmonton of the North American Soccer League sony vgp-bps9 battery. Junior sports clubs include the Edmonton Huskies and Edmonton Wildcats of the Canadian Junior Football League and the Edmonton Oil Kings of the Western Hockey League. Venues for Edmonton's professional and junior sports teams include Commonwealth Stadium (Eskimos), Rexall Place (Oilers, Rush and Oil Kings), Telus Field (Capitals), the Universiade Pavilion (Energy) sony vgp-bps9/s battery, and Clarke Stadium (FC Edmonton, Huskies and Wildcats). A new arena to accommodate the Oilers among other things is currently in planning stages. Edmonton's teams have rivalries with Calgary's teams and games between Edmonton and Calgary teams are often referred to as the Battle of Alberta. Past notable hockey teams in Edmonton include the original junior hockey incarnation of the Edmonton Oil Kings of the Western Hockey League and the Edmonton Roadrunners of the American Hockey League sony vgp-bps9a/s battery. Other past notable sports teams include the Edmonton Grads, a women's basketball team, and the Edmonton Trappers, a former baseball team in the Pacific Coast League. North face of Rexall Place. Local university-level sports teams include the U of A Golden Bears, the U of A Pandas, the NAIT Ooks, and the Grant MacEwan Griffins. Local amateur teams, among others, include the Edmonton Gold of the Rugby Canada Super League and the two flat track roller derby leagues: Oil City Roller Derby - [156] and E-Ville Roller Derby sony vgp-bps9/b batterySince 2005, Edmonton has hosted an annual circuit on the Indy Racing League known as the Edmonton Indy (formerly the Grand Prix of Edmonton). In addition, Castrol Raceway hosts regular sprint car and a national IHRA events at their facility next to Edmonton International Airport. Past sporting events hosted by Edmonton include the 1978 Commonwealth Games sony vgp-bps9a/b battery, the 1983 World University Games (Universiade), the 2001 World Championships in Athletics, the 2002 World Ringette Championships, the 2005 World Master Games,[159] the 2006 Women's Rugby World Cup, the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup,[160] the CN Canadian Women's Open, and the 2010 Canadian National Debating Championship. Edmonton is sharing hosting duties with Calgary for the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships sony vgp-bps9a battery. Government Matthew McCauley, first mayor of Edmonton Provincial Legislature of Alberta In 1892 Edmonton was incorporated as a town. The first mayor was Matthew McCauley, who established the first school board in Edmonton and Board of Trade (later Chamber of Commerce) and a municipal police service. Due to mayor McCauley's good relationship with the federal Liberals this helped Edmonton to maintain political prominence over Strathcona sony vgp-bps9b battery, a rival settlement on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan River. Edmonton was incorporated as a city in 1904 and became the capital of Alberta in 1905. Unions and radical organizations such as the Industrial Workers of the World struggled for progressive social change through the early years, with the first reformer, James East, being elected in 1912 sony vgp-bpl9c battery, followed by the first official Labour alderman, James Kinney, the following year. Many thousands of workers participated in the Edmonton general strike of 1919 and a strong block of Labour representatives were on council after the next election: James Kinney, James East, Sam McCoppen, Joe Clarke and Rice Sheppard. Labour representation on city council would become a majority in 1929, and, during the Great Depression, from 1932 to 1934 sony vgp-bpl9 battery. Jan Reimer became the city's first female mayor, when she was elected in 1989. Municipal politics Edmonton is represented by a mayor and 12 councillors - one for each of the 12 wards. On July 22, 2009 City Council adopted an electoral system that divides Edmonton into 12 wards, instead of the previous two for each of six wards. This system came into effect with the most recent municipal election in October 2010 sony vgp-bps10 battery. Provincial politics Edmonton is the capital of the province of Alberta and holds all main provincial areas of government such as the Provincial Legislature of Alberta. The Edmonton region is represented by 20 MLAs one for each provincial electoral district. Many of these boundaries have been changed, adjusted and renamed while the city has grown Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery. Infrastructure Transportation Main article: Transportation in Edmonton Edmonton International Airport's South Terminal. See also: List of airports in the Edmonton area Edmonton is a major air transportation gateway to northern Alberta and northern Canada. The Edmonton International Airport (EIA) and Edmonton City Centre Airport (ECCA) are the two airports serving the city. The EIA, being the larger of the two airports, provides passenger service to destinations in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean. The EIA is located within Leduc County, adjacent to the City of Leduc and the Nisku Industrial Business Park Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery. The ECCA is a general aviation facility (since air services consolidation in 1995) and the only airport located within the city limits. The ECCA is home to a variety of aviation companies with key markets in northern Alberta. The ECCA is currently in the process of being closed by the city. With direct air distances from Edmonton to places such as London in Europe being shorter than to other main airports in western North America Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery, Edmonton Airports is working to establish a major container shipping hub called Port Alberta. Edmonton serves as a major transportation hub for Canadian National Railway, whose North American operations management centre is located at their Edmonton offices. It is also tied into the Canadian Pacific Railway network, which provides service from Calgary to the south and extends northeast of Edmonton to serve Alberta's Industrial Heartland Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery. Inter-city rail passenger rail service is provided by Via Rail's premier train, the Canadian, as it travels between Vancouver, British Columbia, and Toronto, Ontario. Passenger trains stop at the Edmonton railway station three days a week in both directions. The train connects Edmonton to multiple stops in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. Public transit Bay/Enterprise Square LRT station The Edmonton Transit System is the city's main public transit agency, operating the Edmonton Light Rail Transit (LRT) line as well as a large fleet of buses. Approximately 34% of people in the Edmonton Capital Region (mostly from Edmonton proper) use ETS per day (354,440 out of 1,034,945). There are approximately 280,000 bus riders on average per day using Edmonton Transit System Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery. From the 1990s to early 2009, Edmonton was one of two cities in Canada still operating trolleybuses, along with Vancouver. On June 18, 2008, City Council decided to abandon the Edmonton trolleybus system and the last trolleybus ran on May 2, 2009. Scheduled LRT service began on April 23, 1978, with five extensions of the single line completed since Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. The original Edmonton line is considered to be the first "modern" light rail line in North America (i.e., built from scratch, rather than being an upgrade of an old system). It introduced the use of German-designed rolling stock that subsequently became the standard light rail vehicle of the United States. The Edmonton "proof-of-payment" fare collection system adopted in 1980—modelled after European ticket systems—became the North American transit industry's preferred approach for subsequent light rail projects Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. The four-year South LRT extension was opened in full on April 24, 2010, which sees trains travelling to Century Park (located at 23 Avenue and 111 Street), making stops at South Campus and Southgate Centre along the way. Edmonton is also looking into plans to expand LRT to Mill Woods and the West side by 2016 using low floor technology, along with a line to NAIT in north-central Edmonton using the high floor style present in the current line by 2014 Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery. Roads Stony Plain Road looking towards downtown A largely gridded system forms most of Edmonton's street and road network. The address system is mostly numbered, with streets running south to north and avenues running east to west. In built-up areas built since the 1950s, local streets and major roadways generally do not conform to the grid system. Major roadways include Yellowhead Trail (Highway 16) Sony VGP-BPS13A battery, Whitemud Drive and Anthony Henday Drive, and the city is connected to other communities elsewhere in Alberta, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan via the Yellowhead Highway to the west and east and the Queen Elizabeth II Highway (Alberta Highway 2) to the south. Trail system There is an extensive multi-use trail system for bicycles and pedestrians throughout the city; however, most of this is within the river valley parkland system Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery. Electricity and water Edmonton's first power company established itself in 1891 and installed streetlights along the city's main avenue, Jasper Avenue. The power company was bought by the Town of Edmonton in 1902 and remains under municipal ownership today as EPCOR. Also in charge of water treatment, in 2002 EPCOR installed the world's largest ultraviolet (UV) water treatment or ultraviolet disinfection system at its E.L. Smith Water Treatment Plant Sony VGP-BPS13S battery. Waste disposal The Edmonton Composting Facility, the largest of its type in the world, is also the largest stainless steel building in North America. By 2013, the city anticipates that it will divert more than 90% of the city's household waste from the landfills. Among the innovative uses for the city's waste includes a Christmas tree recycling program. The trees are collected each January and put through a woodchipper; this material is used as an addition to the composting process Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery. In addition, the wood chips absorb much of the odour produced by the compost by providing a biofilter element to trap odour causing gaseous results of the process. EPCOR's Rossdale Power Plant viewed from the High Level Bridge. Together, the Waste Management Centre and Wastewater Treatment plant are known as the Edmonton Waste Management Centre of Excellence. Research partners include the University of Alberta, the Alberta Research Council, the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT), and Olds College Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. Health care There are four main hospitals serving Edmonton: University of Alberta Hospital, Royal Alexandra Hospital, Misericordia Community Hospital, and Grey Nuns Community Hospital.[190] Other area hospitals include Sturgeon Community Hospital in St. Albert, Leduc Community Hospital in Leduc, Westview Health Centre in Stony Plain, and Fort Saskatchewan Health Centre in Fort Saskatchewan. Dedicated psychiatric care is provided at the Alberta Hospital Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery. The Northeast Community Health Centre offers a 24-hour emergency room with no inpatient ward services. The University of Alberta Hospital is the centre of a larger complex of hospitals and clinics located adjacent to the university campus which comprises the Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, Cross Cancer Institute, Zeidler Gastrointestinal Health Centre Sony VGP-BPL21 battery, Ledcor Clinical Training Centre, and Edmonton Clinic, which is currently under construction. Several health research institutes, including the Heritage Medical Research Centre, Medical Sciences Building, Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research, and Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Research Innovation, are also located at this site. A similar set-up is also evident at the Royal Alexandra Hospital Sony VGP-BPS21 battery, which is connected to the Lois Hole Hospital for Women and Orthopaedic Surgery Centre. All hospitals are under the administration of Alberta Health Services, although Misericordia and Grey Nuns are run separately by the Covenant Health. Entryway to MacEwan University's downtown campus. Edmonton has three publicly funded school boards (districts) that provide kindergarten and grades 1–12 Sony VGP-BPS21A battery. The vast majority of students attend schools in the two large English language boards: Edmonton Public Schools, and the separate Edmonton Catholic School District. Also, since 1994, the Francophone minority community has had their own school board based in Edmonton, the Greater North Central Francophone Education Region No. 2, which includes surrounding communities Sony VGP-BPS21B battery. Most recently, the city has seen a small number of public charter schools open, independent of any board. All three school boards and public charter schools are funded through provincial grants and property taxes. Some private schools exist as well, including Edmonton Academy and Tempo School. The Edmonton Society for Christian Education and Millwoods Christian School (not part of the former) used to be private schools Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery; however, both have become part of Edmonton Public Schools as alternative programs. Both the Edmonton Public Schools and the Edmonton Catholic School District provide support and resources for those wishing to homeschool their children. Post-secondary Edmonton has become one of Canada's major educational centres, with more than 60,000 full time postsecondary students spread over several institutions and campuses (total enrollment among the schools is over 170,000, which includes students enrolled in multiple institutions) Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. The University of Alberta (known colloquially as the U of A), whose main campus is situated on the south side of Edmonton's river valley, is a board-governed public institution with annual revenue of one billion dollars. Over 38,000 students are served in more than 200 undergraduate programs and 170 graduate programs Sony VGP-BPS13 battery(without CD). The main campus consists of more than ninety buildings on 890,000 square metres (220 acres) of land, with buildings dating back to the university's establishment in 1908. It is also home to Canada's second-largest research library, which ranks first in volumes per student, with over 10.6 million and access to more than 530,000 electronic books and 1,400 electronic databases. Grant MacEwan University enrolls43,064 students in programs offering career diplomas, university transfers, and bachelor's degrees Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery(without CD). Other universities within the borders of Edmonton include Athabasca University, Concordia University College of Alberta, The King's University College, Taylor University College and Seminary, and the Edmonton campus of the University of Lethbridge. Other Edmonton post-secondary institutions include the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT) with 76,400 students enrolled in more than 200 programs Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery(without CD); NorQuest College with 9,000 students in college and employment preparation programs; and Yellowhead Tribal College, a First Nations college. Main article: Media in Edmonton Edmonton has eight local broadcast television stations shown on basic cable TV or over-the-air. Most of Edmonton's conventional television stations have made the switch to over-the-air digital broadcasting. The cable television providers in Edmonton are Telus (for IPTV) and Shaw Cable Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery(without CD). Previously, network programming from the United States was received on cable via affiliates from Spokane, Washington, but local viewers now have more choice, given the advances with cable or satellite television that are now being offered as digital or HD (high definition) service. Broadcasts from both eastern and western locations in the United States can be viewed Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery(without CD). Twenty-one FM and eight AM radio stations are based in Edmonton. Edmonton has two large-circulation daily newspapers, the Edmonton Journal and the Edmonton Sun. Other city-wide weekday publications include Metro and 24 Hours. The magazine Vue Weekly is also published on a weekly basis and focuses on alt-news and the arts. The Edmonton Examiner is a city-wide community based paper also published weekly. There are also a number of smaller weekly and community newspapers Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery(without CD). Sister cities Edmonton has four sister cities, with one American city listed by Sister Cities International. Edmonton is home to 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group (1 CMBG), the Regular Force army brigade group of Land Force Western Area of the Canadian Army. Units in 1 CMBG include Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians), 1 Combat Engineer Regiment, two of the three regular force battalions of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery(without CD), and various headquarters, service, and support elements. Although not part of 1 CMBG, 408 Tactical Helicopter Squadron and 1 Field Ambulance are located with the brigade group. All of these units are located at Lancaster Park, immediately north of the city. From 1943, as CFB Namao (now CFB Edmonton/Edmonton Garrison), it was a major air force base.[212] In 1996, all fixed-wing aviation units were transferred to CFB Cold Lake Sony VGP-BPS13A battery(without CD). The Canadian Airborne Training Centre had been located in the city in the 1980s. The move of 1 CMBG and component units from Calgary occurred in 1996 in what was described as a cost-saving measure. The brigade had existed in Calgary since the 1950s, and Lord Strathcona's Horse had traditionally been a Calgary garrison unit dating back to before the First World War Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery(without CD). Edmonton also has a large army reserve element from 41 Canadian Brigade Group (41 CBG), including The Loyal Edmonton Regiment (4th Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry); 41 Combat Engineer Regiment; HQ Battery, 20th Field Artillery Regiment; and B Squadron of The South Alberta Light Horse, one of Alberta's oldest army reserve units. Despite being far from Canada's coasts, Edmonton is also the home of HMCS Nonsuch, Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery(without CD) a naval reserve division. There are numerous cadet corps of the different elements (naval, army and air force) within Edmonton as well. Winnipeg i/ˈwɪnɪpɛɡ/ is the capital and largest city of Manitoba, Canada, and is the primary municipality of the Winnipeg Capital Region, with more than half of Manitoba's population. It is located near the longitudinal centre of North America, at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers (a point commonly known as The Forks) Sony VGP-BPS13S battery(without CD). The name "Winnipeg" comes from the Cree for "muddy waters." The Winnipeg area was a trading centre for Aboriginal peoples prior to the arrival of Europeans. The first fort was built there in 1738 by French traders.[4] A settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers in 1812, the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873 with a population of 1,869. Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery(without CD) Winnipeg is the seventh-largest municipality in Canada, with a population of 663,617 in the Canada 2011 Census. Winnipeg has a diversified economy, with sectors in finance, manufacturing, food and beverage production, culture, retail and tourism. Winnipeg is a major transportation hub, served by Richardson International Airport. The city has railway connections to the United States and Eastern and Western Canada through three Class I rail carriers Sony VGP-BPS13B battery(without CD). Winnipeg's cultural organizations include Manitoba Theatre Centre, Manitoba Opera, the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra, Manitoba Museum, Winnipeg Art Gallery and Le Cercle Molière. Some of the city's popular festivals are the Festival du Voyageur, the Winnipeg Folk Festival, the Winnipeg Jazz Festival, the Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival, and Folklorama Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery(without CD). Winnipeg is the proud owner of three professional sports organizations including the Winnipeg Jets, the Winnipeg Goldeyes, and the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. Winnipeg's universities include the University of Manitoba, the University of Winnipeg, Canadian Mennonite University and University of St. Boniface (formerly known as St. Boniface College) Sony VGP-BPL21 battery(without CD). History Further information: History of Winnipeg and Timeline of Winnipeg history Tipis on the prairie near the Red River Colony, 1858 Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine and the Red River of the North, a location currently known as "The Forks." This point was at the crossroads of canoe routes travelled by Aboriginal peoples prior to European contact.[6] The name Winnipeg is a transcription of the western Cree word wi-nipe-k meaning "muddy waters" Sony VGP-BPS21 battery(without CD); the general area was populated for thousands of years by First Nations. Through archaeology, petroglyphs, rock art and oral history, scholars have learned that native peoples used the area in prehistoric times for camping, hunting, tool making, fishing, trading and, further north, for agriculture. Sony VGP-BPS21A battery(without CD)Before the first European encounter, First Nations peoples appear to have been engaged in farming activity along the Red River, near present-day Lockport, where corn and other seed crops were planted. The rivers provided an extensive transportation network linking many indigenous peoples, including the Anishinaabe, Assiniboine, Ojibway, Sioux, and Cree. The Red River linked ancient northern peoples with those to the south along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers Sony VGP-BPS21B battery(without CD). The Ojibway made some of the first maps on birch bark, which helped fur traders navigate the waterways of the area. Settlement Steamship port at the Forks, with Upper Fort Garry in the background, early 1870s The first French officer arrived in the area in 1738. Sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site, called Fort Rouge.[12] Francophone trading continued at this site for several decades before the arrival of the British Hudson's Bay Company. Many French and later British men who were trappers married First Nations women; their mixed-race children, the Métis, hunted, traded, and lived in the area Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. Lord Selkirk was involved with the first permanent settlement (known as the Red River Colony), the purchase of land from the Hudson's Bay Company, and a survey of river lots in the early 19th century. The North West Company built Fort Gibraltar in 1809, and the Hudson's Bay Company built Fort Douglas in 1812. The two companies competed fiercely over trade in the area Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. The Métis and Lord Selkirk's settlers fought at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816. In 1821, the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies merged, ending their long-standing rivalry. Fort Gibraltar, at the site of present-day Winnipeg, was renamed Fort Garry in 1822 and became the leading post in the region for the Hudson’s Bay Company. The fort was destroyed by a flood in 1826 and was not rebuilt until 1835 Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery. The fort was the residence of the Governor of the company for many years. A rebuilt section of the fort, consisting of the front gate and a section of the wall, can be found near the modern-day corner of Main Street and Broadway Avenue in downtown Winnipeg. Main Street in 1887 (at Pioneer Avenue looking north) In 1869–70, Winnipeg was the site of the Red River Rebellion, a conflict between the local provisional government of Métis, led by Louis Riel, and newcomers from eastern Canada. General Garnet Wolseley was sent to put down the Métis rebellion Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery. As a consequence of this rebellion, the Manitoba Act of 1870 paved the way for Manitoba's entry into the Canadian Confederation as Canada's fifth province. On 8 November 1873, Winnipeg was incorporated as a city. Manitoba and Northwest Territories legislator James McKay named the settlement Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery. Winnipeg developed rapidly after the coming of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1881; Canada was eager to settle the west before American interests and railways interfered. The Manitoba Legislative Building, constructed mainly of Tyndall Stone, opened in 1920; its dome supports a bronze statue finished in gold leaf, titled "Eternal Youth and the Spirit of Enterprise" Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery (commonly known as the "Golden Boy").[23] Many new lots of land were sold and prices increased quickly due to high demand. Winnipeg faced financial difficulty when the Panama Canal opened in 1914. The canal reduced reliance on Canada's rail system for international trade; the real estate market slowed down, and the increase in shipping traffic helped Vancouver in British Columbia eventually to surpass Winnipeg and become Canada's third-largest city in 1920 Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery. Strike to present The Winnipeg General Strike, 21 June 1919 Following World War I, more than 30,000 workers walked off their jobs in May 1919 in what came to be known as the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919. The strike was a product of postwar recession, labour conditions, the activity of union organizers and a large influx of returning discharged soldiers seeking work. After many arrests, deportations Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery, and incidents of violence, the strike ended on 21 June 1919, when the Riot Act was read and a group of Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers charged a group of strikers. Two strikers were killed and at least thirty others were injured, resulting in the day being known as Bloody Saturday; the event polarized the population. One of the leaders of the strike, J. S. Woodsworth Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery, went on to found Canada's first major socialist party, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), which later became the New Democratic Party. The stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression resulted in widespread unemployment, which was worsened by drought and low agricultural prices. The Depression ended after the start of World War II in 1939 Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery, when war requirements stimulated the economies of Western nations. In the Battle of Hong Kong, The Winnipeg Grenadiers were among the first Canadians to engage in combat against Japan. Battalion members who survived combat were taken prisoner and endured brutal treatment in prisoner of war camps. In 1942, the Government of Canada's Victory Loan Campaign staged a mock Nazi invasion of Winnipeg to promote awareness of the stakes of the war in Europe Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. When the war ended, pent-up demand generated a boom in housing development, although building activity was checked by the 1950 Red River Flood, the largest flood to hit Winnipeg since 1861. On 8 May 1950, eight dikes collapsed, four of the city's eleven bridges were destroyed, and nearly 100,000 people had to be evacuated. This evacuation was Canada's largest ever Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. The federal government estimated damages at over $26 million, although the province insisted that it was at least double that. In 1953, Manitoba was hit with the worst outbreak of polio in Canada. There were 2,357 cases and 80 deaths. Prior to 1972, Winnipeg was the largest of thirteen cities and towns in a metropolitan area around the Red and Assiniboine rivers. A consolidated metropolitan "Unicity" government was established on 27 July 1971 Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery, taking effect in 1972. The City of Winnipeg Act incorporated the current city of Winnipeg: the cities of Transcona, St. Boniface, St. Vital, West Kildonan, East Kildonan, Tuxedo, Old Kildonan, North Kildonan, Fort Garry, Charleswood, and St. James were amalgamated with the Old City of Winnipeg. Immediately following the 1979 energy crisis, Winnipeg experienced a severe economic downturn in advance of the early 1980s recession Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. Throughout the recession, the city incurred closures of prominent businesses, including the Winnipeg Tribune, as well as the Swift's and Canada Packers meat packing plants.[38] In 1981, Winnipeg was one of the first cities in Canada to sign a tripartite agreement with the province and federal government to redevelop its downtown area. The three levels of government—federal, provincial and municipal—contributed over $271 million to the development needs of downtown Winnipeg. Sony VGP-BPS22 BatteryIn 1989, the reclamation and redevelopment of the CNR rail yards turned The Forks into Winnipeg's most popular tourist attraction. As of 2012, there are 26 National Historic Sites of Canada in Winnipeg. Geography Main article: Geography and climate of Winnipeg River walkway near The Forks Winnipeg lies at the bottom of the Red River Valley, a low-lying flood plain with an extremely flat topography.[42] This valley was formed by the ancient glacial Lake Agassiz which has rich deposits of black soil. Winnipeg is on the eastern edge of the Canadian Prairies in Western Canada; it is known as the 'Gateway to the West' SONY VGN-FZ11E battery. It is relatively close to many large Canadian Shield lakes and parks, as well as Lake Winnipeg (the Earth's 11th largest freshwater lake).[43] According to the Census geographic units of Canada, the city has a total area of 464.01 km2 (179.16 sq mi) and an elevation of 240 m (786 ft).[44] Winnipeg has four major rivers: the Red River, the Assiniboine River, the La Salle River, and the Seine River. The Red River is a Canadian heritage river. SONY VGN-FZ11L batteryBecause of Winnipeg's extremely flat topography and substantial snowfall, Winnipeg is subject to severe flooding. The Red River reached its greatest flood height in 1826. Another large flood occurred in 1950, which caused millions of dollars in damages and thousands of evacuations.[46] This flood prompted Duff Roblin's government to build the Red River Floodway to protect the city from flooding. In the 1997 flood, flood control dikes were reinforced and raised using sandbags SONY VGN-FZ11M battery; Winnipeg suffered very limited damage compared to cities without flood control structures, such as Grand Forks, North Dakota. Recent major floods include the 2009 Red River Flood and the 2011 Red River Flood. The generally flat terrain and the poor drainage of the Red River Valley's clay-based soil also results in a seasonal explosion of insects, especially mosquitoes SONY VGN-FZ11S battery. Climate Looking north at The Forks in the winter. Winnipeg experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb, USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 2b) with warm sunny summers and cold windy winters. According to Environment Canada, Winnipeg is the coldest city in the world with a population of over 600,000 based on the average night-time temperature from December to February, inclusive. Winnipeg's winters are similar to other cities like Ulan Bator or Harbin, China SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery. Winnipeg is sunnier in the summer, spring, and winter than any Canadian city east of it. Winnipeg has 317.5 hours of bright sunshine in its sunniest month (July, 1971-2000 data) compared to 303.8 hours of sunshine in San Diego, California's sunniest month (July, 1961-1990 data).[52] Winnipeg is ranked second for Canada's clearest skies year-round, sixth sunniest city year-round, and second for sunniest city in Canada in spring and winter SONY VGN-FZ130E/B battery. Winnipeg has a reputation for being a windy city with the intersection of Portage and Main being called the windiest intersection in Canada;[54] however, Winnipeg is only the 12th windest city in Canada, just below Hamilton, Ontario. Tornadoes are not uncommon in the area, particularly in the spring and summer months. A Fujita scale F5 tornado struck Elie (just 40 km (25 mi) west of Winnipeg) in 2007; this was the strongest tornado ever recorded in Canada SONY VGN-FZ130E battery. Winnipeg's growing season lasts from May 25th to September 22nd.[57] In Winnipeg with the humidex, it exceeds 30, 35 days; compared with 30 days exceeding 30 in Quebec City[58][59]. For July 29 the average high is 26.3C (79.3F) and the average low is 13.5C (56.3F).[60] Nearby Carman reached 53 with the humidex, breaking Canada's old humidex record, in 2007. SONY VGN-FZ140E/B batteryThe highest temperature ever recorded in Winnipeg was 42.2 °C (108 °F) on 11 July 1936.[62] In July Winnipeg gets 70.6mm of rainfall[51] compared to 95.2mm of rainfall in July at Edmonton Int'l Airport[63] or 114.3mm of rainfall in July at Prince Rupert, BC. Winters in Winnipeg are usually dry. Snow cover usually lasts from November till March or early April, although in general the winter weather begins to moderate in late February SONY VGN-FZ15 battery. On January 13 the average high is -13.2C (8.2F) and the average low is -23.2C (-9.8F). The coldest temperature recorded in Winnipeg was −47.8 °C (−54.0 °F) on 24 December 1879. The coldest temperature during the last 28 years was −41.7 °C (−43 °F) on February 5, 2007. Winters in Winnipeg are getting warmer on average due to Global Warming SONY VGN-FZ150E battery. From December till February 2011/2012 Winnipeg saw temperatures at or above 0.0C (32.0F) 25 times at the Forks Weather station, making it one of the warmest winter in Winnipeg's history.[68] Fall is also getting warmer on average with September of 2009 having 14/30 days or almost half the days being 27.0C (80.6F) or greater (at the Forks weather station). SONY VGN-FZ15G batteryCityscape Further information: List of Winnipeg neighbourhoods and List of tallest buildings in Winnipeg Downtown Winnipeg Portage Avenue According to the 2001 Census, there are 230 neighbourhoods in Winnipeg. Downtown Winnipeg, the city's economic core, is centred on the intersection of Portage Avenue and Main Street (reputed to be one of the windiest in Canada). Downtown Winnipeg covers an area of about one square mile (2.5 km2) and is the fastest growing high-income neighbourhood in the city SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. More than 72,000 people work downtown, and over 40,000 students attend classes at its universities and colleges. The past few decades have seen downtown undergo major revitalization efforts; since 1999, over C$1.2 billion has been invested. Albert Street, in the Exchange District Downtown Winnipeg's Exchange District is named after the area's original grain exchange from 1880 to 1913. SONY VGN-FZ15M battery The 30-block district received National Historic Site of Canada status in 1997; it includes North America's most extensive collection of early 20th-century terracotta and cut stone architecture, 62 of downtown Winnipeg's 86 heritage structures, Stephen Juba Park, and Old Market Square, home to Winnipeg Jazz and Fringe Festivals. Other major downtown areas include The Forks SONY VGN-FZ15S battery, Central Park, Broadway-Assiniboine and Chinatown. Many of Downtown Winnipeg's major buildings are linked with the Winnipeg Walkway skywalk. Osborne Village Various residential neighbourhoods surround downtown in all directions, but expansion is greatest to the south and west, and has tended to follow the course of the two major rivers. The urbanized area in Winnipeg is about 25 km (16 mi) from east to west and 20 km (12 mi) from north to south, although several areas remain underdeveloped. SONY VGN-FZ15T battery The largest park in the city, Assiniboine Park next to the affluent neighbourhood of Tuxedo, houses the Assiniboine Park Zoo and the Leo Mol Sculpture Garden, Other large city parks include Kildonan Park, St. Vital Park, and Fort Whyte Centre. The major commercial areas in the city are Polo Park (West End and St. James), Kildonan Crossing (Transcona and East Kildonan) SONY VGN-FZ17 battery, South St. Vital, Garden City (West Kildonan) and the Corydon strip. Osborne Village is Winnipeg's most densely populated neighbourhood. As of the 2006 Census, there were 633,451 inhabitants in Winnipeg itself, 694,668 inhabitants in the Winnipeg Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), and 711,455 in the Winnipeg Capital Region. Thus, Winnipeg is Manitoba’s largest city and Canada's eighth largest CMA. Apart from Winnipeg, the Winnipeg CMA includes the Rural municipalities of Springfield SONY VGN-FZ17G battery, St. Clements, Taché, East St. Paul, Macdonald, Ritchot, West St. Paul, Headingley, Rosser and St. François Xavier and the First Nations reserve of Brokenhead 4. Of the city population, 48.3 percent were male and 51.7 percent were female. 24.3 percent were 19 years old or younger, 27.4 percent were between 20 and 30 years old, and 34.0 percent were between 40 and 64 years old. The average age of a Winnipegger in May 2006 was 38.7 SONY VGN-FZ17L battery, compared to an average of 39.5 for Canada as a whole. Between the censuses of 2001 and 2006, Winnipeg's population increased by 2.2 percent, compared to the average of 2.6 percent for Manitoba and 5.4 percent for Canada. The population density of the city of Winnipeg averaged 1,365.2 people per km2, compared with an average of 3.5 for Manitoba. As of July 2009 SONY VGN-FZ18 battery, the population of the city of Winnipeg was estimated at 675,100, and that of the census metropolitan area at 742,400. Most Winnipeggers are of European descent, and/or classify themselves as Canadian. 10.2 percent of Winnipeg's population is Aboriginal; it is the city's second fastest-growing ethnic group. Visible minorities make up 16.3 percent of Winnipeg's population SONY VGN-FZ180E battery. Winnipeg is home to 36,820 people of Filipino descent, or roughly 5.9 percent of the total population, giving the city the highest Filipino population percentage of any municipality in Canada. This is the city's fastest-growing minority group, with Winnipeg having the second largest Filipino population in Canada after Toronto SONY VGN-FZ18E battery. Chinatown More than a hundred languages are spoken in Winnipeg, of which the most common is English. 99.0 percent of Winnipeggers are fluent English speakers. In terms of Canada's official languages, 88.0 percent of Winnipeggers speak only English, and 0.1 percent speak only French. 11 percent speak both English and French, while 0.9 percent speak neither SONY VGN-FZ18G battery. Other languages spoken in Winnipeg include German (4.1%), Tagalog (3.4%), Ukrainian (3.1%), Spanish, Chinese and Polish (all three spoken by 1.7% of the population). Several Aboriginal languages are also spoken, including Ojibway (0.6%), Cree (0.5%), Inuktitut and Mi'kmaq (both less than 0.1%). Other languages include Dutch, Hungarian, Non-verbal languages, SONY VGN-FZ18M battery Portuguese, Vietnamese, Italian, Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Icelandic, Russian, Punjabi, Croatian, Serbian, and Greek (all of which are spoken by roughly 1% or less of the population). The 2001 census recorded that 72.9 percent of Winnipeggers belonged to a Christian denomination:[91] 35 percent were Protestant, 33 percent were Roman Catholic, and 5 percent belonged to other Christian denominations SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. 6 percent of the population followed a religion other than Christianity—followers of Judaism made up 2 percent of the population, those of Buddhism and Sikhism made up 0.9 percent of the population each, and Muslims made up 0.8 percent. Hindus accounted for 0.6 percent of the population, and members of other religions made up less than 0.5 percent. 22 percent of Winnipeggers did not follow a religion SONY VGN-FZ18T battery. See also: List of corporations based in Winnipeg Downtown Winnipeg and the Exchange District Winnipeg is an economic base and regional centre. It has a diversified economy, covering finance, manufacturing, transportation, food and beverage production, industry, culture, government, retail, and tourism. According to the Conference Board of Canada, Winnipeg has the third-fastest growing economy among Canada's major cities in 2009 projections SONY VGN-FZ21E battery, with a real GDP growth of 2.5 percent. As of July 2010, approximately 409,500 people are employed in Winnipeg and the surrounding area.[93] Some of Winnipeg's largest employers are government and government-funded institutions, including: The Province of Manitoba, the City of Winnipeg, the University of Manitoba, the Health Sciences Centre, and Manitoba Hydro SONY VGN-FZ21J battery. Approximately 54,000 people (14% of the work force) are employed in the public sector. Large private sector employers include: Shaw Cablesystems, Manitoba Telecom Services, Ipsos Reid, Palliser Furniture, Great-West Life Assurance, Motor Coach Industries, New Flyer Industries, Boeing Canada Technology, Bristol Aerospace, Nygård International SONY VGN-FZ21M battery, Canad Inns and Investors Group. The Royal Canadian Mint, established in 1976, is where all circulating coinage in Canada is produced. The plant, located in southeastern Winnipeg, also produces coins for many other countries. In 2006, Winnipeg was ranked by KPMG as one of the least expensive locations to do business in Canada.[99] As with much of Western Canada, in 2007, Winnipeg experienced both a building and real estate boom SONY VGN-FZ21S battery. In May 2007, the Canadian Real Estate Association reported a record-breaking month in Winnipeg in terms of sales and volume. [edit]Arts, culture, and tourism The Forks (a National Historic Site of Canada) attracts four million visitors a year. It is home to the Citytv television studio, Manitoba Theatre for Young People, the Winnipeg International Children's Festival, and the Manitoba Children's Museum. It also features a 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m2) skate plaza, a 8,500-square-foot (790 m2) bowl complex SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery, the Esplanade Riel bridge, a river walkway, Shaw Park (home to the Winnipeg Goldeyes), and the Canadian Museum for Human Rights (scheduled to open in 2013). The Winnipeg Public Library is a public library network with 20 branches throughout the city, including the Millennium Library. Winnipeg has a large independent film community. It has also hosted a number of Hollywood productions: Shall We Dance? (2004), the Oscar nominated film Capote (2005), SONY VGN-FZ29VN battery The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007), Horsemen (2009) had parts filmed in the province,and Goon (2011) was filmed in Winnipeg, Brandon, and Portage la Prairie. The National Film Board of Canada and the Winnipeg Film Group have produced numerous award-winning films. There are several TV and film production companies in Winnipeg: the most prominent are Farpoint Films, SONY VGN-FZ31B battery Frantic Films, Buffalo Gal Pictures, Les Productions Rivard and Eagle Vision. Guy Maddin's My Winnipeg, an independent film released in 2008, is a comedic rumination on the city's history. Winnipeg Bear, (also known as Winnie-the-Pooh) was purchased in Ontario, by Lieutenant Harry Colebourn of The Fort Garry Horse. He named the bear after the regiment's home town of Winnipeg. A.A. Milne later wrote a series of books featuring Winnie-the-Pooh SONY VGN-FZ31E battery. An Ernest H. Shepard painting of "Winnie the Pooh", the only known oil painting of Winnipeg’s famous bear cub, is displayed in Assiniboine Park. It was purchased at an auction for $285,000 in London, England, in 2000. Museums See also: Category:Museums in Winnipeg The Manitoba Museum is the largest museum in the city, and depicts the history of the city and province. The full-size replica of the ship Nonsuch is the museum's showcase piece.[107] The Winnipeg Art Gallery is Western Canada's oldest public art gallery, founded in 1912. It is the sixth-largest in the country and includes the world's largest public collection of contemporary Inuit art SONY VGN-FZ31J battery. The Canadian Museum for Human Rights under construction (2012) The Western Canada Aviation Museum, located in a hangar at Winnipeg’s James Richardson International airport, features military jets, commercial aircraft, Canada’s first helicopter, the ‘flying saucer’ Avrocar, flight simulators, and a Black Brant (rocket) built in Manitoba by Bristol Aerospace. SONY VGN-FZ31M battery The Winnipeg Railway Museum is located at Via Rail Station and contains various locomotives, including the Countess of Dufferin, the first steam locomotive in Western Canada. Winnipeg is also the future home of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights, which will be the first Canadian national museum outside of the National Capital Region. The museum, designed by American architect Antoine Predock, will be located at The Forks. The federal government has contributed $100 million towards the estimated $311-million project SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery. Construction of the museum began on 1 April 2008, and is expected to be completed in late 2012. Theatres and theatre companies See also: Category:Theatre companies in Manitoba Constructed for Manitoba’s centennial, this complex includes the Centennial Concert Hall, Manitoba Museum and Planetarium Winnipeg’s three largest performing arts venues, the Centennial Concert Hall, Manitoba Theatre Centre (MTC) and the Pantages Playhouse, are located downtown. MTC is Canada's oldest English-language regional theatre, with over 250 performances yearly SONY VGN-FZ32B battery. The Pantages Playhouse Theatre opened as a vaudeville house in 1913. Le Cercle Molière, based in St Boniface, is the oldest theatre company in Canada. This French-language theatre, founded in 1925, moved to a new $2-million theatre in 2010. Rainbow Stage is a musical theatre production company based in Kildonan Park which produces professional, live Broadway musical shows and is Canada's longest-surviving outdoor theatre Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B batteryOther city theatres include the Burton Cummings Theatre (a National Historic Site of Canada built in 1906 currently named after the lead singer of The Guess Who), and Prairie Theatre Exchange (PTE), Winnipeg’s second-largest live theatre. The Manitoba Theatre for Young People (MTYP) at The Forks is one of only two Theatres for Young Audiences in Canada with a permanent residence Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L battery, and is the only Theatre for Young Audiences that offers a full season of plays for teenagers.[119] The Winnipeg Jewish Theatre (WJT) is the only professional theatre in Canada dedicated to Jewish themes. Shakespeare in the Ruins (SIR) presents adaptations of Shakespeare plays. Festivals See also: Category:Festivals in Manitoba Winnipeg Folk Festival Festival du Voyageur, western Canada's largest winter festival, celebrates the early French explorers of the Red River Valley Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P battery. Folklorama is the largest and longest-running cultural celebration festival in the world. The Jazz Winnipeg Festival and the Winnipeg Folk Festival both celebrate Winnipeg's music community. The Winnipeg Music Festival offers a competition venue to amateur musicians. The Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival is the second-largest alternative theatre festival in North America. Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W battery The Winnipeg International Writers Festival (THIN AIR) brings writers from all over the world to Winnipeg for workshops and readings. Music and dance Further information: List of Winnipeg musicians The Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra (WSO) is the largest and oldest professional musical ensemble in Winnipeg. The Manitoba Chamber Orchestra (MCO) runs a series of chamber orchestral concerts each year Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R battery. Manitoba Opera is Manitoba's only full-time professional opera company. Winnipeg had a thriving music scene in the 1960s, a tradition that continues to this day, and boasts a long list of musical talents and groups that have originated in this city, in many genres of music, including folk, roots, rock 'n' roll, blues, jazz, pop, alternative rock and others. Among the most notable musical acts associated with Winnipeg are Neil Young Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/B battery, The Guess Who, Bachman–Turner Overdrive, Streetheart, Harlequin, Chantal Kreviazuk, Fresh IE, Bif Naked, Econoline Crush, Brent Fitz, Venetian Snares, Propagandhi, The Weakerthans, Crash Test Dummies, The Watchmen, Comeback Kid, Lenny Breau, The Wailin' Jennys, Remy Shand, Daniel Lavoie, Holly McNarland, Terry Jacks, Joey Gregorash, producer Bob Rock, and The Duhks Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G battery. The Royal Winnipeg Ballet (RWB) is Canada's oldest ballet company and the longest continuously operating ballet company in North America. It was the first organization to be granted a royal title under the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, and has included notable dancers such as Evelyn Hart and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The RWB also runs a full-time classical dance school, which is recognized internationally for excellence in dance training Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B battery. Sports Main article: Sport in Winnipeg MTS Centre Winnipeg has been home to several professional hockey teams. The Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League have called the city home since 2011. The original Winnipeg Jets, the city's former National Hockey League team, left for Phoenix, Arizona after the 1995–96 season due to mounting financial troubles, despite a campaign effort to "Save the Jets." Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L batteryThe Jets play at MTS Centre, which is currently ranked the world's 19th-busiest arena among non-sporting touring events, 13th-busiest among facilities in North America, and 3rd-busiest in Canada.[129] Past professional hockey teams based in Winnipeg include the Winnipeg Maroons, Winnipeg Warriors, and the Manitoba Moose. Two notable sportspeople from Winnepeg are Lewis Hotchin and Darcy Nigro Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P battery, who won the WWE Tag Team Championships together on numerous occasions. In amateur hockey, the Winnipeg Blues of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League play out of the MTS Iceplex. On the international stage, Winnipeg has hosted national and world hockey championships on a number of occasions, most notably the 1999 World Junior Hockey Championship and 2007 Women's World Hockey Championship Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R battery. Investors Group Field under construction (2012) The Winnipeg Blue Bombers are a community-owned football team that plays in the Canadian Football League. The Blue Bombers are ten-time Grey Cup champions, their last championship coming in 1990. From 1953 to 2011, the Blue Bombers called Canad Inns Stadium home and are expecting to move to Investors Group Field, currently under construction at the University of Manitoba, in September 2012 Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W battery. The $190-million facility will also be home to the CIS’ University of Manitoba Bisons and the Winnipeg Rifles of the Canadian Junior Football League. Construction began in May 2010 and is scheduled for completion in 2012. The University of Manitoba Bisons and the University of Winnipeg Wesmen represent the city in interuniversity sport. In soccer it's represented by the Winnipeg Alliance FC in the Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League and the WSA Winnipeg in the USL Premier Development League Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L battery. Winnipeg has been home to a number of professional baseball teams, most recently the Winnipeg Goldeyes, since 1994. The Goldeyes play at Shaw Park, which was completed in 1999. The team led the Northern League for ten straight years in average attendance as of 2010, with 300,000+ annual fan visits, until they left to join the American Association Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P battery. Winnipeg was the first Canadian city to ever host the Pan American Games, and the second city to host the event twice, in 1967 and again in 1999. The Pan Am Pool, built for the 1967 Pan American Games, hosts aquatic events, including diving, speed swimming, synchronized swimming and water polo Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R battery. Winnipeg will return to the international stage when it co-hosts the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2015. Winnipeg has three daily newspapers: the Winnipeg Free Press, the Winnipeg Sun[134] and the Winnipeg Metro. There are five weekly newspapers delivered free to most Winnipeg households by region. There are several ethnic weekly newspapers, as well as regional and national magazines based in the city Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L battery. Television broadcasting in Winnipeg started in 1954, two years after it began in eastern Canada. The federal government refused to license any private broadcaster until the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation had created a national network. In May 1954, CBWT went on the air with four hours of broadcasting. The first local private station, CJAY, began broadcasting in 1960 Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P battery. There are presently five English-language stations and one French-language station based in Winnipeg. Additionally, some American network affiliates are available over-the-air. Winnipeg is home to 24 AM and FM radio stations, two of which are French-language stations.[137] CBC Radio One and CBC Radio 2 broadcast local and national programming in the city. NCI is devoted to Aboriginal programming and CKJS is devoted to multilingual ethnic programming Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R battery. Law and government Main article: Law, government, and crime in Winnipeg Winnipeg City Hall Since 1992, the city of Winnipeg is represented by 15 city councillors and a mayor elected every four years. The present mayor, Sam Katz, was elected to office in 2004 and re-elected in 2006 and 2010. The city is a single-tier municipality, governed by a mayor-council system.[140] The structure of the municipal government is set out by the province of Manitoba in the City of Winnipeg Charter Act, which replaced the old City of Winnipeg Act in 2003 Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W battery. The mayor is elected by direct popular vote to serve as the chief executive of the city. At Council meetings, the mayor has one of 16 votes. The City Council is a unicameral legislative body, representing geographical wards throughout the city. The Beaux-Arts architecture style Manitoba Legislature, constructed between 1913 and 1919. In provincial politics after the 2011 election Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/W battery, Winnipeg is represented by 31 of the 57 provincial Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). 26 Winnipeg districts are represented by members of the New Democratic Party (NDP), 4 are members of the Progressive Conservative Party, one is a member of the Liberal Party. All three leaders of the provincial parties represent Winnipeg districts in the legislature Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/B battery. In federal politics, Winnipeg is represented by eight Members of Parliament: six Conservatives, one New Democrat and one Liberal. There are six Senators representing Manitoba in Ottawa.[145] Only two list Winnipeg as the division they represent, although all of them were residents of Winnipeg when appointed to the Senate. The political affiliation in the Senate is three Liberals, two Conservatives, and one Independent Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/L battery. Main article: Crime by Neighbourhood / District A marked WPS cruiser. In 2004, Winnipeg had the fourth-highest overall crime rate among Canadian Census Metropolitan Areas listed, with 12,167 Criminal Code of Canada offences per 100,000 inhabitants. Winnipeg had the highest rate among centres with populations greater than 500,000. Statistics Canada states that in 2005, Manitoba had the highest decline of overall crime in Canada at nearly 8%; however, in 2009 the province topped all others in violent crime rates Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/N battery. The statistics for the year 2010 were similar, with Winnipeg still topping the violent crime severity index, although for the overall total crime severity index, Winnipeg was in third place, behind Saskatoon and Regina, with an index of 122.3, down by 10 per cent from 2009. Law enforcement in Winnipeg is provided by the Winnipeg Police Service, which has 1418 members Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/P battery. Manitoba has also had a continuing problem with auto thefts, most of which occur in Winnipeg. To combat auto theft, Manitoba Public Insurance (MPI) established financial incentives for motor vehicle owners to install ignition immobilisers in their vehicles. It now requires owners of high-risk vehicles to install immobilisers Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/R battery. Education See also: List of schools of Winnipeg Red River College's downtown campus Education is a responsibility of the provincial government in Canada.[154] In Manitoba, public education is governed by the Public Schools Act, the Education Administration Act, and regulations made under both Acts.[154] Rights and responsibilities of the Minister of Education, Citizenship and Youth, public school boards, principals, teachers Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/W battery, parents and students are set out in the legislation.[154] There are seven school divisions in Winnipeg: Winnipeg School Division, St. James-Assiniboia School Division, Pembina Trails School Division, Seven Oaks School Division, Division Scolaire Franco-Manitobaine, River East Transcona School Division, and Louis Riel School Division.[155] Winnipeg is home to religious and secular private schools Sony VAIO VGN-CR240 battery, which are not governed by school boards but must still adhere to regulations outlined by the province. The University of Manitoba - Fort Garry Campus The University of Manitoba is the largest university in Manitoba; it is the most comprehensive post-secondary educational institution. It was founded in 1877, making it Western Canada’s first university. In a typical year, the university has an enrolment of 22,500 undergraduate students and 3,500 graduate students. The University of St. Boniface Sony PCG-5G2L battery, the city's only French Canadian university,[158] grew from a college associated with the University of Manitoba into a modern university. The University of Winnipeg The University of Winnipeg received its charter in 1967, but its founding colleges date back more than 140 years.[159] The founding colleges were Manitoba College 1871, and Wesley College 1888, which merged to form United College in 1938. Until 2007, it was an undergraduate institution that offered some joint graduate studies programs Sony PCG-5G3L battery. It now offers graduate programs exclusive to the university. The Canadian Mennonite University (CMU) is a private Mennonite university established in 1999. It was formed through the amalgamation of three colleges: Canadian Mennonite Bible College (founded in 1947), Concord College (founded as Mennonite Brethren Bible College in 1944), and Menno Simons College (founded in 1988). It is an undergraduate institution, and offers some programs jointly with the University of Winnipeg Sony PCG-5J1L battery. Winnipeg also has two independent colleges: Red River College and Booth College. Red River College offers diploma, certificate, and apprenticeship programs and, starting in 2009, began offering a limited number of degree programs. In May 2009, the federal government of Canada pledged $9.5-million of funding to the college to help reconstruct the 104-year-old Union Bank Building for a second urban campus in downtown Winnipeg. Sony PCG-5J2L battery Booth College, a Christian Salvation Army college, is a private university college established in 1982. It offers mostly arts and seminary training. Main article: Transport in Winnipeg Union Station serves as home to Via Rail Canada Winnipeg has had public transit since 1882, starting with horse-drawn streetcars.[162] They were replaced by electric trolley cars. The trolley cars ran from 1892 to 1955, supplemented by motor buses after 1918, and electric trolleybuses from 1938 to 1970.[162] Winnipeg Transit now runs diesel buses Sony PCG-5K1L battery. Osborne Station terminal bus overpass on Winnipeg's Rapid Transit system, opened in April 2012. Winnipeg is a railway hub and is served by Via Rail, Canadian National Railway (CNR), Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba, and the Central Manitoba Railway (CEMR). It is the only city between Vancouver and Thunder Bay with direct U.S. connections by rail Sony PCG-5K2L battery. Winnipeg is the largest and best connected city within Manitoba, and has highways leading in all directions from the city. To the south, Winnipeg is connected to the United States via Provincial Trunk Highway 75 (PTH 75) (a continuation of I-29 and US 75). The highway runs 107 km (66 mi) to Emerson, Manitoba, and is the busiest Canada – United States border crossing between Vancouver and the Great Lakes Sony PCG-5L1L battery. Much of the commercial traffic through Emerson either originates from or is destined for Winnipeg. Inside the city, the highway is known as Pembina Highway (Route 42). The four-lane highway Perimeter Highway, built in 1969, serves as a Ring Road, with at-grade intersections and a few interchanges. It allows travellers on the Trans-Canada Highway to by-pass the city. A recent study cited dangerous intersections and low efficiency as its primary shortfalls Sony PCG-6S2L battery. The Trans-Canada Highway runs east to west through the city (city route), or circles around the city on the Perimeter Highway (beltway). The eastern starting point of the Yellowhead Highway is in Winnipeg, at the junction of Portage Avenue & Main Street. Some of the city's major arterial roads include Route 80 (Waverley St.), Route 155 (McGillivray Blvd), Route 165 (Bishop Grandin Blvd.), Route 17 (Chief Peguis Trail) Sony PCG-6S3L battery, and Route 90 (Brookside Blvd., Oak Point Hwy., King Edward St., Century St., Kenaston Blvd.). Winnipeg International Airport Arrivals Area The Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport completed a $585-million redevelopment in October 2011. The development includes a new terminal, a four-level parking facility, and other infrastructure improvements.[167] The field was Canada's first international airport when it opened in 1928 as Stevenson Aerodrome. Sony PCG-6V1L battery Winnipeg Bus Terminal, located at Winnipeg International Airport, offers domestic and international service by Greyhound Canada, Grey Goose Bus Lines, Winnipeg Shuttle Service and Brandon Air Shuttle. Approximately 20,000 acres (81 km2) of land to the north and west of the airport has been designated as an inland port, CentrePort Canada, and is Canada’s first Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) Sony PCG-6W1L battery. It is a private sector initiative to develop the infrastructure for Manitoba’s trucking, air, rail and sea industries.[170] Still in its preliminary stages, construction has begun on a $212-million four-lane freeway that will connect CentrePort with the Perimeter Highway. Winnipeg is served by several taxi companies, the three largest in order of size being Unicity, Duffy's Taxi and Spring Taxi.[172] Fifty percent of Winnipeg residents can be expected to use a taxi at least once during the year Sony PCG-6W2L battery. Cycling is popular in Winnipeg, and there are many bicycle trails and lanes around the city. Winnipeg holds an annual Bike-to-Work Day and Cyclovia, and bicycle commuters may be seen year-round even in the city's forbidding winter climate. Active living infrastructure in Winnipeg encourages bicycling through the inclusion of bike lanes[176] and sharrows Sony PCG-6W3L battery. Medical centres and hospitals See also: List of hospitals in Manitoba St. Boniface General Hospital Winnipeg's major hospitals include Health Sciences Centre, Concordia Hospital, Deer Lodge Centre, Grace Hospital, Misericordia Health Centre, Riverview Health Centre, Saint Boniface General Hospital, Seven Oaks General Hospital, Victoria General Hospital, and The Children's Hospital of Winnipeg. Sony PCG-7111L batteryThe National Microbiology Laboratory is Canada's front line in its response to infectious diseases and one of only a handful of Biosafety level 4 microbiology laboratories in the world.[179] The National Research Council also has the Institute for Biodiagnostics laboratory located in the downtown area. Military See also: CFB Winnipeg Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg, co-located at the airport, is home to many flight operations support divisions and several training schools. It is also the headquarters of 1 Canadian Air Division and the Canadian North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) Region. Sony PCG-7112L batteryThe base is supported by over 3,000 military personnel and civilian employees. 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based at CFB Winnipeg. The Wing comprises three squadrons and six schools; it also provides support to the Central Flying School. Excluding the three levels of government, 17 Wing is the fourth largest employer in the city. The Wing supports 113 units, stretching from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan/Alberta border Sony PCG-7113L battery, and from the 49th parallel to the high Arctic.[181] 17 Wing also acts as a deployed operating base for CF-18 Hornet fighter-bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region. There are two squadrons based in the city. The 402 "City of Winnipeg" Squadron flies the Canadian-designed and -produced de Havilland CT-142 Dash 8 navigation trainer.[183] The 435 "Chinthe" Transport and Rescue Squadron flies the Lockheed CC-130 Hercules tanker/transport in airlift search and rescue roles Sony PCG-7133L battery. In addition, 435 Squadron is the only Canadian Forces Air Command squadron equipped and trained to conduct tactical air-to-air refueling of fighter aircraft. Winnipeg is home to a number of reserve units: The Royal Winnipeg Rifles at Minto Armoury The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada infantry (along with The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada Museum) at Minto Armoury 735 Communications Squadron at Minto Armoury 17 Service Battalion at Minto Armoury 17 (Winnipeg) Field Ambulance at Minto Armoury 13 Military Police Platoon at Minto Armouries The Fort Garry Horse armoured reconnaissance regiment at McGregor Armoury HMCS Chippawa Naval Reserve Division Sony PCG-7Z1L batteryFor many years, Winnipeg was the home of the Second Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2 PPCLI). Initially, the battalion was based at the Fort Osborne Barracks near present-day Osborne Village. They eventually moved to the Kapyong Barracks located in River Heights/Tuxedo. Since 2004, the 550 men and women of the battalion have operated out of CFB Shilo near Brandon Sony PCG-7Z2L battery.
Toronto is the largest city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late 18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from the Mississaugas of the New Credit( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). The settlement was later established as the Town of York and proclaimed as the new capital of Upper Canada by its lieutenant-governor, John Graves Simcoe. In 1834, York was incorporated as a city and renamed to its present name. The city was ransacked in the Battle of York during the War of 1812 and damaged in two great fires in 1849 and in 1904( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Since its incorporation, Toronto has repeatedly expanded its borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities, most recently in 1998. The City of Toronto has 2.6 million residents, according to the 2011 Census. It is currently the fifth most populous city in North America. The census metropolitan area (CMA) had a population of 5,583,064,[2] and the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) had a population of 6,054, ( SONY PCG-5J1L battery)191 in the 2011 Census.[3] Toronto is at the heart of the Greater Toronto Area, and the densely populated region in Southern Ontario known as the Golden Horseshoe. Its cosmopolitan and international population[4] reflects its role as an important destination for immigrants to Canada.[5] Toronto is one of the world's most diverse cities by percentage of non-native-born residents( SONY PCG-5J2L battery), with about 49% of the population born outside Canada. Toronto is also consistently rated as one of the world's most livable cities by the Economist Intelligence Unit and the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[7][8] As Canada's commercial capital and one of the world's top financial centres, Toronto is considered an alpha world city by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) study group.[9][10] It is home to the Toronto Stock Exchange( SONY PCG-5K2L battery), the world's seventh largest in terms of market value. Toronto contains more corporate headquarters than any other Canadian city, including those of Canada's five largest banks.[11] Toronto's leading economic sectors include finance, business services, telecommunications, aerospace, transportation, media, arts, film, music, television production, publishing( SONY PCG-5L1L battery), software production, medical research, education, tourism, engineering, and sports industries. According to Forbes, Toronto is the tenth-most economically powerful city in the world and one of the fastest growing among the G7 nations, whilst PwC ranks the city as the world's second-best "metro powerhouse".[14][15] Toronto was ranked twelfth in the world and fourth in the Americas in 2010 for economic innovation by 2thinknow. ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery)The cost of living in Toronto was ranked highest in Canada in 2011. History Main articles: History of Toronto, Name of Toronto, and Amalgamation of Toronto Before 1800 When Europeans first arrived at the site of present-day Toronto, the vicinity was inhabited by the Huron tribes, who by then had displaced the Iroquois tribes that had occupied the region for centuries before c. 1500.[18] The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto, meaning "place where trees stand in the water".( SONY PCG-6S3L battery)It refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail, led to widespread use of the name. French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759.[20] During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the unsettled lands north of Lake Ontario( SONY PCG-6V1L battery). In 1787, the British negotiated the Toronto Purchase with the Mississaugas of New Credit, thereby securing more than a quarter million acres (1000 km2) of land in the Toronto area.[21] In 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the existing settlement, naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe chose the town to replace Newark as the capital of Upper Canada, ( SONY PCG-6W1L battery) believing the new site would be less vulnerable to attack by the Americans.[23] Fort York was constructed at the entrance of the town's natural harbour, sheltered by a long sand-bar peninsula. The town's settlement formed at the eastern end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street and Front Street (in the Corktown–St. Lawrence area) ( SONY PCG-7111L battery). 1800–1945 Map of Toronto, 1894 In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the town's capture and plunder by American forces.[24] The surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. American soldiers destroyed much of Fort York and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation( SONY PCG-71511M battery). The sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war. York was incorporated as the City of Toronto on March 6, 1834, reverting to its original native name. The population of only 9,000 included escaped African American slaves.[25] Slavery was banned outright in Upper Canada in 1834. Reformist politician William Lyon Mackenzie became the first Mayor of Toronto and led the unsuccessful Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837 against the British colonial government( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). The city grew rapidly through the remainder of the 19th century, as a major destination for immigrants to Canada. The first significant population influx occurred with the Great Irish Famine brought a large number of Irish to the city, some of them transient and most of them Catholic. By 1851, the Irish-born population had become the largest single ethnic group in the city( SONY PCG-7113L battery). Smaller numbers of Protestant Irish immigrants were welcomed by the existing Scottish and English population, giving the Orange Order significant and long lasting influence over Toronto society. The Great Toronto Fire of 1904. Toronto was twice for brief periods the capital of the united Province of Canada: first from 1849 to 1852, following unrest in Montreal, and later 1856–1858 after which Quebec became capital until 1866 (one year before Confederation) ( SONY PCG-7133L battery); since then, the capital of Canada has remained Ottawa.[26] As it had been for Upper Canada from 1793, Toronto became the capital of the province of Ontario after its official creation in 1867, the seat of government located at the Ontario Legislature located at Queen's Park. Because of its provincial capital status, the city was also the location of Government House, the residence of the vice-regal representative of the Crown( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery). Yonge Street in 1900 In the 19th century, an extensive sewage system was built, and streets became illuminated with gas lighting as a regular service. Long-distance railway lines were constructed, including a route completed in 1854 linking Toronto with the Upper Great Lakes. The Grand Trunk Railway and the Northern Railway of Canada joined in the building of the first Union Station in downtown( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery). The advent of the railway dramatically increased the numbers of immigrants arriving, commerce and industry, as had the Lake Ontario steamers and schooners entering port before which enabled Toronto to become a major gateway linking the world to the interior of the North American continent. Toronto Street, looking north from King Street, 1908 Toronto became the largest alcohol distillation (in particular spirits) centre in North America( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery); the Gooderham and Worts Distillery operations became the world's largest whiskey factory by the 1860s. A preserved section of this once dominant local industry remains in the Distillery District, the harbour allowed for sure access of grain and sugar imports used in processing. Expanding port and rail facilities brought in Northern Timber for export and imported Pennsylvania coal, industry dominated the waterfront for the next 100 years( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery). Horse-drawn streetcars gave way to electric streetcars in 1891, when the city granted the operation of the transit franchise to the Toronto Railway Company. The public transit system passed into public ownership in 1921 as the Toronto Transportation Commission, later renamed the Toronto Transit Commission. The system now has the third-highest ridership of any city public transportation system in North America. ( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery) The Great Toronto Fire of 1904 destroyed a large section of downtown Toronto, but the city was quickly rebuilt. The fire caused more than $10 million in damage, and resulted in more stringent fire safety laws and expansion of the city's fire department. Toronto Harbour, 1919. Union Station can be seen under construction. The city received new immigrant groups beginning in the late 19th century into early 20th century, particularly Germans, French, Italians( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery), and Jews from various parts of Eastern Europe. They were soon followed by Chinese, Russians, Poles and immigrants from other Eastern European nations, as the Irish before them, many of these new migrants lived in overcrowded shanty type slums, such as "the Ward" which was centred on Bay Street, now the heart of the country's finances( SONY PCG-7112L battery). Despite its fast paced growth, by the 1920s, Toronto's population and economic importance in Canada remained second to the much longer established Montreal. However, by 1934, the Toronto Stock Exchange had become the largest in the country. V-E Day celebrations on Bay Street, May 1945 Since 1945 Following the Second World War refugees from war-torn Europe and Chinese job-seekers arrived, as well as construction labourers, particularly from Italy and Portugal( SONY PCG-6W2L battery). Following elimination of racially based immigration policies by the late 1960s, immigration began from all parts of the world. Toronto's population grew to more than one million in 1951 when large-scale suburbanization began, and doubled to two million by 1971. By the 1980s, Toronto had surpassed Montreal as Canada's most populous city and the chief economic hub( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). During this time, in part owing to the political uncertainty raised by the resurgence of the Quebec sovereignty movement, many national and multinational corporations moved their head offices from Montreal to Toronto and Western Canadian cities.[28] In 1954, the City of Toronto and 12 surrounding municipalities were federated into a regional government known as Metropolitan Toronto.[29] The postwar boom had resulted in rapid suburban development( SONY VGP-BPS3 battery), and it was believed that a coordinated land use strategy and shared services would provide greater efficiency for the region. The metropolitan government began to manage services that crossed municipal boundaries, including highways, police services, water and public transit. In that year, a half-century after the Great Fire of 1904( SONY VGP-BPS4 battery), disaster struck the city again when Hurricane Hazel brought intense winds and flash flooding. In the Toronto area, 81 people were killed, nearly 1,900 families were left homeless, and the hurricane caused more than $25 million in damage.[30] In 1967, the seven smallest municipalities of Metropolitan Toronto were merged into their larger neighbours, resulting in a six-municipality configuration that included the old City of Toronto and the surrounding municipalities of East York( SONY VGP-BPS5 battery), Etobicoke, North York, Scarborough and York. In 1998, the metropolitan government was dissolved by the Provincial Government in the face of vigorous opposition from the smaller component municipalities and all six municipalities were amalgamated into a single municipality, creating the current City of Toronto, with Mel Lastman as its first mayor (after being mayor of North York). David Miller was the second mayor and Rob Ford is the third and current mayor( SONY VGP-BPS5A battery). The city celebrated its 175th anniversary on March 6, 2009, since its inception as the City of Toronto in 1834. Toronto hosted the 4th G-20 summit during June 26–27, 2010, for which the largest security operation in Canadian history took place amidst large-scale protests. Toronto will host the Pan American Games in 2015( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery). Geography Main article: Geography of Toronto A simulated-colour image of Toronto taken by the NASA Landsat 7 satellite from 2004. Yonge Street can clearly be seen bisecting the city just right of centre in the image. The other prominent road, running east-west, is Highway 401. Toronto covers an area of 630 square kilometres (243 sq mi),[31] with a maximum north-south distance of 21 kilometres (13 mi) and a maximum east-west distance of 43 km (27 mi). It has a 46-kilometre (29 mi) long waterfront shoreline( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery), on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. The Toronto Islands and Port Lands extend some distance out into the lake, allowing for a somewhat sheltered Toronto Harbour immediately south of the downtown core.[32] The city's borders are formed by Lake Ontario to the south, Etobicoke Creek and Highway 427 to the west, Steeles Avenue to the north and the Rouge River to the east( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). Topography The city is intersected by three rivers and numerous tributaries: the Humber River in the west end and the Don River east of downtown at opposite ends of the Toronto Harbour, and the Rouge River at the city's eastern limits. The harbour was naturally created by sediment build-up from lake currents that created the Toronto Islands( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). The many creeks and rivers cutting from north toward the lake created large tracts of densely forested ravines, and provide ideal sites for parks and recreational trails. However, the ravines also interfere with the city's grid plan, and this results in major thoroughfares such as Finch Avenue, Leslie Street, Lawrence Avenue, and St( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). Clair Avenue terminating on one side of ravines and continuing on the other side. Other thoroughfares such as the Prince Edward Viaduct are required to span above the ravines. These deep ravines prove useful for draining the city's vast storm sewer system during heavy rains, but some sections, particularly near the Don River are prone to sudden, heavy floods( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). During the last ice age, the lower part of Toronto was beneath Glacial Lake Iroquois. Today, a series of escarpments mark the lake's former boundary, known as the Iroquois Shoreline. The escarpments are most prominent from Victoria Park Avenue to the mouth of Highland Creek, where they form the Scarborough Bluffs. Other observable sections include the area near St. Clair Avenue West between Bathurst Street and the Don River( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery), and north of Davenport Road from Caledonia to Spadina Road; the Casa Loma grounds sit above this escarpment. Despite its deep ravines, Toronto is not remarkably hilly, but does increase in elevation steadily away from the lake. Elevation differences range from 75 metres (246 ft) above-sea-level at the Lake Ontario shore to 209 m (686 ft) ASL near the York University grounds in the city's north end at the intersection of Keele Street and Steeles Avenue. ( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery) There are occasional hilly areas, in particular midtown Toronto has a number of rolling hills, some of which are of considerable height. Lake Ontario remains occasionally visible from the peaks of these ridges as far north as Eglinton Avenue, 7 to 8 kilometres (4.3 to 5.0 mi) inland. Much of the current lakeshore land area fronting the Toronto Harbour is artificial landfill filled during the late 19th century( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). Until then the lakefront docks (then known as wharves) were set back further inland than today. Much of the adjacent Port Lands are also fill. The Toronto Islands were a natural landspit until a storm in 1858 severed their connection to the mainland, creating a channel later used by shipping interests to access the docks( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery). Climate Toronto has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), with warm, humid summers and cold winters. The city experiences four distinct seasons, with considerable variance in day to day temperature, particularly during the colder weather season. Owing to urbanization and its proximity to water, Toronto has a fairly low diurnal temperature range( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery) (day-night temperature difference). The denser urban scape makes for warmer nights year around and is not as cold throughout the winter than surrounding areas (particularly north of the city); however, it can be noticeably cooler on many spring and early summer afternoons under the influence of a lake breeze. Other low-scale maritime effects on the climate include lake-effect snow( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery), fog and delaying of spring- and fall-like conditions, known as seasonal lag. Toronto winters sometimes feature short cold snaps where maximum temperatures remain below −10 °C (14 °F), often made to feel colder by wind chill. Snowstorms, sometimes mixed with ice and rain can disrupt work and travel schedules, accumulating snow can fall any time from November until mid-April( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). However, mild stretches with temperatures in the 5 to 12 °C (41 to 54 °F) range and infrequently higher also occur in most winters melting accumulated snow. The summer months are characterized by long stretches of humid weather. Usually in the range from 23 °C (73 °F) to 31 °C (88 °F), daytime temperatures occasionally surpass 35 °C (95 °F) accompanied by high humidity making it feel oppressive during these brief periods of hot weather( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). Spring and autumn are transitional seasons with generally mild or cool temperatures with alternating dry and wet periods. Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, but summer is usually the wettest season, the bulk falling during thunderstorms. There can be periods of dry weather, but drought-like conditions are rare. The average yearly precipitation is about 830 mm (32.7 in) ( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), with an average annual snowfall of about 133 cm (52 in). Toronto experiences an average of 2,038 sunshine hours, or 44% of daylight hours, varying between a low of 27% in December to 59% in July.[34] Climate data for The Annex, Toronto 360-degree panorama of Toronto as seen from the CN Tower. The Toronto Islands and the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport on Lake Ontario are visible on the left side of the image while buildings of Downtown Toronto are visible on the right( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Architecture Main article: Architecture of Toronto See also: List of tallest buildings in Toronto, Doors Open Toronto, and List of oldest buildings and structures in Toronto Art Gallery of Ontario Lawrence Richards, a member of the faculty of architecture at the University of Toronto, has said "Toronto is a new, brash, rag-tag place—a big mix of periods and styles."[36] Toronto buildings vary in design and age with many structures dating back to the mid-19th century, while other prominent buildings were just newly built in the first decade of the 21st century( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). Defining the Toronto skyline is the CN Tower, completed in 1976. At a height of 553.33 metres (1,815 ft 5 in) it was the world's tallest[37] freestanding structure until 2007 when it was surpassed by Burj Khalifa, but it is still the tallest tower in the western hemisphere surpassing the Willis Tower by 110 metres. It is an important telecommunications hub and a centre of tourism in Toronto( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery). Allen Lambert Galleria in Brookfield Place Toronto is a city of high-rises, having 1,800 buildings over 30 metres (98 ft), second only to New York City (which has over 5,000 such buildings) in North America.[38] Most of these buildings are residential (either rental or condominium), whereas the central business district contains the taller commercial office towers( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). There has been recent media attention given for the need to retrofit many of these buildings, which were constructed beginning in the 1950s as residential apartment blocks to accommodate a quickly growing population. As of December 2011, Toronto had 132 high-rise buildings under-construction, which was the highest among all cities in North America, significantly beating Mexico City (88), New York City (86), and Chicago (17). ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) Through the 1960s and 1970s, significant pieces of Toronto's architectural heritage were demolished to make way for redevelopment or, simply, parking. In contrast, since the 2000s, Toronto is experiencing a period of architectural revival, with several buildings by world-renowned architects having opened in the last five years. Daniel Libeskind's Royal Ontario Museum addition( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery), Frank Gehry's remake of the Art Gallery of Ontario, and Will Alsop's distinctive Ontario College of Art & Design expansion are among the city's new showpieces.[40] The historic Distillery District, located on the eastern edge of downtown, is North America's largest and best preserved collection of Victorian era industrial architecture. It has been redeveloped into a pedestrian-oriented arts( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery), culture and entertainment neighbourhood. Modern glass and steel highrises have begun to transform the majority of the downtown area as the condominium market has exploded and triggered widespread construction throughout the city's centre. Trump International Hotel and Tower, Ritz-Carlton Toronto, Four Seasons Hotel and Residences, and Shangri-La Hotels and Resorts are just some of the many high rise luxury condominium-hotel projects currently under construction in the downtown core( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery). Neighbourhoods See also: List of neighbourhoods in Toronto and History of neighbourhoods in Toronto Row houses in The Annex; three of the houses shown have the distinctive bay-and-gable design, common in many parts of Old Toronto. The many residential communities of Toronto express a character distinct from that of the skyscrapers in the commercial core. Victorian and Edwardian-era residential buildings can be found in enclaves such as Rosedale, Cabbagetown, The Annex, and Yorkville( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). Wychwood Park is historically significant for the architecture of its homes, and for being one of Toronto's earliest planned communities. The Wychwood Park neighbourhood was designated as an Ontario Heritage Conservation district in 1985. The Casa Loma neighbourhood is named after Casa Loma, a storybook castle built in 1911 complete with stunning gardens, multiple turrets( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery), massive stables, an elevator, secret passages, and bowling alleys. Spadina House is a 19th century manor that is now a museum. The City of Toronto encompasses a geographical area formerly administered by six separate municipalities. These municipalities have each developed a distinct history and identity over the years, and their names remain in common use among Torontonians( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery). Throughout the city there exist hundreds of small neighbourhoods and some larger neighbourhoods covering a few square kilometres. Former municipalities include East York, Etobicoke, North York, Old Toronto, Scarborough, and York. Old Toronto Map of Toronto with major traffic routes. Also shown are the boundaries of six former municipalities, which form the current City of Toronto. The Old City of Toronto covers the area generally known as downtown, but also older and more densely populated neighbourhoods to the east, ( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery) west, and north of downtown. It includes the historic core of Toronto and remains the most densely populated part of the city. The Financial District contains the largest cluster of skyscrapers in Canada, including the First Canadian Place, Toronto-Dominion Centre, Scotia Plaza, Royal Bank Plaza, Commerce Court and Brookfield Place. This area includes, among others, the neighbourhoods of St. James (not to be confused with St. James Town to the north) ( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery), Garden District, St. Lawrence, Corktown, and Church and Wellesley. From that point, the Toronto skyline extends northward along Yonge Street. Old Toronto is also home to many historically wealthy residential enclaves, such as Yorkville, Rosedale, The Annex, Forest Hill, Lawrence Park, Lytton Park, Deer Park, Moore Park, and Casa Loma( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery), most stretching away from downtown to the north. These neighbourhoods generally feature upscale homes, luxury condominiums and high-end retail. At the same time, the downtown core vicinity includes neighbourhoods with many recent immigrants and low-income families living in social housing and rental high-rises, such as St. James Town, Regent Park, Moss Park, Alexandra Park and Parkdale. East and west of Downtown( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery), neighbourhoods such as Kensington Market, Chinatown, Leslieville, Cabbagetown and Riverdale are home to bustling commercial and cultural areas as well as vibrant communities of artists with studio lofts, with many middle and upper class professionals. Other neighbourhoods in the central city retain an ethnic identity, including two Chinatowns, the popular Greektown area, the trendy Little Italy, Portugal Village, and Little India, along with others( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery). Suburbs The inner suburbs are contained within the former municipalities of York and East York. These are mature and traditionally working class areas, primarily consisting of post–World War I small, single-family homes and small apartment blocks. Neighbourhoods such as Crescent Town, Thorncliffe Park, Weston, and Oakwood–Vaughan mainly consist of high-rise apartments( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery), which are home to many new immigrant families. During the 2000s, many neighbourhoods have become ethnically diverse and have undergone gentrification, as a result of increasing population and a housing boom during the late 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. The first neighbourhoods affected were Leaside and North Toronto, gradually progressing into the western neighbourhoods in York( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). Some of the area's housing is in the process of being replaced or remodelled. The outer suburbs comprising the former municipalities of Etobicoke (west), Scarborough (east) and North York (north) largely retain the grid plan laid before post-war development. Sections were long established and quickly growing towns before the suburban housing boom began and the emergence of Metro Government, existing towns or villages such as Mimico( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery), Islington and New Toronto in Etobicoke; Willowdale, Newtonbrook and Downsview in North York; Agincourt, Wexford and West Hill in Scarborough where suburban development boomed around or between these and other towns beginning in the late 1940s. Upscale neighbourhoods were built such as the Bridle Path in North York, the area surrounding the Scarborough Bluffs in Guildwood( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery), and most of central Etobicoke, such as Humber Valley Village, and The Kingsway. One of largest and earliest "planned communities" was Don Mills, parts of which were first built in the 1950s.[41] Phased development mixing single-detached housing with higher density apartment blocks became more popular as a suburban model of development( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). To some this model has been copied in other GTA municipalities surrounding Toronto, albeit with less population density. Over the late 20th century and early 21st century, North York City Centre, Etobicoke City Centre and Scarborough City Centre have emerged as secondary business districts outside Downtown Toronto. High-rise development in these areas have given the former municipalities distinguishable skylines of their own with high-density transit corridors serving them( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). Industrial The Distillery District In the earlier industrial era of Toronto, industry became concentrated along the Toronto Harbour and lower Don River mouth. The Distillery District contains the largest and best-preserved collection of Victorian industrial architecture in North America. Once the largest alcohol processing centre in North America, related structures along the Harbour include the Canada Malting Co. grain processing towers and the Redpath Sugar Refinery( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). Although production of spirits has declined over the decades, Toronto still has a robust and growing microbrewery industry. The District is a national heritage site, it was listed by National Geographic magazine as a "top pick" in Canada for travellers. Similar areas that still retain their post-industrial character, but are now largely residential are the Fashion District( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery), Corktown, and parts of South Riverdale and Leslieville. Toronto still has some active older industrial areas, such as Brockton Village, Mimico and New Toronto. In the west end of Old Toronto and York, the Weston/Mount Dennis and Junction areas have a sense of grit to them, as they still contain factories, meat packing facilities and railyards close to medium density residential( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Beginning in the late 19th century as Toronto sprawled out, industrial areas were set up on the outskirts. Over time, pockets of industrial land mostly followed rail lines and later highway corridors as the city grew outwards. This trend continues to this day, the largest factories and distribution warehouses have mostly moved to the suburban environs of Peel and York Regions; but also within the current city: Etobicoke ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery) (concentrated around Pearson Airport), North York, and Scarborough. Many of Toronto's former industrial sites close to (or in) Downtown have been redeveloped including parts of the Toronto waterfront and Liberty Village, large-scale development is underway in the West Don Lands. The still mostly vacated Port Lands remain largely undeveloped, apart from a power plant, a shipping container facility and out-of-commission industrial facilities( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). There are future plans for development, including residential areas under the guidance of Waterfront Toronto. Public spaces See also: List of Toronto parks High Park in Toronto, with Menashe Kadishman's Yellow Circles (1967) Toronto has a diverse array of public spaces, from city squares to public parks overlooking ravines. A group called the Toronto Public Space Committee was formed to protect the city's public spaces. Nathan Phillips Square is the city's main square in downtown( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery), and forms the entrance to City Hall. Yonge-Dundas Square, a newer, privately owned square near to City Hall, has also gained attention in recent years as one of the busiest gathering spots in the city. Other squares include Harbourfront Square, on the revitalized Toronto waterfront, and the civic squares at the former city halls of the defunct Metropolitan Toronto, most notably Mel Lastman Square in North York( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). There are many large downtown parks, which include Grange Park, Moss Park, Allan Gardens, Little Norway Park, Queen's Park, Riverdale Park, Trinity Bellwoods Park, Christie Pits, and the Leslie Street Spit, which mainly consists of Tommy Thompson Park and opens on weekends. The Toronto Islands have several acres of park space, accessible from downtown by ferry( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). Large parks in the outer areas include High Park, Humber Bay Park, Centennial Park, Downsview Park, Guildwood Park, and Rouge Park. An almost hidden park is the compact Cloud Gardens,[42] which has both open areas and a glassed-in greenhouse in downtown Toronto. Nathan Phillips Square, Harbourfront Centre, and Mel Lastman Square feature popular rinks for public ice-skating. Etobicoke's Colonel Sam Smith Trail opened in 2011 and is Toronto's first skating trail( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery). Centennial Park and Earl Bales Park offer outdoor skiing and snowboarding slopes with a chair lift, rental facilities, and lessons. Nathan Phillips Square is undergoing a major redesign by PLANT Architect Inc., Shore Tilbe Irwin + Partners, Peter Lindsay Schaudt Landscape Architecture Inc., and Adrian Blackwell (winners of the international design competition in 2007) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). West 8, a Dutch architecture firm, won the Central Waterfront Innovative Design Competition in 2006 to redesign the central part of the Toronto waterfront.[43][44] In 1999, Downsview Park initiated an international design competition to realise its vision of creating Canada's first national urban park. In May 2000, the winning park design was announced: "TREE CITY", by the team of Bruce Mau Design, Office for Metropolitan Architecture, Oleson Worland Architect and Inside/Outside( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery). Panoramic view of Nathan Phillips square in 2011. Culture Main article: Culture in Toronto See also: Recreation in Toronto, Annual events in Toronto, and List of cinemas in Toronto The Royal Alexandra Theatre Toronto is a major scene for theatre and other performing arts, with more than fifty ballet and dance companies, six opera companies, two symphony orchestras and a host of theatres. The city is home to the National Ballet of Canada, the Canadian Opera Company, the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, the Canadian Electronic Ensemble, and the Canadian Stage Company( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery). Notable performance venues include the Four Seasons Centre for the Performing Arts, Roy Thomson Hall, the Princess of Wales Theatre, the Royal Alexandra Theatre, Massey Hall, the Toronto Centre for the Arts, the Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres and the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts (originally the "O'Keefe Centre" and formerly the "Hummingbird Centre")( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery). Ontario Place features the world's first permanent IMAX movie theatre, the Cinesphere,[45] as well as the Molson Amphitheatre, an open-air venue for large-scale music concerts. As of spring 2012, Ontario Place has closed due to a decrease in attendance over the years. The Molson Amphitheatre and harbour still operate, however the park and Cinesphere are no longer operating( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E battery). Each summer, the Canadian Stage Company presents an outdoor Shakespeare production in Toronto's High Park called "Dream in High Park". Canada's Walk of Fame acknowledges the achievements of successful Canadians, with a series of stars on designated blocks of sidewalks along King Street and Simcoe Street( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160 battery). The Distillery District is a pedestrian village containing boutiques, art galleries, restaurants, artist studios and small breweries, including the well-known Mill Street Brewery. A new theatre in the district, the Young Centre for the Performing Arts, is the home of the Soulpepper Theatre Company and the drama productions of nearby George Brown College( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E battery). The production of domestic and foreign film and television is a major local industry. Toronto as of 2011 ranks as the third largest production centre for film and television after Los Angeles and New York City,[46] sharing the nickname "Hollywood North" with Vancouver. Many movie releases are screened in Toronto before wider release in North America( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E battery). The Toronto International Film Festival is an annual event celebrating the international film industry. Europe's largest film studio, The Pinewood Studios Group, operates Pinewood Toronto Studios in the city's west-end. Toronto's Scotiabank Caribbean Carnival (formerly known as Caribana) takes place from mid-July to early August of every summer, and is one of North America's largest street festivals.[50] Primarily based on the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery), the first Caribana took place in 1967 when the city's Caribbean community celebrated Canada's Centennial. More than forty years later, it has grown to attract one million people to Toronto's Lake Shore Boulevard annually. Tourism for the festival is in the hundred thousands, and each year, the event generates over $400 million in revenue into Ontario's economy. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery) Pride Week in Toronto takes place in late June, and is one of the largest LGBT festivals in the world. One of the largest events in the city, it attracts more than one million people from around the world. Tourism Main article: Attractions in Toronto Toronto Eaton Centre is the largest and busiest shopping mall in Toronto. The CN Tower is a major tourist attraction in Toronto. Royal Ontario Museum is one of Canada's leading museums. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery) Toronto is among the world's top international tourist destinations, ranking at 40th place, according to Euromonitor.[53] The city's most prominent landmark is the CN Tower, which once stood as the tallest free-standing land structure in the world at 553 metres (1,814 ft). To the surprise of its creators, the tower held the world record for over 30 years. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery) The Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) is a major museum for world culture and natural history. The Toronto Zoo, one of the largest in the world,[55][56] is home to over 5,000 animals representing over 460 distinct species. The Art Gallery of Ontario contains a large collection of Canadian, European, African and contemporary artwork, and also plays host to exhibits from museums and galleries all over the world( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery). The Gardiner Museum of ceramic art is the only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics, and the Museum's collection contains more than 2,900 ceramic works from Asia, the Americas, and Europe. The Ontario Science Centre always has new hands-on activities and science displays particularly appealing to children, and the Bata Shoe Museum features many unique exhibitions focused on footwear throughout history( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery). The centrally located Textile Museum of Canada possesses another niche collection of great quality and interest. Other prominent art galleries and museums include Design Exchange, Museum of Inuit Art, TIFF Bell Lightbox, Museum of Contemporary Canadian Art, Institute for Contemporary Culture, Toronto Sculpture Garden, CBC Museum, Redpath Sugar Museum, University of Toronto Art Centre, Hart House, TD Gallery of Inuit Art and the future Aga Khan Museum( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery). The city also runs its own museums, which includes the Spadina House. The Don Valley Brick Works is a former industrial site, which opened in 1889, and was partly restored as a park and heritage site in 1996, with further restoration and reuse being completed in stages since then. The Canadian National Exhibition is held annually at Exhibition Place, and it is the oldest annual fair in the world( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery). It is Canada's largest annual fair and the fifth largest in North America, with an average attendance of 1.25 million.[57] The Yorkville neighbourhood is one of Toronto's most elegant shopping and dining areas. On many occasions, celebrities from all over North America can be spotted in the area, especially during the Toronto International Film Festival. The Distillery District( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery), Queen West, Harbourfront, the Entertainment District, the Financial District, and the St. Lawrence Market neighbourhood are also popular areas for tourists. The Eaton Centre is one of North America's top shopping destinations, and Toronto's most popular tourist attraction with over 52 million visitors annually. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery) Greektown on the Danforth, is another one of the major attractions of Toronto which boasts one of the highest concentrations of restaurants per kilometre in the world. It is also home to the annual "Taste of the Danforth" festival which attracts over one million people in 2½ days.[59] Toronto is also home to Canada's most famous "castle" – Casa Loma, the former estate of Sir Henry Pellatt, a prominent Toronto financier, industrialist and military man( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). Other notable neighbourhoods and attractions include The Beaches, the Toronto Islands, Kensington Market, Fort York, and the Hockey Hall of Fame. Intersection of Dundas Street and McCaul Street in the Grange Park district, with the CN Tower, OCAD University, the Art Gallery of Ontario and a Toronto streetcar visible (centre left to right) Sports( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery) Main articles: Toronto sports, Amateur sport in Toronto, and List of sports teams in Toronto The Hockey Hall of Fame, housed in a former bank erected in 1885, is located at the intersection of Front Street and Yonge Street in Downtown Toronto. Toronto is the only Canadian city with representation in seven major league sports, with teams in the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, Canadian Football League, Major League Soccer( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery), Canadian Women's Hockey League and W-League. The National Football League's Buffalo Bills also play select home games in the city. The city's major sports venues include the Air Canada Centre, Rogers Centre (formerly SkyDome), Ricoh Coliseum, and BMO Field. Toronto is home to the Toronto Maple Leafs, one of the National Hockey League's Original Six clubs, and has also served as home to the Hockey Hall of Fame since 1958. The city has a rich history of hockey championships( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery). Along with the Maple Leafs' 13 Stanley Cup titles (second all-time), the Toronto Marlboros and St. Michael's College School-based Ontario Hockey League teams combined have won a record 12 Memorial Cup titles. The Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League also play in Toronto at Ricoh Coliseum and are the farm team for the Maple Leafs. They are currently the only AHL team that is located in the same market as its NHL parent club( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery). Toronto is currently home to the only National Basketball Association franchise outside the United States. The Toronto Raptors entered the league in 1995, and have since earned five playoff spots in 15 seasons. The Raptors won the Atlantic Division title in the 2006–07 NBA season, led by former star player Chris Bosh. The Raptors are the only NBA team with their own television channel, NBA TV Canada( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). They and the Maple Leafs play their home games at the Air Canada Centre. BMO Field immediately after Danny Dichio scored the first goal in Toronto FC history. The Toronto Rock are the city's National Lacrosse League team. They are one of the league's most successful franchises, winning five Champion's Cup titles in seven years in the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, appearing in an NLL record five straight championship games from 1999 to 2003, and are currently first all-time in the number of Champion's Cups won( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). The Rock share the Air Canada Centre with the Maple Leafs and the Raptors. The city is represented in the Canadian Football League by the Toronto Argonauts, who have won a league-leading 15 Grey Cup titles. Toronto played host to the 95th Grey Cup in 2007, the first held in the city since 1992. In addition, the city has hosted several National Football League exhibition games; Ted Rogers leased the Buffalo Bills from Ralph Wilson for the purposes of having the Bills play eight home games in the city between 2008 and 2012( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). The city is also home to Major League Baseball's Toronto Blue Jays, who have won two World Series (1992 and 1993) titles and are currently the only Major League Baseball team in Canada. Both the Argonauts and Blue Jays (as well as the Bills when they are in town) play their home games at the Rogers Centre, in the downtown core( Sony VAIO VGN-SZ battery). Toronto was home to the International Bowl, an NCAA sanctioned post-season football game that pitted a Mid-American Conference team against a Big East Conference team. Beginning in 2007, the game was played at Rogers Centre annually in January. Toronto Blue Jays host the Detroit Tigers at the Rogers Centre. Toronto, along with Montreal, hosts an annual Tennis Tournament called the Rogers Cup between the months of July and August( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). In odd-numbered years, the men's tournament is held in Montréal, while the women's tournament is held in Toronto, and vice-versa in even-numbered years. Besides team sports, the city annually hosted Champ Car's Molson Indy Toronto at Exhibition Place from 1986 to 2007. The race was revived in 2009 as the Honda Indy Toronto, part of the IndyCar Series schedule. Both thoroughbred and standardbred horse racing events are conducted at Woodbine Racetrack in Rexdale( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). Historic sports clubs of Toronto include the Granite Club (established in 1836), the Royal Canadian Yacht Club (established in 1852), the Toronto Cricket Skating and Curling Club (established in pre-1827), the Argonaut Rowing Club (established in 1872), the Toronto Lawn Tennis Club (established in 1881), and the Badminton and Racquet Club (established in 1924) ( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery). Toronto was a candidate city for the 1996 and 2008 Summer Olympics, which were awarded to Atlanta and Beijing respectively. The Canadian Olympic Committee was considering a Toronto bid for the 2020 Games,[60] however, in August 2011 it was announced that Toronto would not bid for the 2020 games.[61] It has been suggested that Toronto may bid for the 2024 Summer Olympics. ( Sony VGN-NR260E/T Battery) Toronto will be hosting the 2015 Pan American Games in July 2015. It contested against the cities of Lima, Peru and Bogotá, Colombia. Media Main article: Media in Toronto Toronto is Canada's largest media market,[64] and among the largest print-media centres in North America with four conventional dailies, two alt-weeklies, and two free commuter papers in a greater metropolitan area of about 6 million inhabitants( Sony VGN-NR260E/W Battery). The Toronto Star and the Toronto Sun are the prominent daily city newspapers, while national dailies, The Globe and Mail and the National Post are also headquartered in the city. Metro, 24 Hours and t.o.night are distributed as free commuter newspapers. The city's two most prominent general-interest weeklies are Now and The Grid( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery). Toronto contains the headquarters of the major English-language Canadian television networks, including the English-language branch of the national public broadcaster Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the largest private broadcaster CTV, and the flagship stations of Citytv and Global. Canada's premier sports television networks are also based in Toronto( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery), including The Sports Network (TSN), Sportsnet and The Score. MuchMusic, MuchMore and MTV Canada are the main music television channels based in the city, though they no longer primarily show music videos due to channel drift. The bulk of Canada's periodical publishing industry is centred in Toronto including magazines such as Maclean's, Chatelaine, Flare, Canadian Living, Canadian Business, and Toronto Life( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). Many art, design, architecture and fashion magazines were created or are based in the city, including Fashion, Monocle, Azure, Canadian Interiors, Canadian Architect and Wallpaper*. Economy Main article: Economy of Toronto View of Toronto's Financial District from the CN Tower. Toronto is a major international centre for business and finance. Generally considered the financial capital of Canada, Toronto has a high concentration of banks and brokerage firms on Bay Street, in the Financial District. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the world's seventh-largest stock exchange by market capitalization. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery) The five largest financial institutions of Canada, collectively known as the Big Five, are headquartered in Toronto, as are a majority of Canada's corporations.[12] The city is an important centre for the media, publishing, telecommunication, information technology and film production industries; it is home to Bell Media, Rogers Communications, and Torstar. Other prominent Canadian corporations in the Greater Toronto Area include Magna International, Celestica, Manulife Financial, Sun Life Financial( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), the Hudson's Bay Company, and major hotel companies and operators, such as Four Seasons Hotels and Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. Although much of the region's manufacturing activities take place outside the city limits, Toronto continues to be an important wholesale and distribution point for the industrial sector. The city's strategic position along the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor and its extensive road and rail connections help support the nearby production of motor vehicles, iron, steel( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery), food, machinery, chemicals and paper. The completion of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959 gave ships access to the Great Lakes from the Atlantic Ocean. The city's net debt stood at $4.4 billion as of the end of 2010 and has a AA credit rating.[66] Toronto is expected to pay $400 million of the debt in 2011.[66] The city's debt increased by $721 million in 2010.[66] The city’s unemployment rate was 8.1% in November 2011, down from 8.3% year over year( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). The city's population grew by 4% (96,073 residents) between 1996 and 2001, 1% (21,787 residents) between 2001 and 2006, and 4.3% (111,779 residents) between 2006 and 2011. Persons aged 14 years and under made up 17.5% of the population, and those aged 65 years and over made up 13.6%. The median age was 36.9 years. Foreign-born people made up 49.9% of the population.[72] The city's gender population is 48% male and 52% female. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery)However, women outnumber men in all age groups over 20.[74] As of 2006, 46.9% of the residents of the city proper belong to a visible minority group,[75] and visible minorities are projected to comprise a majority in the Toronto CMA by 2017.[76] In 1981, Toronto's visible minority population was 13.6%.( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery) According to the United Nations Development Programme, Toronto has the second-highest percentage of constant foreign-born population among world cities, after Miami, Florida. While Miami's foreign-born population consists mostly of Cubans and other Latin Americans, no single nationality or culture dominates Toronto's immigrant population, placing it among the most diverse cities in the world. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery)By 2031, Toronto's current visible minority population will have increased to 63%, changing the definition of visible minority in the city.[78] More than 100,000 immigrants arrive in the Toronto area every year.[79] In 2006, people of European ethnicities formed the largest cluster of ethnic groups in Toronto, 52.6%,[75] mostly of British, Irish, Italian, and French origins( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery). The five largest visible minority groups in Toronto are South Asian (12.0%), Chinese (11.4%), Black (8.4%), Filipino (4.1%) and Latin American (2.6%).[75] Aboriginal peoples, who are not considered visible minorities, formed 0.5% of the population.[75] This diversity is reflected in Toronto's ethnic neighbourhoods, which include Chinatown, Corso Italia, Greektown, Kensington Market, Koreatown, Little India, Little Italy, Little Jamaica, Little Portugal and Roncesvalles( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery). Christianity is the largest religious group in Toronto. The 2001 Census reports that 33.4% of the city's population is Catholic, followed by Protestant (21.1%), Christian Orthodox at (4.8%), Coptic Orthodox (0.2%),[80] and other Christians (3.9%). Due to the city's significant number of Methodist Christians, Toronto is often referred to as the Methodist Rome( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery). Other religions in the city are Islam (5.5%), Hinduism (4.1%), Judaism (3.5%), Buddhism (2.1%), Sikhism (1.9%), and other Eastern religions (0.2%). 16.6% of the population professes no religion.[81][82] While English is the predominant language spoken by Torontonians, many other languages have considerable numbers of local speakers.[83] The varieties of Chinese and Italian are the second and third most widely spoken languages at work. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery) As a result, the city's 9-1-1 emergency services are equipped to respond in over 150 languages.[86] Government Main article: Municipal government of Toronto Further information: Politics of Toronto and Public services in Toronto Toronto City Hall at night Toronto's Electoral Wards Toronto is a single-tier municipality governed by a mayor–council system. The structure of the municipal government is stipulated by the City of Toronto Act. The Mayor of Toronto is elected by direct popular vote to serve as the chief executive of the city( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery). The Toronto City Council is a unicameral legislative body, comprising 44 councillors representing geographical wards throughout the city. The mayor and members of the city council serve four-year terms without term limits. (Until the 2006 municipal election, the mayor and city councillors served three-year terms.) At the start of the 2007 term, the city council will have seven standing committees, each consisting of a Chairman( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery), a vice-chair and four other councillors. The Mayor names the committee chairs and the remaining membership of the committees is appointed by City Council.[87] An executive committee is formed by the chairs of each of standing committee, along with the mayor, the deputy mayor and four other councillors. Councillors are also appointed to oversee the Toronto Transit Commission and the Toronto Police Services Board( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). The city has four community councils that consider local matters. City Council has delegated final decision-making authority on local, routine matters, while others—like planning and zoning issues—are recommended to the city council. Each city councillor serves as a member on a community council( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). There are about 40 subcommittees and advisory committees appointed by the city council. These bodies are made up of city councillors and private citizen volunteers. Examples include the Pedestrian Committee, Waste Diversion Task Force 2010, and the Task Force to Bring Back the Don. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery) Toronto had an operating budget of C$7.6 billion in 2006.[89] The city receives funding from the Government of Ontario in addition to tax revenues and user fees, spending 36% on provincially mandated programmes, 53% on major municipal purposes such as the Toronto Public Library and the Toronto Zoo, and 11% on capital financing and non-programme expenditures. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery) Crime Main article: Crime in Toronto See also: Crime in Canada and Gun politics in Canada The low crime rate[91] in Toronto has resulted in the city having a reputation as one of the safest major cities in North America.[92][93] For instance, in 2007, the homicide rate for Toronto was 3.3 per 100,000 people, compared with Atlanta (19.7), Boston (10.3), Los Angeles (10.0), New York City (6.3), Vancouver (3.1), and Montreal (2.6). Toronto's robbery rate also ranks low( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery), with 207.1 robberies per 100,000 people, compared with Los Angeles (348.5), Vancouver (266.2), New York City (265.9), and Montreal (235.3). Toronto has a comparable rate of car theft to various U.S. cities, although it is not among the highest in Canada.[91] Toronto recorded its largest number of homicides in 1991 with 89, a rate of 3.9 per 100,000. In 2005, Toronto media coined the term "Year of the Gun"( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery), because there was a record number of gun-related homicides, 52, out of 80 homicides in total (65% – similar to the average in U.S. cities). The total number of homicides dropped to 70 in 2006, that year, nearly 2,000 people in Toronto were victims of a violent gun-related crime, about one-quarter of the national total.[103] 84 homicides were committed in 2007( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), roughly half of them involved guns. Gang-related incidents have also been on the rise; between the years of 1997 and 2005, over 300 gang-related homicides have occurred. As a result, the Ontario government developed an anti-gun strategy.[104] In 2011, Toronto's murder rate plummeted to 45 murders—nearly a 26% drop from the previous year. The 45 homicides were the lowest number the city has recorded since 1986( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery). Education Main article: Education in Toronto University College at the University of Toronto Ryerson University Library in Ryerson University Vari Hall and Ross Building at York University. Toronto is home to a number of post-secondary academic institutions. The University of Toronto, established in 1827, is the oldest university in Ontario and a leading public research institution with two satellite campuses, one of which is located in the city's eastern district of Scarborough while the other is located in Mississauga. ( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery). It is a worldwide leader in several fields, including biomedical research. It houses North America's fourth-largest university library system, after those of Harvard, Yale and Berkeley. The Osgoode Hall Law School, affiliated with Toronto's York University, houses the largest law library in the Commonwealth of Nations. Toronto is also home to Ryerson University, OCAD University, and the University of Guelph-Humber( Sony VGN-NR110E Battery). There are four diploma and degree granting colleges in Toronto. These are Seneca College, Humber College, Centennial College and George Brown College. The city is also home to a satellite campus of the francophone Collège Boréal. In nearby Oshawa, usually considered part of the Greater Toronto Area, are Durham College and the University of Ontario Institute of Technology, while Halton Region is home to Sheridan College( Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery). The Royal Conservatory of Music, which includes the Glenn Gould School, is a school of music located downtown. The Canadian Film Centre is a film, television and new media training institute founded by filmmaker Norman Jewison. Tyndale University College and Seminary is a transdenominational Christian post-secondary institution and Canada's largest seminary( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery). The Toronto District School Board (TDSB) operates 558 public schools. Of these, 451 are elementary and 102 are secondary (high) schools. This makes the TDSB the largest school board in Canada. Additionally, the Toronto Catholic District School Board manages the city's publicly funded Roman Catholic schools( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery), while the Conseil scolaire de district du Centre-Sud-Ouest and the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud manages public and Roman Catholic French-language schools. There are also numerous private university-preparatory schools. The Toronto Public Library is the largest public library system in Canada and the most widely used,[106] consisting of 99 branches with more than 11 million items in its collection. ( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery) Infrastructure Health and medicine Main article: Health in Toronto See also: List of hospitals in Toronto and XVI International AIDS Conference, 2006 Toronto General Hospital Toronto is home to at least 20 public hospitals, including the Hospital for Sick Children, Mount Sinai Hospital, St. Michael's Hospital, North York General Hospital, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto Western Hospital, St. Joseph's Health Centre, Rouge Valley Health System, The Scarborough Hospital, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, ( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery) Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), and Princess Margaret Hospital, as well as the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine. Several years ago, Toronto was reported as having some of the longer average ER wait times in Ontario. Toronto hospitals at the time employed a system of triage to ensure life-threatening injuries receive rapid treatment.[108] After initial screening( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery), initial assessments by physicians were completed within the waiting rooms themselves for greater efficiency, within a median 1.2 hours. Tests, consultations, and initial treatments were also provided within waiting rooms. 50% of patients waited 4 hours before being transferred from the emergency room to another room.[108] The least-urgent 10% of cases wait over 12 hours.[108] The extended waiting-room times experienced by some patients were attributed to an overall shortage of acute care beds. ( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery) Toronto's Discovery District[109] is the centre of research in biomedicine. It is located on a 2.5-square-kilometre (620-acre) research park that is fully integrated into Toronto's downtown core. It is also home to the Medical and Related Sciences Centre (MaRS),[110] which was created in 2000 to capitalize on the research and innovation strength of the Province of Ontario. Another institute is the McLaughlin Centre for Molecular Medicine (MCMM) ( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery). Toronto also has some specialized hospitals such as Baycrest for geriatric care and Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital for children with disabilities. Transportation Main article: Transportation in Toronto The Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) is the third largest public transit system in North America after the New York City Transit Authority, and the Mexico City Metro.[27] The TTC provides public transit within the City of Toronto( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). The backbone of its public transport network is the Toronto subway and RT, which includes three heavy-rail rapid transit lines and a mainly elevated light-metro rapid transit line. The TTC also operates an extensive network of buses and streetcars. There have been numerous plans to extend the subway and implement light-rail lines, but many efforts have been thwarted by budgetary concerns( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). Since July 2011, the only subway-related work is the Spadina subway extension north of Downsview Station. The Government of Ontario also operates an extensive interregional rail and bus transit system called GO Transit in the Greater Toronto Area. GO Transit carries over 217,000 passengers every weekday and 57 million annually, with a majority of them travelling to or from Union Station, the busiest passenger transportation facility in Canada( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). Canada's busiest airport, Toronto Pearson International Airport (IATA: YYZ), straddles the city's western boundary with the suburban city of Mississauga. Limited commercial and passenger service is also offered from the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, on the Toronto Islands, southwest of downtown. Toronto/Buttonville Municipal Airport in Markham provides general aviation facilities. ( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery) Toronto/Downsview Airport, near the city's north end, is owned by de Havilland Canada and serves the Bombardier Aerospace aircraft factory. There are a number of municipal expressways and provincial highways that serve Toronto and the Greater Toronto Area. In particular, Highway 401 bisects the city from west to east, bypassing the downtown core. It is the busiest road in North America,[114] and one of the busiest highways in the world. The main municipal expressways in Toronto include the Gardiner Expressway, the Don Valley Parkway, and to some extent, Allen Road( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery). The grid of major city streets was laid out by the concession road system, in which major arterial roads are approximately two kilometres apart. Major east-west arterial roads are generally parallel with the Lake Ontario shoreline, and major north-south arterial roads are roughly perpendicular to the shoreline. This arrangement is sometimes broken by geographical accidents, most notably the Don River ravines( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery).
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It had a population in 2011 of 3,064,000, and has a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,200 km (750 mi) of coastline, and is largely mountainous Sony PCG-71313M battery, with its highest peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit. The country lies within the north temperate zone, and has a changeable, maritime climate. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations Sony PCG-71212M battery. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales, in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England, and incorporated within the English legal system, under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 Sony PCG-71311M battery. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters Sony PCG-71213M battery. At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, development of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial nation; the south Wales coalfield's exploitation causing a rapid expansion of Wales' population. Two-thirds of the population now live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff (the capital) Sony PCG-61211M battery, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Today, with the country's traditional extractive and heavy industries either gone or in decline, Wales' economy depends on the public sector, light and service industries, and tourism. Although Wales shares a close political and social history with the rest of Great Britain, and almost everyone speaks English, the country has retained a distinct cultural identity and is officially bilingual Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. Over 580,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, where it is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", attributable in part to the eisteddfod tradition. At international sporting events, such as the FIFA World Cup, Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery, Wales is represented by national teams, though at the Olympic Games, Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team. Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. Etymology See also: List of meanings of countries' names Etymology of Wales The Anglo-Saxon word for 'foreign' or 'foreigner' was Waelisc and a 'foreign(er's) land' was called Wēalas. The modern English forms of these words with respect to the modern country are Welsh (the people) and Wales (the land), respectively Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. Historically in Britain the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used indiscriminately to refer to anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with Celtic Britons, including other foreign lands (e.g., Cornwall), places once associated with Celtic Britons (e.g., Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire), Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery the surnames of people (e.g., Walsh and Wallace) and various other things that were once new and foreign to the Anglo-Saxons (e.g., the walnut). None of these historic usages is necessarily connected to Wales or the Welsh. The Anglo-Saxon words are derived from the same Germanic root (singular Walh, plural Walha), applied to Italic and Celtic peoples and places, that has provided modern names for Continental lands (e.g., Wallonia and Wallachia) and peoples Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery (e.g., the Vlachs via a borrowing into Old Church Slavonic), none of which has any connection to Wales or the Welsh. Etymology of Cymru Wikisource has original text related to this article: Moliant Cadwallon The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is Welsh for "Land of the Cymry". The etymological origin of Cymry is from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen" Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the post-Roman Era relationship of the Welsh with the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland, the peoples of "Yr Hen Ogledd" (English: The Old North). In its original use, it amounted to a self-perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery, exclusive of all others. In particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to both the Welsh and the Men of the North. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century. It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery ("Moliant Cadwallon", by Afan Ferddig) c. 633. In Welsh literature, the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh, though the older, more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples (including the Welsh) and was the more common literary term until c. 1100. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. Until c. 1560 Cymry was used indiscriminately to mean either the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of these names are Cambrian or Cambric (meaning "Welsh") and Cambria (meaning "Wales"). They survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh and the Welsh people. Examples include the Cambrian Mountains (which cover most of Wales), the newspaper "Cambrian News", as well as the organisations Cambrian Airways Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery, Cambrian Railways and Cambrian Archaeological Association. Outside Wales, this form survives as the name of Cumbria in North West England, which was once a part of "Yr Hen Ogledd". This form also appears at times in literary references, perhaps most notably in the pseudohistorical "Historia Regum Britanniae" of Geoffrey of Monmouth, where the character of Camber is described as the eponymous King of Cymru Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery. a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29,000 years.[12] Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the last ice age, between 12,000 and 10,000 years before present (BP), when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery. At that time sea levels were much lower than today, and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land. The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland, forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Wales was free of glaciers by about 10,250 BP, the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded. The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland, forming the Irish Sea. Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and, by 8,000 BP, the British Peninsula had become an island. By the beginning of the Neolithic (c. 6,000 BP) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery (10 metres) lower than today. John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre'r Gwaelod's drowning and tales in the Mabinogion, of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower, may be distant folk memories of this time.[18] Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people, gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, to become settled farmers about 6,000 BP – the Neolithic Revolution. They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land, developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production, and built cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan, Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn between about 5,500 BP and 5,800 BP. In common with people living all over Great Britain Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery, over the following centuries the people living in what was to become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and exchanged ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures. According to John T. Koch and others, Wales in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture that also included the other Celtic nations, England, France, Spain and Portugal where Celtic languages developed. Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of the Deceangli, Ordovices, Cornovii, Demetae and Silures for centuries. Roman era Main article: Wales in the Roman era The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete. Roman rule lasted over 300 years. The campaigns of conquest are the most widely known feature of Wales during the Roman era, due to the spirited, but ultimately unsuccessful Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery, defence of their homelands by two native tribes: the Silures and the Ordovices. Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation, save for the southern coastal region of South Wales, east of the Gower Peninsula, where there is a legacy of Romanisation. The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, Caerwent, is in South Wales. Both Caerwent and Carmarthen, also in southern Wales, became Roman civitates. Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery Wales had a rich mineral wealth. The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold, copper and lead, as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver.[31] Roman economic development was concentrated in south-eastern Britain, and no significant industries located in Wales. Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery This was largely a matter of circumstance, as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation. Although Latin became the official language of Wales, the people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic. While Romanisation was far from complete, the upper classes of Wales began to consider themselves Roman Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, particularly after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire. Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity, which gained many followers after Christians were allowed to worship freely in 313. Coin of Magnus Maximus Early historians, including the 6th century cleric Gildas, have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history,[33] as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of several medieval royal dynasties Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery. In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus, or Macsen Wledig, stripped all of western and northern Britain of troops and senior administrators, to launch a successful bid for imperial power; continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as Emperor.[34][35] Gildas, writing in about 540, says that Maximus left Britain not only with all of its Roman troops, but also with all of its armed bands Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return. Having left with the troops and Roman administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal dynasties, including those of Powys and Gwent Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. It was this transfer of power that has given rise to the belief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation.[33] He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales. Post-Roman era See also: Sub-Roman Britain Britain in AD 500: The areas shaded pink on the map were inhabited by the Celtic Britons, here labelled as Welsh. The pale blue areas in the east were controlled by Germanic tribes–the pale green areas to the north were inhabited by the Gaels and Picts Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. The 400 years following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales. After the Roman departure from Britain in AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east were overrun by various Germanic peoples. Before extensive studies of the distribution of R1b Y-DNA subclades, some used to maintain that native Britons were displaced by the invaders Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. This idea has been discarded in the face of evidence that the population has, mainly, at latest Hallstatt era origins, but probably late Neolithic, or at earliest Mesolithic origins with little contribution from Anglo-Saxon source areas.[40] However, by AD 500, the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery. The kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed and Seisyllg, Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states. Archaeological evidence, in the Low Countries and what was to become England, shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 to 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles.[41] John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill, attributed to Arthur by Nennius. Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery This tenacious survival by the Romano-Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales. With the loss of the lowlands, England's kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, and later Wessex, wrestled with Powys, Gwent and Gwynedd to define the frontier between the two peoples Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. Having lost much of what is now the West Midlands to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries, a resurgent late-seventh-century Powys checked Mercian advancement. Aethelbald of Mercia, looking to defend recently acquired lands, had built Wat's Dyke. According to John Davies, this endeavour may have been with Powys king Elisedd ap Gwylog's own agreement, however Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery, for this boundary, extending north from the valley of the River Severn to the Dee estuary, gave Oswestry to Powys. Another theory, after carbon dating placed the dyke's existence 300 years earlier, is that it may have been built by the post-Roman rulers of Wroxeter. King Offa of Mercia seems to have continued this consultative initiative when he created a larger earthwork, now known as Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa) Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. Davies wrote of Cyril Fox's study of Offa's Dyke: "In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain near Trelystan, the dyke veers to the east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; near Rhiwabon, it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden." Sony VAIO PCG-31113M batteryAnd, for Gwent, Offa had the dyke built "on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing that the River Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent." However, Fox's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research. Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery, though the Welsh would recover by the 12th century the area between the Dee (Afon Dyfrdwy), and the Conwy known then as Y Berfeddwlad. By the eighth century, the eastern borders with the Anglo-Saxons had broadly been set. In 853 the Vikings raided Anglesey, but in 856 Rhodri Mawr defeated and killed their leader, Gorm. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery The Britons of Wales later made their peace with the Vikings and Anarawd ap Rhodri allied with the Norsemen occupying Northumbria to conquer the north. This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with Alfred, king of Wessex, with whom he fought against the west Welsh. According to Annales Cambriae, in 894, "Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery." Medieval Wales North Wales Principalities, 1267–76 See also: Norman invasion of Wales and Wales in the Late Middle Ages The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr (Modern Welsh Lloegr), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally, and which came to refer to England as a whole. The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson, meaning "Saxons" Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British 'Walha', meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'. The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid (Brythons or Britons) well into the Middle Ages, though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwallon, by Afan Ferddig) c. 633. In Armes Prydain SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, believed to be written around 930–942, the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times. However, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad. Dolwyddelan Castle – built by Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early 13th century to watch over one of the valley routes into Gwynedd SONY VAIO PCG-21211M batteryFrom 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr's (r. 844–77) inheritance of Gwynedd and Powys. His sons in turn would found three principal dynasties (Aberffraw for Gwynedd, Dinefwr for Deheubarth, and Mathrafal for Powys). Rhodri's grandson Hywel Dda (r. 900–50) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930, ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, and then codified Welsh law in the 940s.[51] Maredudd ab Owain (r. 986–99) of Deheubarth (Hywel's grandson) would, (again) temporarily oust the Aberffraw line from control of Gwynedd and Powys. Maredudd's great-grandson (through his daughter Princess Angharad) Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (r. 1039–63) would conquer his cousins' realms from his base in Powys, and even extend his authority into England SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. Historian John Davies states that Gruffydd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor." SONY VAIO PCG-51112M batteryOwain Gwynedd (1100–70) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains, according to John Davies. Sculpture of Owain Glyndŵr (c. 1354 or 1359 – c. 1416) at Cardiff City Hall Within four years of the Battle of Hastings England had been completely subjugated by the Normans.[1] William I of England established a series of lordships SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, allocated to his most powerful warriors along the Welsh border, the boundaries fixed only to the east. This frontier region, and any English-held lordships in Wales, became known as Marchia Wallie, the Welsh Marches, in which the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor Welsh law. The area of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed. The March of Wales, which existed for over 450 years, was abolished under the Acts of Union in 1536 SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. Owain Gwynedd's grandson Llywelyn Fawr (the Great, 1173–1240), wrested concessions out of the Magna Carta in 1215 and receiving the fealty of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdyfi, became the first Prince of Wales. His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffydd also secured the recognition of the title Prince of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. Later however, a succession of disputes, including the imprisonment of Llywelyn's wife Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort, culminated in the first invasion by King Edward I of England.[58] As a result of military defeat, the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Llywelyn's fealty to England in 1277. Peace was short lived and, with the 1282 Edwardian conquest, the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. With Llywelyn's death and his brother prince Dafydd's execution, the few remaining Welsh lords did homage for their lands to Edward I. Llywelyn's head was carried through London on a spear; his baby daughter Gwenllian was locked in the priory at Sempringham, where she remained until her death 54 years later SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. Caernarfon Castle To help maintain his dominance, Edward constructed a series of great stone castles. Beaumaris, Caernarfon and Conwy. His son, the future King Edward II of England, was born at Edward's new castle at Caernarfon in 1284. He became the first English Prince of Wales, not as an infant, but in 1301. The apocryphal story that Edward tricked the Welsh by offering them a Welsh-born Prince who could speak no English SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery, was first recorded in 1584. The title also provided an income from the north–west part of Wales known as the Principality of Wales, until the Act of Union (1536), after which the term principality, when used, was associated with the whole of Wales. After the failed revolt in 1294–95 of Madog ap Llywelyn – who styled himself Prince of Wales in the so-called Penmachno Document SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery – there was no major uprising until that led by Owain Glyndŵr a century later, against Henry IV of England. In 1404, Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain and Scotland. Glyndŵr went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns, including Machynlleth. The rebellion was ultimately to founder, however, and Owain went into hiding in 1412 SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery, with peace being essentially restored in Wales by 1415. Although the English conquest of Wales took place under the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, a formal Union did not occur until 1536, shortly after which Welsh law, which continued to be used in Wales after the conquest, was fully replaced by English law, under what would become known as the Act of Union SONY PCG-8113M battery. Industrial Wales See also: Glamorgan, and Lower Swansea valley Dowlais Ironworks by George Childs (1840) Prior to the British Industrial Revolution, which saw a rapid economic expansion between 1750 and 1850, there were signs of small-scale industries scattered throughout Wales. These ranged from industries connected to agriculture, such as milling and the manufacture of woollen textiles, through to mining and quarrying. Until the Industrial Revolution SONY PCG-8112M battery, Wales had always been reliant on its agricultural output for its wealth and employment and the earliest industrial businesses were small scale and localised in manner. The emerging industrial period commenced around the development of copper smelting in the Swansea area. With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that could take advantage of SONY PCG-7134M batteryCornwall's copper mines and the copper deposits being extracted from the then largest copper mine in the world at Parys Mountain on Anglesey, Swansea developed into the world's major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century. The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting, and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country. SONY PCG-7131M battery In the north of Wales, John Wilkinson's Ironworks at Bersham was a significant industry, while in the south, a second world centre of metallurgy was founded in Merthyr Tydfil, where the four ironworks of Dowlais, Cyfarthfa, Plymouth and Penydarren became the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales SONY PCG-7122M battery. In the 1820s, south Wales alone accounted for 40% of all pig iron manufactured in Britain. In the late 18th century, slate quarrying began to expand rapidly, most notably in north Wales. The most notable site, opened in 1770 by Richard Pennant, is Penrhyn Quarry which, by the late 19th century, was employing 15,000 men;[69] and along with Dinorwic Quarry, dominated the Welsh slate trade SONY PCG-7121M battery. Although slate quarrying has been described as 'the most Welsh of Welsh industries',[70] it is coal mining which has become the single industry synonymous with Wales and its people. Initially, coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but, with the opening of canal systems and later the railways, Welsh coal mining saw a boom in its demand SONY PCG-7113M battery . As the south Wales coalfield was exploited, mainly in the upland valleys around Aberdare and later the Rhondda, the ports of Swansea, Cardiff and later Penarth, grew into world exporters of coal and, with them, came a population boom. By its height in 1913, Wales was producing almost 61 million tons of coal. As well as in South Wales SONY PCG-7112M battery, there was also a significant coalfield in the north-east of the country, particularly around Wrexham. As Wales was reliant on the production of capital goods rather than consumer goods, it possessed few of the skilled craftspeople and artisans found in the workshops of Birmingham or Sheffield in England and had few factories producing finished goods – a key feature of most regions associated with the Industrial Revolution. SONY PCG-8Z3M battery However, there is increasing support that the industrial revolution was reliant on harnessing the energy and materials provided by Wales and, in that sense, Wales was of central importance. Modern Wales Battle at Mametz Wood by Christopher Williams (1918) Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of the First World War as a "relatively placid, self-confident, and successful nation". Output from the coalfields continued to increase, with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913. SONY PCG-8Z2M battery The outbreak of the First World War (1914–1918) saw Wales, as part of the United Kingdom, enter hostilities with Germany. A total of 272,924 Welshmen served in the war, representing 21.5% of the male population. Of these, roughly 35,000 were killed. The two most notable battles of the War to include Welsh forces were those at Mametz Wood on the Somme and Third Ypres. SONY PCG-8Z1M batteryThe first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865, the Liberal Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and, following the general election of 1906, only one non-Liberal Member of Parliament, Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tydfil, represented a Welsh constituency in Westminster SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. Yet by 1906, industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the Southern coalfields. In 1916, David Lloyd George became the first Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain when he was made head of the 1916 coalition government. In December 1918, Lloyd George was re-elected at the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition government SONY PCG-8Y2M battery , and his poor handling of the 1919 coalminers' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales. The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards a new political organisation, established by Hardie and others to ensure an elected representation for the working class, and now called the Labour party SONY PCG-7Z1M battery . When in 1908 the Miners' Federation of Great Britain became affiliated to the Labour Party the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs.[78] By 1922, half of the Welsh seats in Westminster were held by Labour politicians, which was the beginning of a Labour hegemony which would dominate Wales into the 21st century. SONY PCG-6W2M batteryDespite economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century, from the early 1920s to the late 1930s, Wales' staple industries endured a prolonged slump, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty in the South Wales valleys. For the first time in centuries, the population of Wales went into decline SONY PCG-5J5M battery; the scourge of unemployment only relented with the production demands of the Second World War. The Second World War (1939–1945) saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all the major theatres of war, with some 15,000 of them killed. Bombing raids brought major loss of life as the German Air Force targeted the docks at Swansea, Cardiff and Pembroke. SONY PCG-5K2M batteryAfter 1943, 10% of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines to rectify labour shortages; they became known as Bevin Boys.[81] Pacifist numbers during both World Wars were fairly low, especially in the Second World War, which was seen as a fight against fascism. Of the political parties active in Wales, only Plaid Cymru advocated a neutral stance, on the grounds that it was an 'imperialist war' SONY PCG-5K1M battery. Unofficial graffiti memorial to Capel Celyn, Tryweryn (Remember Tryweryn) at Llanrhystud, near Aberystwyth The 20th century saw a revival in Welsh national feeling. Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925, seeking greater autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK. In 1955, the term England and Wales became common for describing the area to which English law applied SONY PCG-5J4M battery, and Cardiff was proclaimed as capital city of Wales. Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language Society) was formed in 1962, in response to fears that the language may soon die out.[84] Nationalist sentiment grew following the flooding of the Tryweryn valley in 1965 to create a reservoir supplying water to the English city of Liverpool.[85] Despite 35 of the 36 Welsh Members of Parliament voting against the bill SONY PCG-5J1M battery, with the other abstaining, Parliament still passed the bill and the village of Capel Celyn was submerged, highlighting Wales' powerlessness in her own affairs in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in the Westminster Parliament. Both the Free Wales Army and Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru (Welsh Defence Movement, abbreviated as MAC) were formed as a direct result of the Tryweryn destruction, conducting campaigns from 1963 SONY PCG-5G2M battery . In the years leading up to the investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales in 1969, these groups were responsible for a number of bomb blasts—destroying water pipes, tax and other offices, and part of the dam at the new Clywedog reservoir project in Montgomeryshire; being built to supply water to the English Midlands. In 1966 the Carmarthen Parliamentary seat was won by Gwynfor Evans at a by-election Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery, Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat. In the following year, the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was repealed and a legal definition of Wales and of the boundary with England was stated. By the end of the 1960s, the regional policy of bringing firms into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives, had proven very successful in diversifying the once industrial landscape Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. This policy, begun in 1934, was enhanced by the construction of industrial estates and improving transport communications,[91] most notably the M4 motorway linking Wales directly to London. There was a belief that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period; but these views were shown to be wildly optimistic after the recession of the early 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery saw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that had been built over the preceding forty years.[92] The first referendum, in 1979, in which the Welsh electorate voted on the creation of an assembly for Wales resulted in a large majority for the "no" vote.[93] However, in 1997, a referendum on the same issue secured a "yes", although by a very narrow majority.[93] The National Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery was set up in 1999 (as a consequence of the Government of Wales Act 1998) and possesses the power to determine how the central government budget for Wales is spent and administered, although the UK parliament reserves the right to set limits on the powers of the Welsh Assembly. The governments of the United Kingdom and of Wales almost invariably define Wales as a country. Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery The Welsh Assembly Government says: "Wales is not a Principality. Although we are joined with England by land, and we are part of Great Britain, Wales is a country in its own right."[96] The title Prince of Wales is still conferred on the heir apparent to the British throne, currently Prince Charles. However the Prince of Wales has no constitutional role in modern Wales. Sony VAIO PCG-7186M batteryAccording to the Welsh Assembly Government: "Our Prince of Wales at the moment is Prince Charles, who is the present heir to the throne. But he does not have a role in the governance of Wales, even though his title might suggest that he does." Government and politics Main article: Politics of Wales See also: Politics of the United Kingdom and National Assembly for Wales election, 2007 Royal Badge of Wales, used by the National Assembly Sony VAIO PCG-7171M batteryWales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Constitutionally, the UK is a de jure, unitary state, its parliament and government in Westminster. In the House of Commons – the lower house of the UK government – Wales is represented by 40 MPs (of 650) from Welsh constituencies. Labour MPs hold 26 of the 40 seats, the Liberal Democrats hold three seats Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery, Plaid Cymru, three and the Conservatives, eight. A Secretary of State for Wales sits in the UK cabinet and is responsible for representing matters pertaining to Wales. The Wales Office is a department of the United Kingdom government, responsible for Wales. Cheryl Gillan has been Secretary of State for Wales since 12 May 2010, replacing Peter Hain of the previous Labour administration Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. Gillan was appointed to the new Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition Westminster government following the United Kingdom general election of 2010. Referendums held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 chose to establish a form of self-government in both countries. In Wales, the consequent process of devolution began with the Government of Wales Act 1998, which created the National Assembly for Wales Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery (Welsh: Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru).[100] Powers of the Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to the devolved government on 1 July 1999, granting the Assembly responsibility to decide how the Westminster government's budget for devolved areas is spent and administered.[101] The 1998 Act was amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006 which enhanced the Assembly's powers Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, giving it legislative powers akin to the Scottish Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly consists of 60 members, known as Assembly Members (Aelodau y Cynulliad). Members (AMs (ACau)) are elected for four year terms under an additional member system. Forty of the AMs represent geographical constituencies, elected under the First Past the Post system Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery. The remaining twenty AMs represent five electoral regions, each representing between seven and nine constituencies, using the d'Hondt method of proportional representation. The Assembly must elect a First Minister, who selects ministers to form the Welsh Government. The Senedd (National Assembly building) Designed by Richard Rogers, opened on St David's Day (1 March) 2006 Labour remained the largest Assembly party following the 2007 election, winning 26 of the 60 seats. Having insufficient support to form a government, the Labour Party entered into the 'One Wales' agreement with Plaid Cymru, forming a coalition Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery, with the Labour leader as First Minister. Carwyn Jones has been First Minister and leader of Welsh Labour since Rhodri Morgan retired from office in December 2009, after nine years and ten months as First Minister. Ieuan Wyn Jones, Deputy First Minister in the coalition government, was leader of Plaid Cymru, the second-largest party in the Assembly with 14 of the 60 seats Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. Under the 'One Wales' agreement, a referendum on giving the Welsh assembly full law-making powers was promised "as soon as practicable, at or before the end of the assembly term (in 2011)" and both parties have agreed "in good faith to campaign for a successful outcome to such a referendum" Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Welsh Labour again remained the largest party within the Assembly following the National Assembly for Wales election, 2011 winning 30 of the 60 seats. Other parties represented in the assembly are the Welsh Covervatives, the loyal opposition with 14 seats, Plaid Cymru which have 11 seats and the Welsh Liberal Democrats with five seats Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. Carwyn Jones remained First Minister following the election, this time leading a Welsh Labour ministerial team. The Presiding Officer of the Assembly is Rosemary Butler of Welsh Labour. The twenty areas of responsibility devolved to the Welsh Government, known as "subjects", include agriculture, economic development, education, health, housing Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery, local government, social services, tourism, transport and the Welsh language. On its creation in 1999, the National Assembly for Wales had no primary legislative powers.[108] However, since the Government of Wales Act 2006 (GoWA 2006) came into effect in 2007, the Assembly had power to pass primary legislation as Assembly Measures on some specific matters within the areas of devolved responsibility Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. Further matters have been added subsequently, either directly by the UK Parliament or by the UK Parliament approving a Legislative Competence Order (LCO); a request from the National Assembly for additional powers. The GoWA 2006 allows for the Assembly to gain primary lawmaking powers on a more extensive range of matters within the same devolved areas if approved in a referendum Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. A referendum on extending the law-making powers of the National Assembly was accordingly held on 3 March 2011. It asked the question: "Do you want the Assembly now to be able to make laws on all matters in the 20 subject areas it has powers for?" The result of the vote was that 63.49% voted 'yes', and 36.51% voted 'no'. Consequently, the Assembly is now able to make laws Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in the subject areas, without needing the UK Parliament's agreement. Wales is also a distinct UK electoral region of the European Union represented by four Members of the European Parliament. Local government Main article: Local government in Wales See also: History of local government in Wales For the purposes of local government, Wales has been divided into 22 council areas since 1996. These "principal areas" are responsible for the provision of all local government services, including education, social work, environment and roads services Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Areas are Counties, unless marked *(for Cities) or † (for County Boroughs). Welsh-language forms are given in parentheses, where they differ from the English.. Note: Wales has six cities. In addition to Cardiff, Newport and Swansea, the communities of Bangor, St Asaph and St Davids also have city status in the United Kingdom. Law and order Sony VAIO PCG-8161L batteryMain articles: Welsh Law, English law, and Contemporary Welsh Law See also: Marcher Lord The Old Court House, Ruthin, Denbighshire, built 1401, following Owain Glyndŵr's attack on the town By tradition, Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held at Whitland around 930 CE by Hywel Dda, king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. The 'law of Hywel Dda' (Welsh: Cyfraith Hywel), as it became known Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, codified the previously existing folk laws and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over centuries. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim, or the victim's kin, rather than on punishment by the ruler. Other than in the Marches, where law was imposed by the Marcher Lords, Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Edward I of England annexed the Principality of Wales following the death of Llywelyn the Last and Welsh Law was replaced for criminal cases under the Statute. Marcher Law and Welsh Law (for civil cases) remained in force until Henry VIII of England annexed the whole of Wales under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 (often referred to as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543) Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery, after which English Law applied to the whole of Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and the Anglo-Scottish border town of Berwick) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise. This act, with regard to Wales, was repealed in 1967. However, excluding those matters devolved to Wales since 1999, English law has been the legal system of Wales and England since 1536 Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. English law is regarded as a common law system, with no major codification of the law, and legal precedents are binding as opposed to persuasive. The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom which is the highest court of appeal in the land for criminal and civil cases. The Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales is the highest court of first instance as well as an appellate court Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. The three divisions are the Court of Appeal; the High Court of Justice and the Crown Court. Minor cases are heard by the Magistrates' Courts or the County Court. In 2007 the Wales and Cheshire Region (known as the Wales and Cheshire Circuit before 2005) came to an end when Cheshire was attached to the North-Western England Region. From that point Wales became a legal unit in its own right Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. The Welsh Assembly has the authority to draft and approve laws outside of the UK Parliamentary system to meet the specific needs of Wales. Under powers approved by a referendum held in March 2011 , it is able to pass primary legislation known as Acts of the Assembly in relation to twenty subjects listed in the Government of Wales Act 2006 such as health and education Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery. Through this primary legislation, the Welsh Government can then also draft more specific secondary legislation. Wales is served by four regional police forces, Dyfed-Powys Police, Gwent Police, North Wales Police and South Wales Police. There are four prisons in Wales, though all are based in the southern half of the country. As well as no northern provision for Welsh prisoners, there are no female prisons in Wales, with inmates being housed in prisons in England Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. Geography and natural history Tor Bay and Three Cliffs Bay Gower, Swansea Main article: Geography of Wales See also: List of settlements in Wales by population and List of towns in Wales Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western side of central southern Great Britain. It is about 274 km (170 mi) north–south and 97 km (60 mi) east–west. The oft-quoted 'size of Wales' is about 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales is bordered by England to the east and by sea in all other directions: the Irish Sea to the north and west Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery, St George's Channel and the Celtic Sea to the southwest and the Bristol Channel to the south. Altogether, Wales has over 1,180 km (730 mi) of coastline. Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland; the largest being Anglesey, in the northwest. Snowdon, Gwynedd the highest mountain in Wales Much of Wales' diverse landscape is mountainous, particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during the last ice age, the Devensian glaciation Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia (Eryri), of which five are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The highest of these is Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), at 1,085 m (3,560 ft). The 14 (or 15 if including Garnedd Uchaf; often discounted due to its low topographic prominence) Welsh mountains over 3,000 feet (910 metres) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s and are located in a small area in the north-west Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. The highest outside the 3000s is Aran Fawddwy, at 905 metres (2,969 feet), in the south of Snowdonia. The Brecon Beacons (Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south (highest point Pen-y-Fan, at 886 metres (2,907 feet)), and are joined by the Cambrian Mountains in Mid Wales. The highest point being Pumlumon at 752 metres (2,467 feet) Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. Map of Wales: Topography above 600 feet (180 m) National Parks Wales has three national parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast. It has five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. These areas include Anglesey, the Clwydian Range, the Gower Peninsula and the Wye Valley. The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, in 1956 Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. Forty two percent of the coastline of South and West Wales is designated as Heritage Coast, with 13 specific designated strips of coastline maintained by the Countryside Council of Wales. As from 2012 the coastline of Wales has 43 Blue Flag beaches and five Blue Flag marinas. Despite its Heritage and award winning beaches; the south and west coasts of Wales, along with the Irish and Cornish coasts Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery, are frequently blasted by Atlantic westerlies/south westerlies that, over the years, have sunk and wrecked many vessels. On the night of 25 October 1859, over 110 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales when a hurricane blew in from the Atlantic. More than 800 lives were lost across Britain due to the storm but the greatest tragedy was the sinking of the Royal Charter off the coast of Anglesey in which 459 people died Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. The number of shipwrecks around the coast of Wales reached a peak in the 19th century with over 100 craft losses and an average loss of life of about 78 sailors per year. Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead, Milford Haven and Swansea. Due to offshore rocks and unlit islands, Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still notorious for shipwrecks, most notably the Sea Empress Disaster in 1996 Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. The first border between Wales and England was zonal, apart from around the River Wye, which was the first accepted boundary. Offa's Dyke was supposed to form an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruffudd ap Llewellyn, who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the dyke.[139] The Act of Union of 1536 formed a linear border stretching from the mouth of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. Even after the Act of Union, many of the borders remained vague and moveable until the Welsh Sunday Closing act of 1881, which forced local businesses to decide which country they fell within to accept either the Welsh or English law. Llyn y Fan Fawr, Powys within the Brecon Beacons National Park The Seven Wonders of Wales is a list in doggerel verse of seven geographic and cultural landmarks in Wales probably composed in the late 18th century under the influence of tourism from England.[140] All the "wonders" are in north Wales Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery: Snowdon (the highest mountain), the Gresford bells (the peal of bells in the medieval church of All Saints at Gresford), the Llangollen bridge (built in 1347 over the River Dee), St Winefride's Well (a pilgrimage site at Holywell) in Flintshire, the Wrexham (Wrecsam) steeple (16th-century tower of St Giles' Church, Wrexham), the Overton Yew trees Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery (ancient yew trees in the churchyard of St. Mary's at Overton-on-Dee) and Pistyll Rhaeadr – a tall waterfall, at 240 ft (73 m). The wonders are part of the rhyme: Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple, Snowdon's mountain without its people, Overton yew trees, St Winefride's Wells, Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells. Geology Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L batterySee also: Geology of Wales The earliest geological period of the Paleozoic era, the Cambrian, takes its name from the Cambrian Mountains in mid-Wales where geologists first identified Cambrian remnants. In evolutionary studies the Cambrian is the period when most major groups of complex animals appeared (the Cambrian explosion) Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. The older rocks underlying the Cambrian rocks in Wales lacked fossils which could be used to differentiate their various groups and were referred to as Pre-cambrian. In the mid-19th century, two prominent geologists, Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick (who first proposed the name of the Cambrian period), independently used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. The next two periods of the Paleozoic era, the Ordovician and Silurian, were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area based on Murchison's and Sedgwick's work. Climate Wales lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable, maritime climate and is one of the wettest countries in Europe. Welsh weather is often cloudy, wet and windy, with warm summers and mild winters. The long summer days and short winter days are due to Wales' northerly latitudes (between 53° 43′ N and 51° 38′ N) Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. Aberystwyth, at the mid point of the country's west coast, has nearly 17 hours of daylight at the summer solstice. Daylight at midwinter there falls to just over seven and a half hours.[148] The country's wide geographic variations cause localised differences in sunshine, rainfall and temperature. Average annual coastal temperatures are 10.5 °C (51 °F) Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery and in low lying inland areas, 1 °C (1.8 °F) lower. It becomes cooler at higher altitudes; annual temperatures decrease on average approximately 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) each 100 metres (330 feet) of altitude. Consequently, the higher parts of Snowdonia experience average annual temperatures of 5 °C (41 °F). Temperatures in Wales are kept higher than would otherwise be expected at its latitude by the North Atlantic Drift Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery, a branch of the Gulf Stream. The ocean current, bringing warmer water to northerly latitudes, has a similar effect on most of north west Europe. As well as its influence on Wales' coastal areas, air warmed by the Gulf Stream is carried further inland by the prevailing winds. At low elevations, summers tend to be warm and sunny. Average maximum temperatures range between 19 °C (66 °F) and 22 °C (72 °F). Winters tend to be fairly wet Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery, but rainfall is rarely excessive and the temperature usually stays above freezing. Spring and autumn feel quite similar and the temperatures tend to stay above 14 °C (57 °F) – also the average annual daytime temperature. The sunniest time of year tends to be between May and August. The south-western coast is the sunniest part of Wales, averaging over 1700 hours of sunshine annually. Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery Wales' sunniest town is Tenby, Pembrokeshire. The dullest time of year tends to be between November and January. The least sunny areas are the mountains, some parts of which average less than 1200 hours of sunshine annually. The prevailing wind is south-westerly. Coastal areas are the windiest, gales occur most often during winter, on average between 15 and 30 days each year, depending on location. Inland, gales average fewer than six days annually Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Rainfall patterns show significant variation. The further west, the higher the expected rainfall; up to 40% more.[146] At low elevations, rain is unpredictable at any time of year, although the showers tend to be shorter in summer. The uplands of Wales have most rain, normally more than 50 days of rain during the winter months (December to February) Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, falling to around 35 rainy days during the summer months (June to August). Annual rainfall in Snowdonia averages between 3,000 millimetres (120 in) (Blaenau Ffestiniog) and 5,000 millimetres (200 in) (Snowdon's summit).[146] The likelihood is that it will fall as sleet or snow when the temperature falls below 5 °C (41 °F), and snow tends to be lying on the ground there for an average of 30 days a year Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. Snow falls several times each winter in inland areas, but is relatively uncommon around the coast. Average annual rainfall in those areas can be less than 1,000 millimetres (39 in). Met Office statistics show Swansea to be the wettest city in Great Britain, with an average annual rainfall of 1,360.8 millimetres (53.57 in). This has led to the old adage "If you can see Mumbles Head it is going to rain – if you can't Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery, it is raining". Cardiff is Great Britain's fifth wettest city, with 908 millimetres (35.7 in). Rhyl is Wales' driest town, its average annual rainfall 640 millimetres (25 in). Highest maximum temperature: 35.2 °C (95 °F) at Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990. Lowest minimum temperature: −23.3 °C (−10 °F) at Rhayader, Radnorshire (now Powys) on 21 January 1940. Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 354.3 hours at Dale Fort, Pembrokeshire in July 1955 Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 2.7 hours at Llwynon, Brecknockshire in January 1962. Maximum rainfall in a day (0900 UTC – 0900 UTC): 211 millimetres (8 in) at Rhondda, Glamorgan, on 11 November 1929. Wettest spot – an average of 4,473 millimetres (176 in) rain a year at Crib Goch in Snowdonia, Gwynedd (making it also the wettest spot in the United Kingdom) Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. Flora and fauna The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) a national symbol of Welsh wildlife See also: Fauna of Great Britain, Flora of Great Britain, and List of birds of Wales Wales’ wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinctions. Due to its long coastline Wales hosts a variety of seabirds. The coasts and surrounding islands are home to colonies of gannets, Manx Shearwater, puffins, kittiwakes, shags and razorbills. In comparison Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery, with 60% of Wales above the 150m contour, the country also supports a variety of upland habitat birds, including raven and ring ouzel. Birds of prey include the merlin, hen harrier and the red kite, a national symbol of Welsh wildlife.[157] In total, more than 200 different species of bird have been seen at the RSPB reserve at Conwy, including seasonal visitors Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. The larger Welsh mammals died out during the Norman period, including the brown bear, wolf and the wildcat. Today, mammals of note include shrews, voles, badgers, otters, hedgehogs and fifteen species of bat. Two species of small rodent, the yellow-necked mouse and the dormouse, are of special Welsh note being found at the historically undisturbed border area.[159] Other animals of note include, otter, stoat and weasel Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. The Pine Marten which has the occasional sighting, has not been officially recorded since the 1950s. The polecat was nearly driven to extinction in Britain, but hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading. Feral goats can be found in Snowdonia.[160] Like Cornwall, Brittany and Ireland, the waters of South-west Wales of Gower, Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract marine animals including basking sharks, Atlantic grey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins, porpoises, jellyfish, crabs and lobsters Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion in particular are recognised as an area of international importance for Bottlenose dolphins, and New Quay has the only summer residence of bottlenose dolphins in the whole of the UK. River fish of note include char, eel, salmon, shad, sparling and Arctic char, whilst the Gwyniad is unique to Wales, found only in Bala Lake Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. Wales is also known for its shellfish, including cockles, limpet, mussels and periwinkles. Herring, mackerel and hake are the more common of the country's seafish. The north facing high grounds of Snowdonia support a relict pre-glacial flora including the iconic Snowdon lily -Lloydia serotina – and other alpine species such as Saxifraga cespitosa, Saxifraga oppositifolia and Silene acaulis – an eco-system not found elsewhere in the UK Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. Wales also hosts a number of plant species not found elsewhere in the UK including the Spotted Rock-rose Tuberaria guttata on Anglesey and Draba aizoides on the Gower. Education Main article: Education in Wales See also: List of universities in Wales St. David's Building, University of Wales, Lampeter (Prifysgol Cymru, Llanbedr Pont Steffan) A distinct education system has developed in Wales. Formal education before the 18th century was the preserve of the elite. The first grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such as Ruthin, Brecon and Cowbridge Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. One of the first successful schooling systems was started by Griffiths Jones, who introduced the circulating schools in the 1730s; believed to have taught half the country's population to read. In the 19th century, with increasing state involvement in education, Wales was forced to adopt an education system that was English in ethos even though the country was predominantly Non-conformist Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery, Welsh-speaking and demographically uneven due to the economic expansion in the south. In some schools, to ensure Welsh children spoke English at school, the Welsh Not was used; a policy seen as a hated symbol of English oppression. The "not", a piece of wood hung round the neck by string, was given to any child overheard speaking Welsh, who would pass it to a different child if overheard speaking Welsh Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery. At the end of the day, the wearer of the "not" would be beaten. The extent of its practice, however, is difficult to determine.[168] State and local governmental edicts resulted in schooling in the English language which, following Brad y Llyfrau Gleision (the Treachery of the Blue Books), was seen as more academic and worthwhile for children Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872. Cardiff and Bangor followed, and the three colleges came together in 1893 to form the University of Wales. The Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 created 95 secondary schools. The Welsh Department for the Board of Education followed in 1907 Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery, which gave Wales its first significant educational devolution. A resurgence in Welsh-language schools in the later half of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw attitudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh.[170] In schools where English is the first language, Welsh is a compulsory subject until the age of 16.[171] However, there has never been a Welsh-language college Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery, and in the University of Wales, at the start of the 21st century only 100 of its 5000 academic staff were teaching through the medium of Welsh. In 2006 there were 33 nursery, 1555 primary, 244 secondary comprehensive and 43 special schools with 56 independent schools in Wales. In 2004 the country had 505,208 pupils taught by 27,378 teachers Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. Economy Main article: Economy of Wales See also: Tourism in Wales Port Talbot Steelworks once the largest employer in Wales Over the last 250 years, Wales has been transformed first from a predominantly agricultural country to an industrial, and now a post-industrial economy. Since the Second World War, the service sector has come to account for the majority of jobs, a feature typifying most advanced economies. Total headline Gross Value Added (GVA) in Wales in 2009 was £44.5 billion Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery, or £14,842 per head of population; 74.3 per cent of the UK average. In the three months to July 2010, the employment rate for working-age adults in Wales was 67 per cent, compared to 70.7 per cent across the UK as a whole. From the middle of the 19th century until the post-war era, the mining and export of coal was a dominant industry. At its peak of production in 1913, nearly 233,000 men and women were employed in the South Wales coalfield Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery, mining 56 million tons of coal. Cardiff was once the largest coal-exporting port in the world and, for a few years before the First World War, handled a greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool. In the 1920s, over 40% of the male Welsh population worked in heavy industry. According to Professor Phil Williams, the Great Depression "devastated Wales" Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery, north and south, due to its "overwhelming dependence on coal and steel". From the mid 1970s, the Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large numbers of jobs in traditional heavy industry disappearing and being replaced eventually by new ones in light industry and in services. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, Wales was successful in attracting an above average share of foreign direct investment in the UK. However, much of the new industry was essentially of a "branch factory" ("screwdriver factory") type where a manufacturing plant or call centre is located in Wales but the most highly-paid jobs in the company are retained elsewhere Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. British one Pound coin (reverse) depicting the Welsh dragon Due to poor-quality soil, much of Wales is unsuitable for crop-growing and livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture. The Welsh landscape (protected by three national parks) and 45 Blue Flag beaches, as well as the unique culture of Wales, attract large numbers of tourists, who play an especially vital role in the economy of rural areas Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. Wales has struggled to develop or attract high value-added employment in sectors such as finance and research and development, attributable in part to a comparative lack of 'economic mass' (i.e. population) – Wales lacks a large metropolitan centre. The lack of high value-added employment is reflected in lower economic output per head relative to other regions of the UK – in 2002 it stood at 90% of the EU25 average and around 80% of the UK average Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery. In June 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation in the world to be awarded Fairtrade Status. The pound sterling is the currency used in Wales. Numerous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the 19th century. The last bank to do so closed in 1908, since when, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland continue to have the right to issue banknotes in their own countries, the Bank of England has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in Wales Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. The Commercial Bank of Wales, established in Cardiff by Sir Julian Hodge in 1971, was taken over by the Bank of Scotland in 1988 and absorbed into its parent company in 2002. The Royal Mint, who issue the coinage circulated through the whole of the UK, have been based at a single site in Llantrisant since 1980. Since decimalisation, in 1971, at least one of the coins in UK circulation has depicted a Welsh design, e.g Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. the 1995 and 2000 one Pound coin (above). However, Wales has not been represented on any coin minted from 2008. Healthcare Main article: NHS Wales Public healthcare in Wales is provided by NHS Wales (GIG Cymru), which was originally formed as part of the NHS structure for England and Wales created by the National Health Service Act 1946, but with powers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969 Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. In turn, responsibility for NHS Wales was passed to the Welsh Assembly and Executive under devolution in 1999. Historically, Wales was served by smaller 'cottage' hospitals, built as voluntary institutions. As newer more expensive diagnostic techniques and treatments became available through medical advancement, much of the clinical work of the country has been concentrated in newer Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery, larger district hospitals. As of 2006, there were seventeen district hospitals in Wales, although none situated in Powys. NHS Wales provides public healthcare in Wales and employs some 90,000 staff, making it Wales’ biggest employer. The Minister for Health and Social Services is the person within the Welsh Assembly Government who holds cabinet responsibilities for both health and social care in Wales Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. A 2009 Welsh health survey, conducted by the Welsh Assembly, reported that 51% of adults reported their health good or excellent, while 21% described their health as fair or poor. The survey also recorded that 27% of Welsh adults had a long-term chronic illness, such as arthritis, asthma, diabetes and heart disease Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. Enquiries into health related lifestyle choices report 27% of the adult population are smokers, 45% admit drinking alcohol above recommended guidelines at least once a week, while 29% undertake the recommended weekly physical activity. Demographics Main articles: Demography of Wales and Demography of the United Kingdom Swansea City Centre and Swansea Bay Wales' second most populous city In 2011, Wales' population was estimated to have risen to 3,064,000, the highest in its history. The 2001 census reported the population as 2,903,085 Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery, The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport and surrounding areas, with another significant population in the north-east around Wrexham. According to the 2001 census, 96% of the population was White British, and 2.1% non-white (mainly of British Asian origin). Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery Most non-white groups were concentrated in the southern port cities of Cardiff, Newport and Swansea. Welsh Asian and African communities developed mainly through immigration since the Second World War.[205] In the early 21st century, parts of Wales saw an increased number of immigrants settle from recent EU accession countries such as Poland; Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery though a 2007 study showed a relatively low number of employed immigrant workers from the former Eastern bloc countries in Wales compared to other regions of the United Kingdom. Roald Dahl Plass, Cardiff Bay In the 2001 Labour Force Survey, 72% of adults in Wales considered their national identity as wholly Welsh and another 7% considered themselves to be partly Welsh (Welsh and British were the most common combination) Sony VPCW21C7E battery. A recent study estimated that 35% of the Welsh population have surnames of Welsh origin (5.4% of the English and 1.6% of the Scottish population also bore 'Welsh' names). However, many modern surnames derived from old Welsh personal names actually arose in England. In 2001, a quarter of the Welsh population were born outside Wales, mainly in England Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery; about 3% were born outside the UK. The proportion of people who were born in Wales differs across the country, with the highest percentages in the South Wales Valleys and the lowest in Mid Wales and parts of the north-east. In both Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil, 92% were Welsh-born, compared to only 51% and 56% in the border counties of Flintshire and Powys. Sony VPCW12S1E/W batteryJust over 1.75 million Americans report themselves to have Welsh ancestry, as did 440,965 Canadians in Canada's 2006 census. an annual celebration of Welsh culture, conducted in Welsh In his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica Edward Lhuyd, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families: Brythonic or P–Celtic (Breton, Cornish and Welsh); and Goidelic or Q–Celtic (Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic) Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery. He argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul (France), and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin, the people who spoke those languages were Celts. (According to a more recent hypothesis, also widely embraced today, Goidelic and Brythonic languages Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery, collectively known as Insular Celtic languages, evolved together for some time separately from Continental Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Celtiberian.) From the 18th century, the peoples of Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts, and they are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the English and Welsh languages be treated on a basis of equality. English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the de facto main language. Code-switching is common in all parts of Wales and is known by various terms, though none is recognised by professional linguists Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. "Wenglish" is the Welsh English language dialect. It has been influenced significantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived from Welsh. According to John Davies, Wenglish has "been the object of far greater prejudice than anything suffered by Welsh". Northern and western Wales retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a first language by the majority of the population Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery, and English learnt as a second language. The 2001 census showed 582,400 people, 20.8% of the Welsh population, were able to speak Welsh, an increase from the 19.0% shown in the 1981 census. According to language surveys conducted in 2004 and 2006, that number has dropped slightly to 20.5%, and the number of fluent speakers dropped by 3% between 1992 and 2006 Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery. Although monoglotism in young children continues, life-long monoglotism in Welsh is recognised to be a thing of the past. Road signs in Wales are generally in both English and Welsh; where place names differ in the two languages, both versions are used (e.g. "Cardiff" and "Caerdydd"). The decision as to which is placed first being that of the local authority. During the 20th century, a number of small communities of speakers of languages other than Welsh or English Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery, such as Bengali or Cantonese, established themselves in Wales as a result of immigration. Religion St. David's Cathedral, Pembrokeshire The largest religion in Wales is Christianity, with 71.9% of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2001 census. The Church in Wales with 56,000 adherents has the largest attendance of the denominations. It is a province of the Anglican Communion, and was part of the Church of England until disestablishment in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914 Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. The Presbyterian Church of Wales was born out of the Welsh Methodist revival in the 18th century and seceded from the Church of England in 1811. The second largest attending faith in Wales is Roman Catholic, with an estimated 43,000 adherents. Non-Christian religions are small in Wales, making up approximately 1.5% of the population Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery. The 2001 census recorded 18.5% of people declaring no religion, while 8% did not reply to the question. The patron saint of Wales is Saint David (Dewi Sant), with St David's Day (Dydd Gŵyl Dewi Sant) celebrated annually on 1 March. In 1904, there was a religious revival (known by some as the 1904-1905 Welsh Revival or simply The 1904 Revival) Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery which started through the evangelism of Evan Roberts and saw large numbers of people converting to nonconformist and Anglican Christianity, sometimes whole communities. Robert's style of preaching became the blueprint for new religious bodies such as Pentecostalism and the Apostolic Church. The Apostolic Church holds its annual Apostolic Conference in Swansea each year, usually in August Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Wales, with more than 30,000 reported Muslims in the 2001 census. 2 Glynrhondda Street in Cathays, Cardiff is accepted as the first mosque in the United Kingdom founded by Yemeni and Somali sailors on their trips between Aden and Cardiff Docks Sony VPCY11S1E battery. There are also communities of Hindus and Sikhs, mainly in the South Wales cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea, while the largest concentration of Buddhists is in the western rural county of Ceredigion. Judaism was the first non-Christian faith to be established in Wales since Roman times, however, as of the year 2001, the community has declined to approximately 2,000 Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Culture Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music. Wales has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The Castles and Town walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd; Pontcysyllte Aqueduct; and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape. Mythology Main article: Welsh mythology The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-Christian Britons was passed down orally, in much altered form, by the cynfeirdd (the early poets) Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. Some of their work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts, known as: the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin (both 13th century); the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch (both 14th century); and the Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400). The prose stories from the White and Red Books are known as the Mabinogion Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery, a title given to them by their first translator, Lady Charlotte Guest, and also used by subsequent translators. Poems such as Cad Goddeu (The Battle of the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, also contain mythological material Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery. These texts also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain. Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum (the History of the Britons) and Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae (the History of the Kings of Britain), as well as later folklore, such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery. Visual arts Main article: Welsh art Many works of Celtic art have been found in Wales. In the Early Medieval period, the Celtic Christianity of Wales was part of the Insular art of the British Isles. A number of illuminated manuscripts from Wales survive, of which the 8th century Hereford Gospels and Lichfield Gospels are the most notable. The 11th century Ricemarch Psalter (now in Dublin) is certainly Welsh Sony VPCZ138GA battery, made in St David's, and shows a late Insular style with unusual Viking influence. The best of the few Welsh artists of the 16th–18th centuries tended to leave the country to work, many of them moving to London and Italy. Richard Wilson (1714–82) is arguably the first major British landscapist. Although more notable for his Italian scenes, he painted several Welsh scenes on visits from London. By the late 18th century Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery, the popularity of landscape art grew and clients were found in the larger Welsh towns, allowing more Welsh artists to stay in their homeland. Artists from outside Wales were also drawn to paint Welsh scenery, at first due to the Celtic Revival. Then in the early 19th century, the Napoleonic Wars preventing the Grand Tour to continental Europe, travel through Wales came to be considered more accessible Sony VPCZ13M9E/X battery. The Bard, 1774, by Thomas Jones (1742–1803) An Act of Parliament in 1857 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom and the Cardiff School of Art opened in 1865. Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work but Betws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists and its artist's colony helped form the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art in 1881 Sony VPCZ13V9E battery. The sculptor Sir William Goscombe John made many works for Welsh commissions, although he had settled in London. Christopher Williams, whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in London. Thomas E. Stephens and Andrew Vicari had very successful careers as portraitists based respectively in the United States and France. Sir Frank Brangwyn was Welsh by origin but spent little time in Wales Sony VPCZ13V9E/X battery. Many Welsh painters gravitated towards the art capitals of Europe. Augustus John and his sister Gwen John, lived mostly in London and Paris. However, the landscapists Sir Kyffin Williams and Peter Prendergast lived in Wales for most of their lives, though remaining in touch with the wider art world. Ceri Richards was very engaged in the Welsh art scene Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery; as a teacher in Cardiff and even after moving to London. He was a figurative painter in international styles including Surrealism. Various artists have moved to Wales, including Eric Gill, the London-Welshman David Jones and the sculptor Jonah Jones. The Kardomah Gang was an intellectual circle centred on the poet Dylan Thomas and poet and artist Vernon Watkins in Swansea, which also included the painter Alfred Janes Sony VPCZ21M9E battery. South Wales had several notable potteries, one of the first important sites being the Ewenny Pottery in Bridgend, which began producing earthenware in the 17th century.[250] In the 18th and 19th centuries, with more scientific methods becoming available more refined ceramics were produced led by the Cambrian Pottery (1764–1870, also known as "Swansea pottery") Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery and later Nantgarw Pottery near Cardiff, which was in operation from 1813 to 1822 making fine porcelain and then utilitarian pottery until 1920. Portmeirion Pottery, founded in 1960 by Susan Williams-Ellis, daughter of Clough Williams-Ellis, creator of the italianate village of Portmeirion, Gwynedd, is based in Stoke-on-Trent, England Sony VPCZ21V9E battery. Literature in Wales Main articles: Literature of Wales (Welsh language), List of Welsh writers, and Literature of Wales (English language) Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe. The literary tradition of Wales stretches back to the sixth century and, with the inclusion of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales, boasts two of the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages Sony VPCEH3T9E battery. The earliest body of Welsh verse, by poets Taliesin and Aneirin, survive not in their original form, but in medieval versions and have undergone significant linguistic changes. Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived the Dark Ages, through the era of the Poets of the Princes (c1100–1280) and then the Poets of the Gentry (c1350-1650). Sony VPCEH3N6E battery The Poets of the Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the Gentry were a school of poets that favoured the cywydd metre. The period is notable for producing one of Wales' greatest poets, Dafydd ap Gwilym. After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined Sony VPCEH3N1E battery. Despite the extinction of the professional poet, the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits. Humanists such as William Salesbury and John Davies brought Renaissance ideals from English universities when they returned to Wales. While in 1588 William Morgan became the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh Sony VPCEH3D0E battery. From the 16th Century onwards the proliferation of the 'free-metre' verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry, but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular.[255] By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic, fuelled by the eisteddfod, became an obsession with Welsh-language writers. Sony VPCEH3B1E batteryThe output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality.[257] Initially the eisteddfod was askance with the religious denominations, but in time these bodies came to dominate the competitions, with the bardic themes becoming increasingly scriptural and didactic.[257] The period is notable for the adoption by Welsh poets of bardic names, made popular by the eisteddfod movement Sony VPCEH2Z1E battery. Major developments in 19th century Welsh literature include Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion, one of the most important medieval Welsh prose tales of Celtic mythology, into English. 1885 saw the publication of Rhys Lewis by Daniel Owen, credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language Sony VPCEH2S9E battery. The 20th century experienced an important shift away from the stilted and long-winded Victorian Welsh prose, with Thomas Gwynn Jones leading the way with his 1902 work Ymadawiad Arthur. The slaughter in the trenches of the First World War, had a profound effect on Welsh literature with a more pessimistic style of prose championed by T. H. Parry-Williams and R. Williams Parry Sony VPCEH2Q1E battery. The industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with the likes of Rhydwen Williams who used the poetry and metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an industrial landscape. Though the inter-war period is dominated by Saunders Lewis, for his political and reactionary views as much as his plays, poetry and criticism. After the end of the Second World War, several Welsh poets and writers in the English language came to note Sony VPCEH2P0E battery. These included Alexander Cordell, whose novels are often set within a historic Wales, while Gwyn Thomas became the voice of the English-speaking Welsh valleys with his humorous take on grim lives. At the same time the post war period saw the emergence of one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers of the 20th century; Dylan Thomas one of the most innovative poets of his time Sony VPCEH2N1E battery. Other important authors born in Wales, but not writing in the Welsh language or with a 'Welsh' style, include Nobel Prize winner Bertrand Russell and children's writer Roald Dahl. Main article: Sport in Wales Millennium Stadium, Cardiff Over fifty national governing bodies regulate and organise their sports in Wales.[259] Most of those involved in competitive sports select, organise and manage individuals or teams to represent their country at international events or fixtures against other countries Sony VPCEH2M9E battery. Wales is represented at major world sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup, Rugby World Cup, Rugby League World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympics Games, Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland, England and Northern Ireland as part of a Great Britain team. Although football has traditionally been the more popular sport in North Wales, rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. Sony VPCEH2M1E battery The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship and has also competed in every Rugby World Cup, hosting the tournament in 1999. The five professional sides that replaced the traditional club sides in major competitions in 2003 were replaced in 2004 by the four regions: Scarlets; Cardiff Blues; Newport Gwent Dragons; and the Ospreys. The Welsh regional teams play in the Magners League Sony VPCEH2L9E battery, the Anglo-Welsh Cup (LV Cup), the European Heineken Cup and the European (Amlin) Challenge Cup. Wales has had its own football league, the Welsh Premier League, since 1992.[263] For historical reasons, two Welsh clubs (Swansea City and Cardiff City) play in the English Football League.[264] Another four Welsh clubs play in English football's feeder leagues: Wrexham, Newport County, Merthyr Town and Colwyn Bay Sony VPCEH2J1E battery. In international cricket, Wales and England field a single representative team, administered by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB), called the England cricket team, or simply 'England'. Occasionally, a separate Wales team play limited-overs competitions. Glamorgan County Cricket Club is the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship Sony VPCEH2H1E battery. Wales has produced several world-class participants of individual sports including snooker players Ray Reardon, Terry Griffiths, Mark Williams and Matthew Stevens. Track athletes who have made a mark on the world stage, including the 110-metre hurdler Colin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals as well as Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won 11 Paralympic gold medals Sony VPCEH2F1E battery. Wales also has a tradition of producing world-class boxers. Joe Calzaghe was WBO World Super-Middleweight Champion who then won the WBA, WBC and Ring Magazine super middleweight and Ring Magazine Light-Heavyweight titles. Other former boxing World champions include Enzo Maccarinelli, Freddie Welsh, Howard Winstone, Percy Jones, Jimmy Wilde, Steve Robinson and Robbie Regan Sony VPCEH2E0E battery. Media Main article: Media in Wales See also: List of newspapers in Wales All Welsh television broadcasts are digital. The last of the analogue transmitters ceased broadcasts in April 2010, and Wales became the UK's first digital nation. Cardiff is home to the television output of Wales. BBC Cymru Wales is the national broadcaster. Based in Llandaff, Cardiff, it produces Welsh-oriented English and Welsh-language television for BBC ONE Wales Sony VPCEH2D0E battery, BBC TWO Wales and S4C channels. BBC Cymru Wales has also produced programmes, such as Life on Mars, Doctor Who and Torchwood, shown worldwide. ITV the UK's main commercial broadcaster has a Welsh-oriented service branded as ITV Wales, whose studios are in Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff.[276] S4C, based in Llanishen, Cardiff, first broadcast on 1 November 1982. Its output was mostly Welsh-language at peak hours Sony VPCEH2C0E battery, but shared English-language content with Channel 4 at other times. Since the digital switchover in April 2010, the channel has broadcast exclusively in Welsh. BBC Cymru Wales provide S4C with ten hours of programming per week. Their remaining output is commissioned from ITV and independent producers. BBC Cymru Wales is Wales' only national radio broadcaster. BBC Radio Wales is their English-language radio service Sony VPCEH29FJ/W battery, broadcasting throughout Wales in English. BBC Radio Cymru is their Welsh-language radio service, broadcasting throughout Wales in Welsh.[273] A number of independent radio stations broadcast to the Welsh regions, predominantly in English. Several regional radio stations broadcast in Welsh: output ranges from two, two minute news bulletins each weekday (Radio Maldwyn) Sony VPCEH29FJ/P battery, through over 14 hours of Welsh-language programmes weekly (Swansea Sound), to essentially bilingual stations offering between 37% and 44% of programme content (Heart Cymru (formerly Champion 103) and Radio Ceredigion respectively).[278] Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are national newspapers available throughout Britain, unlike in Scotland where many newspapers have rebranded into Scottish based titles. The Western Mail is Wales' only national daily newspaper. Sony VPCEH29FJ/B battery Wales-based regional daily newspapers include: Daily Post (which covers north Wales); South Wales Evening Post (Swansea); South Wales Echo (Cardiff); and South Wales Argus (Newport).[279] Y Cymro is a Welsh-language newspaper, published weekly.[280] Wales on Sunday is the only Welsh Sunday newspaper to cover the whole of Wales Sony VPCEH28FN/L battery. The Welsh Books Council (WBC) is the Welsh Assembly Government funded body tasked with promoting Welsh literature.[282] The WBC provides publishing grants for qualifying English- and Welsh-language publications.[283] Around 600–650 books are published each year, by some of the dozens of Welsh publishers.[284][285] Wales' main publishing houses include Gomer Press, Gwasg Carreg Gwalch, Honno, the University of Wales Press and Y Lolfa. Sony VPCEH28FJ/W batteryMagazines published in Welsh and English cover general and specialist subjects. Cambria, a Welsh affairs magazine published bi-monthly in English, has subscribers in over 30 countries.[286] Titles published quarterly in English include Planet and Poetry Wales.[287][288] Welsh-language magazines include the current affairs titles Golwg (View) (published weekly) and Barn (Opinion) (monthly).[280] Among the specialist magazines, Y Wawr (The Dawn) Sony VPCEH28FJ/P batteryis published quarterly by Merched y Wawr, the national organisation for women.[280] Y Traethodydd (The Essayist), a quarterly publication by The Presbyterian Church of Wales, first appeared in 1845; the oldest Welsh publication still in print.[280] About 78% of the land surface of Wales is given over to agricultural use.[289] However, very little of this is arable land Sony VPCEH28FJ/B battery; the vast majority consists of permanent grass pasture or rough grazing for herd animals such as sheep and cows. Although both beef and dairy cattle are raised widely, especially in Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, Wales is more well-known for its sheep farming and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Welsh cooking Sony VPCEH28FH/B battery. Traditional dishes include laverbread (made from laver (porphyra umbilicalis), an edible seaweed); bara brith (fruit bread); Cawl (a lamb stew); cawl cennin (leek soup); Welsh cakes; and Welsh lamb. Cockles are sometimes served as a traditional breakfast with bacon and laverbread. Although Wales has its own traditional food, and has absorbed much of the cuisine of England, Welsh diets now owe more to the countries of India, China and the United States. Sony VPCEH28FG/P battery Chicken Tikka Masala is the country's favourite dish while hamburgers and Chinese food outsell fish and chips as a takeaway. Performing arts Traditional Welsh folk singer and harpist Siân James, live on stage at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient Wales is often referred to as "the land of song", and is notable for its harpists, male choirs, and solo artists. The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the annual National Eisteddfod Sony VPCEH28FG/B battery. The Llangollen International Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported by a myriad of societies. The Welsh Folk Song Society has published a number of collections of songs and tunes. Traditional instruments of Wales include telyn deires (triple harp), fiddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments. The Cerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival Sony VPCEH1Z1E battery. The BBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales and internationally. The Welsh National Opera is based at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff Bay, while the National Youth Orchestra of Wales was the first of its type in the world. Wales has a tradition for producing notable singing artists including Sir Geraint Evans, Dame Gwyneth Jones, Dame Anne Evans, Dame Margaret Price, Sir Tom Jones, Bonnie Tyler, Bryn Terfel, Mary Hopkin, Charlotte Church, Katherine Jenkins Sony VPCEH1S9E battery, Meic Stevens, Dame Shirley Bassey and Duffy. Popular bands to have emerged from Wales have included the Beatles-nurtured power pop group Badfinger in the 1960s, Man and Budgie in the 1970s and The Alarm in the 1980s. Wales experienced a strong emergence of groups during the 1990s led by Manic Street Preachers, followed by the likes of the Stereophonics and Feeder Sony VPCEH1S8E battery; notable during this period were Catatonia, Super Furry Animals, and Gorky's Zygotic Mynci who gained popular success as dual-language artists. Recently successful Welsh bands include Lostprophets, Bullet for My Valentine, Funeral for a Friend and Kids in Glass Houses. The Welsh traditional and folk music scene is in resurgence with performers and bands such as Crasdant, Carreg Lafar, Fernhill, Siân James and The Hennessys Sony VPCEH1S1E battery. The emergence of male voice choirs in the 19th century, has remained a lasting tradition in Wales. Originally these choirs where formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced the popular secular hymns of the day. Many of the historic choirs continue to survive in modern Wales singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs Sony VPCEH1S0E battery. Drama See also: Cinema of Wales The earliest surviving Welsh plays are two medieval miracle plays, Y Tri Brenin o Gwlen and Y Dioddefaint a'r Atgyfodiad. A recognised Welsh tradition of theatre emerged on the 18th century, in the form of an interlude, a metrical play performed at fairs and markets.[300] The larger Welsh towns began building theatres during the 19th century, and drew in the likes of James Sheridan Knowles and William Charles Macready to Wales Sony VPCEH1M9E battery. Along with the playhouses, there existed mobile companies at visiting fairs, though from 1912, most of these travelling theatres settled, purchasing theatres to perform in. Drama in the early 20th century thrived, but the country failed to produce a Welsh National Theatre company. After the Second World War the substantial number of amateur companies that existed before the outbreak of hostilities, reduced by two thirds Sony VPCEH1M1E battery. Though the increasing competition of television in the 1950s and 1960s, saw a need for greater professionalism in the theatre. The result of which saw the plays of the likes of Emlyn Williams and Alun Owen staged, while Welsh actors, including Richard Burton, Rachel Roberts, Donald Houston and Stanley Baker were establishing themselves as artistic talents. Welsh actors to have crossed the Atlantic more recently to star in Hollywood films include Sony VPCEH1L9E battery: Ioan Gruffudd; John Rhys-Davies; Anthony Hopkins; Matthew Rhys; Michael Sheen; and Catherine Zeta-Jones. Welsh comedians include Tommy Cooper, Griff Rhys Jones, Harry Secombe and Paul Whitehouse. Dance Dance as a pastime is a popular hobby in Wales, while the country's traditional dance lie in folk dancing and clog dancing. The first mention of dancing in Wales was recorded in a 12th Century account by Giraldus Cambrensis Sony VPCEH1L8E battery, but by the 19th Century traditional dance had all but died out; attributed to the influence of Nonconformists and their belief that any physical diversion was worthless and satanic, especially mixed dancing. These ancient dances, orally passed down, were almost single-handedly rescued by Lois Blake (1890–1974) who recorded them in numerous instruction pamphlets Sony VPCEH1L0E battery, recording both steps and music. In a similar vein, clog dancing was preserved and developed by the likes of Howel Wood (1882–1967) who perpetuated the art at local and national stages.[304] Clog dancing, traditionally a male dominated art, is now a common part of eisteddfodau.[304] In 2010, a 30 year traditional dance festival held in Caernarvon came to an end after a lack of attending participants, Sony VPCEH1J8E battery though clog dancing has seen a revival during the early part of the 21st century. The Welsh Folk Dance Society was founded in 1949, and it supports a network of national amateur dance teams and publishes support material. Contemporary dance grew out of the capital in the 1970s, one of the earliest companies, Moving Being, came from London to Cardiff in 1973. Jumpers Dance Company was formed in 1978 Sony VPCEH1J1E battery, eventually becoming The Dance Company of Wales. Conversely, Wales does not have its own national ballet company. Museums and libraries The National Museum [of] Wales was founded by royal charter in 1907 and is now a Welsh Government sponsored body. The National Museum is made up of seven sites across the country, including the National Museum Cardiff, St Fagans National History Museum and Big Pit National Coal Museum Sony VPCEH1E1E battery. In April 2001, the attractions attached to the National Museum were granted free entry by the Assembly, and this action saw the visitor numbers to the sites increase during 2001–2002 by 87.8% to 1,430,428. Aberystwyth is home to the National Library of Wales, which houses some of the most important collections in Wales, including the John William's Library and the Shirburn Castle collection. As well as its printed collection the Library holds important Welsh art collections including portraits and photographs, ephemera such as postcards, posters and Ordnance Survey maps Sony VPCEH1AJ battery. Festivals As well as celebrating many of the traditional religious festivals of Great Britain, such as Easter and Christmas, Wales has its own unique celebratory days. An early festivity was Mabsant, where local parishes would celebrate the patron saint of their local church. This celebration died out in the 19th century, to be replaced by Saint David's Day; celebrated on 1 March throughout Wales, and by Welsh expats around the world Sony VPCEH19FJ/W battery. Commemorating the patron saint of friendship and love, Dydd Santes Dwynwen's popularity has been increasing recently. It is celebrated on 25 January in a similar way to St Valentine's Day; by exchanging cards and by holding parties and concerts.[310] Calan Gaeaf, associated with the supernatural and the dead, is observed on 1 November. It has largely been replaced by Hallowe'en. Other festivities include Calan Mai, celebrating the beginning of summer, Calan Awst and Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau Sony VPCEH19FJ/P battery. Transport Main article: Transport in Wales The Second Severn Crossing – carrying the M4 Motorway The main road artery linking cities and other settlements along the south Wales coast is the M4 motorway. It also provides a link to southern England, terminating in London. The section of the motorway managed by the Welsh Assembly Government runs from the Second Severn Crossing to Pont Abraham, Carmarthenshire, connecting the cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea Sony VPCEH19FJ/B battery. In north Wales the A55 expressway performs a similar role along the north Wales coast providing connections between Holyhead and Bangor, and Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to north-west England, principally Chester. The main north-south Wales link is the A470, which runs from Cardiff to Llandudno Sony VPCEH18FJ/W battery. Cardiff International Airport is the only large and international airport in Wales. Providing links to European, African and North American destinations, it is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) southwest of Cardiff city centre, in the Vale of Glamorgan. Intra-Wales flights run between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff, operated by Isle of Man airline Manx2[312] Other internal flights operate to northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland Sony VPCEH18FJ/P battery. An Arriva Trains Wales service at Llandudno Junction railway station Rail The Welsh Assembly Government manages those parts of the British railway network within Wales. Cardiff Central and Cardiff Queen Street are the busiest and the major hubs on the internal and national network. The Cardiff region has its own urban rail network Sony VPCEH18FJ/B battery. Beeching cuts in the 1960s mean that most of the remaining network is geared toward east-west travel connecting with the Irish Sea ports for ferries to Ireland. Services between north and south Wales operate through the English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury along the Welsh Marches Line Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery. All trains in Wales are diesel-powered, since no lines have been electrified. However, the South Wales Main Line branch of the Great Western Main Line used by services from London Paddington to Cardiff and Swansea, is undergoing electrification. Being electrified at AC Overhead lines in two parts, first to Cardiff, then westwards to Swansea Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery, this will be the first electrified commercial railway line in Wales. By 2017, the line from London to Cardiff will be electrified. Wales is served by four commercial ferry ports. Regular ferry services to Ireland operate from Holyhead, Pembroke and Fishguard. The Swansea to Cork service, cancelled in 2006, was reinstated in March 2010, but is again under threat of closure in 2012 Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery. National symbols Main article: National symbols of Wales Prince of Wales's feathers The Flag of Wales incorporates the red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch) of Prince Cadwalader along with the Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 after which it was carried in state to St. Paul's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959 Sony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. The British Union Flag incorporates the flags of Scotland, Ireland and England, but has no Welsh representation. Technically it is represented by the flag of England, as the Laws in Wales act of 1535 annexed Wales to England, following the 13th-century conquest. The daffodil and the leek are also symbols of Wales. The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century, encouraged by David Lloyd-George.[319] This is attributed to confusion of the Welsh for leek Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery, cenhinen, and that for daffodil, cenhinen Bedr or St. Peter's leek. A report in 1916 gave preference to the leek, which has appeared on British pound coins. The Prince of Wales' heraldic badge is also sometimes used to symbolise Wales. The badge, known as the Prince of Wales's feathers, consists of three white feathers emerging from a gold coronet. A ribbon below the coronet bears the German motto Ich dien (I serve). Several Welsh representative teams Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery, including the Welsh rugby union, and Welsh regiments in the British Army (the Royal Welsh, for example) use the badge, or a stylised version of it. The Prince of Wales has claimed that only he has the authority to use the symbol. "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" (English: Land of My Fathers) is the National Anthem of Wales, and is played at events such as football or rugby matches involving the Wales national team as well as the opening of the Welsh Assembly and other official occasions. "God Save the Queen" Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery, the national anthem of the United Kingdom, is sometimes played alongside Hen Wlad fy Nhadau during official events with a royal connection.
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west( SONY PCG-5G2L battery), and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides. Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital( SONY PCG-F305 battery). The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707, although it had been in a personal union with the kingdoms of England and Ireland since James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English and Irish thrones in 1603. On 1 May 1707, Scotland entered into an incorporating political union with England to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). This union resulted from the Treaty of Union agreed in 1706 and enacted by the twin Acts of Union passed by the Parliaments of both countries, despite anti-union riots in Edinburgh, Glasgow and elsewhere. Scotland's legal system continues to be separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, and Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in public and in private law.[24] The continued existence of legal( SONY PCG-5J2L battery), educational and religious institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity since the Union. In 1999, a devolved legislature, the Scottish Parliament, was founded with authority over many areas of home affairs following a successful referendum in 1997( SONY PCG-5K2L battery). In 2011, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won an overall majority in parliament and intends to hold a referendum on independence in the autumn of 2014. Etymology Main article: Etymology of Scotland Scotland is derived from the Latin Scoti, the term applied to Gaels, people from what is now Scotland and Ireland, and the Dál Riata who are thought to have originated from Ireland and migrated to western Scotland( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). Accordingly, the Late Latin word Scotia ("land of the Gaels") was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to (Gaelic-speaking) Scotland north of the river Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, both derived from the Gaelic Alba. The use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages( SONY PCG-6S2L battery). History Main article: History of Scotland Early history Main article: Prehistoric Scotland Repeated glaciations, which covered the entire land mass of modern Scotland, destroyed any traces of human habitation that may have existed before the Mesolithic period. It is believed that the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, as the ice sheet retreated after the last glaciation( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). Skara Brae, a Neolithic settlement, located in the Bay of Skaill, Orkney. Groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9500 years ago, and the first villages around 6000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney dates from this period. Neolithic habitation, burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well-preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles( SONY PCG-6V1L battery), where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone. The discovery in Scotland of a 4000 year old tomb with burial treasures at Forteviot, near Perth, the capital of a Pictish Kingdom in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, is unrivalled anywhere in Britain. It contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). Scotland may have been part of a Late Bronze Age maritime trading culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included the other Celtic nations, and the areas that would become England, France, Spain and Portugal. Roman influence Main article: Scotland during the Roman Empire Ditch associated with Antonine Wall at Bar Head The written protohistory of Scotland began with the arrival of the Roman Empire in southern and central Great Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now England and Wales, administering it as a province called Britannia( SONY PCG-7111L battery). Roman invasions and occupations of southern Scotland were a series of brief interludes. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, the Caledonians "turned to armed resistance on a large scale", attacking Roman forts and skirmishing with their legions. In a surprise night-attack, the Caledonians very nearly wiped out the whole 9th Legion until it was saved by Agricola's cavalry( SONY PCG-71511M battery). In AD 83–84 the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Before the battle Tacitus wrote that the Caledonian leader, Calgacus, gave a rousing speech in which he called his people the "last of the free" and accused the Romans of "making the world a desert and calling it peace".( SONY PCG-6W3L battery) After the Roman victory Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line (only Cawdor near Inverness is known to have been constructed beyond that line). Three years after the battle the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands. The Romans erected Hadrian's Wall to control tribes on both sides of the wall,[41] and the Limes Britannicus became the northern border of the empire, although the army held the Antonine Wall in the Central Lowlands for two short periods( SONY PCG-7113L battery)—the last of these during the time of Emperor Septimius Severus from 208 until 210.[42] The Roman military occupation of a significant part of northern Scotland only lasted about 40 years, although their influence on the southern section of the country, occupied by Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini and Damnonii, would still have been considerable between the first and fifth centuries( SONY PCG-7133L battery). The Welsh term Hen Ogledd ("Old North") is used by scholars to describe the North of England and South of Scotland during its habitation by Brythonic speaking people around AD 500 to 800.[41] In the 400s, Gaels from Ireland established the kingdom of Dál Riata. Medieval period A replica of the Pictish Hilton of Cadboll Stone. Main articles: Scotland in the Early Middle Ages, Scotland in the High Middle Ages, and Scotland in the Late Middle Ages( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) The Kingdom of the Picts (based in Fortriu by the 6th century) was the state that eventually became known as "Alba" or "Scotland". The development of "Pictland", according to the historical model developed by Peter Heather, was a natural response to Roman imperialism.[45] Another view places emphasis on the Battle of Dun Nechtain, and the reign of Bridei m( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) . Beli (671–693), with another period of consolidation in the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa (732–761). The Kingdom of the Picts as it was in the early 8th century, when Bede was writing, was largely the same as the kingdom of the Scots in the reign of Alexander I (1107–1124). However, by the tenth century, the Pictish kingdom was dominated by what we can recognise as Gaelic culture( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery), and had developed a traditional story of an Irish conquest around the ancestor of the contemporary royal dynasty, Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin). From a base of territory in eastern Scotland north of the River Forth and south of the River Oykel, the kingdom acquired control of the lands lying to the north and south. By the 12th century, the kings of Alba had added to their territories the English-speaking land in the south-east and attained overlordship of Gaelic-speaking Galloway and Norse-speaking Caithness( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery); by the end of the 13th century, the kingdom had assumed approximately its modern borders. However, processes of cultural and economic change beginning in the 12th century ensured Scotland looked very different in the later Middle Ages. The impetus for this change was the reign of David I and the Davidian Revolution. Feudalism, government reorganisation and the first legally recognised towns (called burghs) began in this period( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery). These institutions and the immigration of French and Anglo-French knights and churchmen facilitated cultural osmosis, whereby the culture and language of the low-lying and coastal parts of the kingdom's original territory in the east became, like the newly acquired south-east, English-speaking, while the rest of the country retained the Gaelic language, apart from the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery), which remained under Norse rule until 1468. The Scottish state entered a largely successful and stable period between the 12th and 14th centuries, there was relative peace with England, trade and educational links were well developed with the Continent and at the height of this cultural flowering John Duns Scotus was one of Europe's most important and influential philosophers( SONY PCG-7112L battery). The Wallace Monument commemorates William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero. The death of Alexander III in March 1286, followed by that of his granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, broke the centuries-old succession line of Scotland's kings and shattered the 200 year golden age that began with David I. Edward I of England was asked to arbitrate between claimants for the Scottish crown( SONY PCG-6W2L battery), and he organised a process known as the Great Cause to identify the most legitimate claimant. John Balliol was pronounced king in the Great Hall of Berwick Castle on 17 November 1292 and inaugurated at Scone on 30 November, St. Andrew's Day. Edward I, who had coerced recognition as Lord Paramount of Scotland, the feudal superior of the realm, steadily undermined John's authority. ( SONY PCG-5K1L battery) In 1294 Balliol and other Scottish lords refused Edward's demands to serve in his army against the French. Instead the Scottish parliament sent envoys to France to negotiate an alliance. Scotland and France sealed a treaty on 23 October 1295, that came to be known as the Auld Alliance (1295–1560). War ensued and King John was deposed by Edward who took personal control of Scotland( SONY PCGA-BP2E battery). Andrew Moray and William Wallace initially emerged as the principal leaders of the resistance to English rule in what became known as the Wars of Scottish Independence (1296–1328). The nature of the struggle changed significantly when Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick, killed rival John Comyn on 10 February 1306 at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries.[54] He was crowned king (as Robert I) less than seven weeks later( SONY VGP-BPS2 battery). Robert I battled to restore Scottish Independence as King for over 20 years, beginning by winning Scotland back from the Norman English invaders piece by piece. Victory at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 proved that the Scots had regained control of their kingdom. In 1315 Edward Bruce, brother of the King, was briefly appointed High King of Ireland during an ultimately unsuccessful Scottish invasion of Ireland aimed at strengthening Scotland's position in its wars against England( SONY VGP-BPS3 battery). In 1320 the world's first documented declaration of independence, the Declaration of Arbroath, won the support of Pope John XXII, leading to the legal recognition of Scottish sovereignty by the English Crown. However, war with England continued for several decades after the death of Bruce, and a civil war between the Bruce dynasty and their long-term Comyn-Balliol rivals lasted until the middle of the 14th century( SONY VGP-BPS4 battery). Although the Bruce dynasty was successful, David II's lack of an heir allowed his half-nephew Robert II to come to the throne and establish the Stewart Dynasty. The Stewarts ruled Scotland for the remainder of the Middle Ages. The country they ruled experienced greater prosperity from the end of the 14th century through the Scottish Renaissance to the Reformation( SONY VGP-BPS5 battery). The Education Act of 1496 made Scotland the first country since Sparta in classical Greece to implement a system of general public education.[56] This was despite continual warfare with England, the increasing division between Highlands and Lowlands, and a large number of royal minorities.[55][57] This period was the height of the Franco-Scottish alliance. The Scots Guard – la Garde Écossaise – was founded in 1418 by Charles VII of France( SONY VGP-BPS5A battery). The Scots soldiers of the Garde Écossaise fought alongside Joan of Arc against England during the Hundred Years War.[58] In March 1421 a Franco-Scots force under John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Buchan, and Gilbert de Lafayette, defeated a larger English army at the Battle of Baugé. Three years later, at the Battle of Verneuil, the Scots lost around 6000 men, but the Scottish intervention bought France valuable time and likely saved the country from defeat( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery). Early modern era Main article: Scotland in the Early Modern Era In 1502, James IV of Scotland signed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Henry VII of England. He also married Henry's daughter, Margaret Tudor, setting the stage for the Union of the Crowns. For Henry, the marriage into one of Europe's most established monarchies gave legitimacy to the new Tudor royal line. ( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery) A decade later James made the fateful decision to invade England in support of France under the terms of the Auld Alliance. He was the last British monarch to die in battle, at the Battle of Flodden.[60] Within a generation the Auld Alliance was ended by the Treaty of Edinburgh. France agreed to withdraw all land and naval forces and in the same year, 1560( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery), the revolution of John Knox achieved its ultimate goal of convincing the Scottish parliament to revoke papal authority in Scotland.[61] Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic and former queen of France, was forced to abdicate in 1567. James VI succeeded to the throne of England in 1603 In 1603, James VI, King of Scots inherited the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery), and became King James I of England and Ireland, and left Edinburgh for London.[63] With the exception of a short period under the Protectorate, Scotland remained a separate state, but there was considerable conflict between the crown and the Covenanters over the form of church government. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 saw the overthrow of the King James VII of Scotland and II of England by the English Parliament in favour of William and Mary( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). As late as the 1690s, Scotland experienced famine, which reduced the population of parts of the country by at least 20 percent. In 1698, the Scots attempted an ambitious project to secure a trading colony on the Isthmus of Panama. Almost every Scottish landowner who had money to spare is said to have invested in the Darien scheme. Its failure bankrupted these landowners, but not the burghs( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery), which remained cash rich. Nevertheless, the nobles' bankruptcy, along with the threat of an English invasion, played a leading role in convincing the Scots elite to back a union with England.[65][66] On 22 July 1706, the Treaty of Union was agreed between representatives of the Scots Parliament and the Parliament of England and the following year twin Acts of Union were passed by both parliaments to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain with effect from 1 May 1707. ( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery) 18th century With trade tariffs with England now abolished, trade blossomed, especially with Colonial America. The clippers belonging to the Glasgow Tobacco Lords were the fastest ships on the route to Virginia. Until the American War of Independence in 1776, Glasgow was the world's premier tobacco port, dominating world trade. ( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery) The disparity between the wealth of the merchant classes of the Scottish Lowlands and the ancient clans of the Scottish Highlands grew, amplifying centuries of division. David Morier's depiction of the Battle of Culloden. The deposed Jacobite Stuart claimants had remained popular in the Highlands and north-east, particularly amongst non-Presbyterians, including Roman Catholics and Episcopalian Protestants. However, two major Jacobite risings launched in 1715 and 1745 failed to remove the House of Hanover from the British throne( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). The threat of the Jacobite movement to the United Kingdom and its monarchs effectively ended at the Battle of Culloden, Great Britain's last pitched battle. This defeat paved the way for large-scale removals of the indigenous populations of the Highlands and Islands, known as the Highland Clearances. The Scottish Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution made Scotland into an intellectual, commercial and industrial powerhouse( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery)–so much so that Voltaire said "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation."[69] With the demise of Jacobitism and the advent of the Union thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, took up numerous positions of power in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery). Historian Neil Davidson notes that “after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life, particularly outside Scotland.” Davidson also states that “far from being ‘peripheral’ to the British economy, Scotland – or more precisely, the Lowlands – lay at its core. ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery)” 19th century Main article: Scotland in the modern era St. Kildans sitting on the village street, 1886. Scotland became known across the world for its excellence in engineering, as typified by the Clyde built ships and locomotives built in Glasgow. Prefabricated cast iron buildings made in Scotland are still in use in India, South America and Australia.[71] Prominent scientists, engineers and architects of the industrial age included David Dale, Joseph Black, Thomas Telford, Robert Stevenson, James Watt, James Nasmyth, Robert Adam and John MacAdam( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). Scottish diaspora Scots born migrants also played a leading role in the foundation and principles of the United States (John Witherspoon, John Paul Jones, Andrew Carnegie, John Muir),[72] Canada (John A Macdonald, James Murray, Tommy Douglas),[73] Australia (Lachlan Macquarie, Thomas Brisbane, Andrew Fisher),[74] and New Zealand (James Mckenzie, Peter Fraser) ( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). Early 20th century Royal Scots with captured Japanese flag, Burma, January 1945. Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War. It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, fish and money. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent over half a million men to the war, of whom over a quarter died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig was Britain's commander on the Western Front( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery). The war saw the emergence of a radical movement called "Red Clydeside" led by militant trades unionists. Formerly a Liberal stronghold, the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922, with a base among the Irish Catholic working class districts. Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing issues. However, the "Reds" operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament and the mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s. ( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery) The shipbuilding industry expanded by a third and expected renewed prosperity, but instead a serious depression hit the economy by 1922 and it did not fully recover until 1939. The interwar years were marked by economic stagnation in rural and urban areas, and high unemployment.[79] Indeed, the war brought with it deep social, cultural, economic, and political dislocations( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). Thoughtful Scots pondered their declension, as the main social indicators such as poor health, bad housing, and long-term mass unemployment, pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best, or even a downward spiral. Service abroad on behalf of the Empire lost its allure to ambitious young people, who left Scotland permanently. The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem, and no one offered workable solutions( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery). The despair reflected what Finlay (1994) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War. ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery) The Second World War brought renewed prosperity, despite extensive bombing of cities by the Luftwaffe. It saw the invention of radar by Robert Watson-Watt, which was invaluable in the Battle of Britain as was the leadership at RAF Fighter Command of Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). Since 1945 After 1945, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.[82] Only in recent decades has the country enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance. Economic factors that have contributed to this recovery include a resurgent financial services industry( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery), electronics manufacturing, (see Silicon Glen),[83] and the North Sea oil and gas industry.[84] The introduction in 1989 by Margaret Thatcher's government of the Community Charge (widely known as the Poll Tax) one year before the rest of the United Kingdom, contributed to a growing movement for a return to direct Scottish control over domestic affairs. ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery) Following a referendum on devolution proposals in 1997, the Scotland Act 1998[86] was passed by the United Kingdom Parliament to establish a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Government with responsibility for most laws specific to Scotland. Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Scotland, Scottish Parliament, and Scottish Government The 2011 cabinet of the Scottish Government Scotland's head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, currently Queen Elizabeth II (since 1952) ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery). The title Elizabeth II caused controversy around the time of the queen's coronation, as there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland. A legal case, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate (1953 SC 396), was taken to contest the right of the Queen to title herself Elizabeth II within Scotland, arguing that to do so would be a breach of Article 1 of the Treaty of Union( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). The Lord Advocate won the case and it was decided that future British monarchs would be numbered according to either their English or Scottish predecessors, whichever number is higher.[88] Hence, any future King James would be styled James VIII (since the last Scottish King James was James VII (also James II of England, etc.)) while the next King Henry would be King Henry IX throughout the UK despite the fact that there have been no Scottish kings of the name( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). Scotland has partial self-government within the United Kingdom as well as representation in the UK Parliament. Executive and legislative powers have been devolved to, respectively, the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom Parliament retains power over a set list of areas explicitly specified in the Scotland Act 1998( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) as reserved matters, including, for example, levels of UK taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting.[89] The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland, as well as limited power to vary income tax. Former Prime Minister Gordon Brown, in a BBC Scotland interview, indicated that the Scottish Parliament could be given more tax-raising powers. ( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery) The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to Westminster by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered to be more appropriate for a certain issue. The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the United Kingdom( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). For instance, the costs of a university education, and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places. The debating chamber of the Scottish Parliament Building The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature comprising 129 Members, 73 of whom represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first past the post system( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery); 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system, serving for a four year period. The Queen appoints one Member of the Scottish Parliament, (MSP), on the nomination of the Parliament, to be First Minister. Other Ministers are also appointed by the First Minister and serve at his/her discretion, together they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of government( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). In the 2011 election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) formed a majority government after winning 69 of the 129 seat Parliament; This was the first majority government since the modern post-devolutionary Scottish Parliament was established in 1999. The leader of the SNP, Alex Salmond, continued as First Minister. The Labour Party continued as the largest opposition party( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery), with the Conservative Party, the Liberal Democrats, and the Green Party also represented in the Parliament. Margo MacDonald is the only independent MSP sitting in Parliament. The next Scottish Parliament general election will be held on 5 May 2016. The Scotland Bill, put forward by the Calman Commission and cleared by the UK House of Commons, proposes devolving more power to Scotland( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery). The bill has yet to be put into legislation. The Scottish National Party, who did not take part in the consultation, believe the bill does not devolve enough powers to the Scottish Parliament. Scotland is represented in the British House of Commons by 59 MPs elected from territory-based Scottish constituencies. The Scotland Office represents the UK government in Scotland on reserved matters and represents Scottish interests within the UK government. ( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery) The Scotland office is led by the Secretary of State for Scotland, who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, the current incumbent being Michael Moore. Administrative subdivisions Main article: Subdivisions of Scotland Glasgow City Chambers, viewed from George Square Historical subdivisions of Scotland included the mormaerdom, stewartry, earldom, burgh, parish, county and regions and districts. These names are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose. For local government, there have been 32 council areas since 1996,[95] whose councils are unitary authorities responsible for the provision of all local government services. Community councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub-divisions of a council area( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). For the Scottish Parliament, there are 73 constituencies and eight regions. For the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there are 59 constituencies. The Scottish fire brigades and police forces are still based on the system of regions introduced in 1975. For healthcare and postal districts, and a number of other governmental and non-governmental organisations such as the churches, there are other long-standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). City status in the United Kingdom is conferred by letters patent. There are seven cities in Scotland: Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Inverness, Stirling and Perth. Scotland within the UK Welcome sign at the Scottish border on the A1. A policy of devolution had been advocated by the three main UK parties with varying enthusiasm during recent history. The late Labour leader John Smith described the revival of a Scottish parliament as the "settled will of the Scottish people".( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery) The constitutional status of Scotland is nonetheless subject to ongoing debate. In 2007, the Scottish Government established a "National Conversation" on constitutional issues, proposing a number of options such as increasing the powers of the Scottish Parliament, federalism, or a referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. In rejecting the last option( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery), the three main opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament have proposed a separate Scottish Constitutional Commission to investigate the distribution of powers between devolved Scottish and UK-wide bodies. In August 2009 the SNP proposed a referendum bill to hold a referendum on independence in November 2010. Immediate opposition from all other major parties led to an expected defeat( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). These plans were put on hold by the Scottish National Party until after the 2011 Scottish Parliament elections. With the outcome of the May 2011 elections allowing an SNP majority in the Scottish Parliament, a referendum on Scotland's future within the UK is to be held in Autumn 2014, with the Scottish Government launching its consultation on 25 January 2012( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Law and criminal justice Main article: Scots law Parliament House, in Edinburgh, is the home of the Court of Session. Scots law has a basis derived from Roman law,[103] combining features of both uncodified civil law, dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis, and common law with medieval sources. The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales. ( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/W battery) Prior to 1611, there were several regional law systems in Scotland, most notably Udal law in Orkney and Shetland, based on old Norse law. Various other systems derived from common Celtic or Brehon laws survived in the Highlands until the 1800s. Scots law provides for three types of courts responsible for the administration of justice: civil, criminal and heraldic. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery), although civil appeals can be taken to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (or before 1 October 2009, the House of Lords). The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The Court of Session is housed at Parliament House, in Edinburgh, which was the home of the pre-Union Parliament of Scotland with the High Court of Justiciary and the Supreme Court of Appeal currently located at the Lawnmarket( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery). The sheriff court is the main criminal and civil court, hearing most of the cases. There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country.[106] District courts were introduced in 1975 for minor offences and small claims. The Court of the Lord Lyon regulates heraldry( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery). For many decades the Scots legal system was unique for a period in being the only legal system without a parliament. This ended with the advent of the Scottish Parliament, which legislates for Scotland. Many features within the system have been preserved. Within criminal law, the Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts: "guilty"( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E battery), "not guilty" and "not proven". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal with no possibility of retrial.[107] Many laws differ between Scotland and the rest of Britain, whereas many terms differ. Manslaughter, in England and Wales, becomes culpable homicide in Scotland, and arson becomes wilful fireraising. Procedure also differs. Scots juries consist of fifteen, not twelve jurors as is more common in English-speaking countries( SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery). The civil legal system has however attracted much recent criticism from a senior Scottish Judge who referred to it as being "Victorian" and antiquated.[108] The Scottish Prison Service (SPS) manages the prisons in Scotland, which collectively house over 8,500 prisoners.[109] The Cabinet Secretary for Justice is responsible for the Scottish Prison Service within the Scottish Government( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). Geography and natural history Main article: Geography of Scotland The island of Little Cumbrae with the Isle of Arran in the background The mainland of Scotland comprises the northern third of the land mass of the island of Great Britain, which lies off the northwest coast of Continental Europe. The total area is 78,772 km2 (30,414 sq mi),[110] comparable to the size of the Czech Republic. Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 mi) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery) between the basin of the River Tweed on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the southwestern peninsula of Kintyre; Norway is 305 kilometres (190 mi) to the east and the Faroes, 270 kilometres (168 mi) to the north( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and the Kingdom of England[112] and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway.[21] Important exceptions include the Isle of Man, which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now a crown dependency outside of the United Kingdom( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery); the island groups Orkney and Shetland, which were acquired from Norway in 1472; and Berwick-upon-Tweed, lost to England in 1482. The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch. Rising to 1,344 metres (4,409 ft) above sea level, Scotland's highest point is the summit of Ben Nevis, in Lochaber, while Scotland's longest river, the River Tay, flows for a distance of 190 kilometres (118 mi) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). Geology and geomorphology Main article: Geology of Scotland Relief map of Scotland The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective the country has three main sub-divisions. The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks from the Cambrian and Precambrian, which were uplifted during the later Caledonian Orogeny. It is interspersed with igneous intrusions of a more recent age, the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery). A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of Old Red Sandstones found principally along the Moray Firth coast. The Highlands are generally mountainous and the highest elevations in the British Isles are found here. Scotland has over 790 islands, which are divided into four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). There are numerous bodies of freshwater including Loch Lomond and Loch Ness. Some parts of the coastline consist of machair, a low lying dune pasture land. The Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations. Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's industrial revolution are to be found( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery). This area has also experienced intense volcanism, Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano. This area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view. The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 kilometres (124 mi) long, interspersed with broad valleys. They lie south of a second fault line (the Southern Uplands fault) that runs from Girvan to Dunbar( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery). The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4–500 million years ago. The high point of the Southern Uplands is Merrick with an elevation of 843 m (2,766 ft). The Southern Uplands is home to the UK's highest village, Wanlockhead (430 m/1,411 ft above sea level) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery). Climate Main article: Climate of Scotland Tiree, one of the sunniest locations in Scotland The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic, and tends to be very changeable. It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic, and as such has much milder winters (but cooler, wetter summers) than areas on similar latitudes, for example Labrador, southern Scandinavia, the Moscow region in Russia, or the Kamchatka Peninsula on the opposite side of Eurasia( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). However, temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the coldest ever UK temperature of −27.2 °C (−16.96 °F) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 11 February 1895.[123] Winter maximums average 6 °C (42.8 °F) in the lowlands, with summer maximums averaging 18 °C (64.4 °F). The highest temperature recorded was 32.9 °C (91.22 °F) at Greycrook, Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery) In general, the west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east, owing to the influence of Atlantic ocean currents and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides, is one of the sunniest places in the country: it had more than 300 hours of sunshine in May 1975.[124] Rainfall varies widely across Scotland( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery). The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest place, with annual rainfall exceeding 3,000 mm (118.1 in). In comparison, much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm (31.5 in) annually.[126] Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar experiences an average of 59 snow days per year, while many coastal areas average fewer than 10 days of lying snow per annum( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery). Flora and fauna Main articles: Fauna of Scotland and Flora of Scotland Mountain Hare Scotland's wildlife is typical of the north west of Europe, although several of the larger mammals such as the lynx, brown bear, wolf, elk and walrus were hunted to extinction in historic times. There are important populations of seals and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as gannets.[128] The golden eagle is something of a national icon. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery) On the high mountain tops species including ptarmigan, mountain hare and stoat can be seen in their white colour phase during winter months. Remnants of the native Scots pine forest exist and within these areas the Scottish crossbill, the UK's only endemic bird species and vertebrate, can be found alongside capercaillie, wildcat, red squirrel and pine marten( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery). In recent years various animals have been re-introduced, including the white-tailed sea eagle in 1975, the red kite in the 1980s, and more recently there have been experimental projects involving the beaver and wild boar. The flora of the country is varied incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodland and moorland and tundra species. However, large scale commercial tree planting and the management ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery)of upland moorland habitat for the grazing of sheep and commercial field sport activities impacts upon the distribution of indigenous plants and animals. The UK's tallest tree is a grand fir planted beside Loch Fyne, Argyll in the 1870s, and the Fortingall Yew may be 5,000 years old and is probably the oldest living thing in Europe. Although the number of native vascular plants is low by world standards, Scotland's substantial bryophyte flora is of global importance( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). Economy and infrastructure Main article: Economy of Scotland A drilling rig located in the North Sea Scotland has a western style open mixed economy that is closely linked with the rest of Europe and the wider world. Traditionally, the Scottish economy has been dominated by heavy industry underpinned by the shipbuilding in Glasgow, coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north east of Scotland( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery). De-industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more service-oriented economy. Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland and the sixth largest financial centre in Europe in terms of funds under management, behind London, Paris, Frankfurt, Zurich and Amsterdam,[145] with many large finance firms based there, including: Lloyds Banking Group (owners of the Halifax Bank of Scotland) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery); the Government owned Royal Bank of Scotland and Standard Life. View from windfarm towards Clyde's best known landmark, Ailsa Craig. Renewable Energy is a large factor in modern day Scottish economy. In 2005, total Scottish exports (excluding intra-UK trade) were provisionally estimated to be £17.5 billion, of which 70% (£12.2 billion) were attributable to manufacturing. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery) Scotland's primary exports include whisky, electronics and financial services. The United States, Netherlands, Germany, France and Spain constitute the country's major export markets.[146] Scotland's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), including oil and gas produced in Scottish waters, was estimated at £137.5 billion for the calendar year 2009.[4] If Scotland became independent( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery), it would hold 90% of the UK's current oil and gas reserves if they were split geographically using a median line from the English-Scottish border. If the reserves were to be split by population, that figure would be reduced to 9%. Tourism is widely recognised as a key contributor to the Scottish economy. A briefing published in 2002 by the Scottish Parliament Information Centre, (SPICe), for the Scottish Parliament's Enterprise and Life Long Learning Committee( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery), stated that tourism accounted for up to 5% of GDP and 7.5% of employment. As of May 2009 the unemployment rate in Scotland stood at 6.6%— slightly lower than the UK average and lower than that of the majority of EU countries.[149] The Scottish Government's most recent figures (for 2009/10) suggest that Scotland's finances are in a healthier state than for the UK as a whole, with Scotland contributing 9.4% of UK taxes but receiving 9.3% of public expenditure( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). Currency Main article: Banknotes of the pound sterling#Scotland Although the Bank of England is the central bank for the UK, three Scottish clearing banks still issue their own Sterling banknotes: the Bank of Scotland; the Royal Bank of Scotland; and the Clydesdale Bank. The current value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation is £1.5 billion. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery) Transport Main article: Transport in Scotland A Loganair Twin Otter at Barra Airport, the only airport worldwide using a beach runway for scheduled services Scotland has five main international airports (Glasgow International, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Glasgow Prestwick and Inverness), which together serve 150 international destinations with a wide variety of scheduled and chartered flights( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). GIP operates Edinburgh airport and BAA Operates,(Aberdeen and Glasgow International), and Highland and Islands Airports operates 11 regional airports, including Inverness, which serve the more remote locations.[154] Infratil operates Glasgow Prestwick. The Scottish motorways and major trunk roads are managed by Transport Scotland. The remainder of the road network is managed by the Scottish local authorities in each of their areas. Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and many islands( Sony VAIO VGN-SZ battery). These ferries are mostly run by Caledonian MacBrayne, but some are operated by local councils. Other ferry routes, served by multiple companies, connect to Northern Ireland, Belgium, Norway, the Faroe Islands and also Iceland. Network Rail Infrastructure Limited owns and operates the fixed infrastructure assets of the railway system in Scotland, while the Scottish Government retains overall responsibility for rail strategy and funding in Scotland. ( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery) Scotland’s rail network has around 340 railway stations and 3000 kilometres of track. Over 62 million passenger journeys are made each year. One of Scotland's busiest airports, Edinburgh Airport Scotland's rail network is managed by Transport Scotland.[157] The East Coast and West Coast main railway lines connect the major cities and towns of Scotland with each other and with the rail network in England( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). Domestic rail services within Scotland are operated by First ScotRail. During the time of British Rail the West Coast Main Line from London Euston to Glasgow Central was electrified in the early 1970s followed by the East Coast Main Line in the late 1980s. British Rail created the ScotRail brand. When British Rail existed many railway lines in Strathclyde were electrified with Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive being at the forefront with the acclaimed( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery): "The Largest electrified rail network outside London." Some parts of the network are electrified, but there are no electrified lines in the Highlands, Angus, Aberdeenshire, the cities of Dundee or Aberdeen, or Perth & Kinross, and none of the Islands have a rail link. In addition, Glasgow has had a small integrated subway system since 1896. Completely gutted and modernised between 1977 and 1980, its 15 stations serve just under 40,000 passengers per day( Sony VGN-NR260E/T Battery). There are plans to extensively refurbish the system in time for the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The East Coast Main Line crosses the Firth of Forth by the Forth Bridge. Completed in 1890, this cantilever bridge has been described as "the one internationally recognised Scottish landmark". Demography Main article: Demography of Scotland See also: Languages of Scotland, Religion in Scotland, and Scottish people Edinburgh, Scotland's capital and second-largest city( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) The population of Scotland in the 2001 Census was 5,062,011. This has risen to 5,222,100 according to June 2010 estimates.[159] This would make Scotland the 113th largest country by population if it were a sovereign state. Although Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland it is not the largest city. With a population of just over 584,000, this honour falls to Glasgow( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). The Greater Glasgow conurbation, with a population of almost 1.2 million, is home to nearly a quarter of Scotland's population. The Central Belt is where most of the main towns and cities are located. Glasgow is to the west, while Edinburgh and Dundee lie on the east coast, with Perth (its city status restored in 2012) lying 20 miles upstream on the River Tay from Dundee. Scotland's only major city outside the Central Belt is Aberdeen, on the east coast to the north( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). The Highlands are sparsely populated, although the city of Inverness has experienced rapid growth in recent years. In general only the more accessible and larger islands retain human populations, and fewer than 90 are currently inhabited. The Southern Uplands are essentially rural in nature and dominated by agriculture and forestry. Because of housing problems in Glasgow and Edinburgh, five new towns were created between 1947 and 1966( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). They are East Kilbride, Glenrothes, Livingston, Cumbernauld, and Irvine. Scotland population cartogram. The size of councils is in proportion to their population. The darker colour the bigger is the real area of a council. Following immigration since World War II, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee have small South Asian communities.[164] As of 2001, there were an estimated 31,793 Pakistanis living in Scotland, making them the single largest non-White ethnic group. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery) Since the recent Enlargement of the European Union more people from Central and Eastern Europe have moved to Scotland, and it is estimated that between 40,000 and 50,000 Poles now live there.[166] The ethnic groups within Scotland are as follows: White, 97.99%; South Asian, 1.09%; Black, 0.16%; Mixed, 0.25%; Chinese, 0.32% and Other, 0.19%( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery). Scotland has three officially recognised languages: English, Scots, and Scottish Gaelic. Almost all Scots speak Scottish English, and in 1996, the General Register Office for Scotland estimated that 30% of the population are fluent in Scots. Gaelic is mostly spoken in the Western Isles, where a large proportion of people still speak it( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery); however, nationally its use is confined to just 1% of the population. The number of Gaelic speakers in Scotland dropped from 250,000 – 7% of the population – in 1881 to 60,000 today. There are many more people with Scottish ancestry living abroad than the total population of Scotland. In the 2000 Census, 9.2 million Americans self-reported some degree of Scottish descent.[170] Ulster's Protestant population is mainly of lowland Scottish descent, ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery) and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million descendants of the Scots-Irish migration now living in the U.S. In Canada, the Scottish-Canadian community accounts for 4.7 million people. About 20% of the original European settler population of New Zealand came from Scotland. In August 2012, the Scottish population had reached an all time high, reaching 5.25 million people( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery). The reason given was that in Scotland births were out numbering the number of Scottish deaths, and due to immigrants coming into Scotland from overseas. In 2011, 43,700 people moved from Wales, Northern Ireland or England to live in Scotland. Main article: Education in Scotland Gilbert Scott Building, University of Glasgow The Scottish education system has always remained distinct from that of the rest of United Kingdom, with a characteristic emphasis on a broad education. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery) Scotland was the first country since Sparta in classical Greece to implement a system of general public education. Schooling was made compulsory for the first time in Scotland with the Education Act of 1496; then, in 1561, the Church of Scotland set out a national programme for spiritual reform, including a school in every parish. Education continued to be a matter for the church rather than the state until the Education Act (1872) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery). The "Curriculum for Excellence" provides the curricular framework for children and young people from age 3 to 18. All 3- and 4-year-old children in Scotland are entitled to a free nursery place. Formal primary education begins at approximately 5 years old and lasts for 7 years (P1–P7); today, children in Scotland study Standard Grades, or more recently Intermediate qualifications between the ages of 14 and 16( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery). The school leaving age is 16, after which students may choose to remain at school and study for Access, Intermediate or Higher Grade and Advanced Higher qualifications. A small number of students at certain private, independent schools may follow the English system and study towards GCSEs and A and AS-Levels instead( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery). There are 15 Scottish universities, some of which are amongst the oldest in the world. These include the University of St Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen, the University of Edinburgh, Heriot-Watt University, Robert Gordon University, and the University of Dundee( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery)—many of which are ranked amongst the best in the UK. The country produces 1% of the world's published research with less than 0.1% of the world's population, and higher education institutions account for 9% of Scotland's service sector exports. Scotland's University Courts are the only bodies in Scotland authorised to award degrees( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery). Scotland's Universities are complemented in the provision of Further and Higher Education by 43 Colleges. Colleges offer National Certificates, Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas. These Group Awards, alongside Scottish Vocational Qualifications, aim to ensure that Scotland's population has the appropriate skills and knowledge to meet the needs of the workplace( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). Scotland's regulatory body for qualifications is SQA Accreditation. Scotland's Qualifications are mapped on the SCQF (Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework). The SCQF provides a language to help understand the complexity and size of qualifications, ranging from Access 1 (SCQF Level 1) to Doctorates (SCQF Level 12). ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery) Religion Main article: Religion in Scotland Iona Abbey an early centre of Scottish Christianity Just over two-thirds (67%) of the Scottish population reported having a religion in 2001, with Christianity representing all but 2% of these.[189] By contrast, 28% of the population reported having no religious adherence. Since the Scottish Reformation of 1560, the national church (the Church of Scotland, also known as The Kirk) has been Protestant and Reformed in theology( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). Since 1689 it has had a Presbyterian system of church government, and enjoys independence from the state.[20] About 12% of the population are currently members of the Church of Scotland, with 40% claiming affinity. The Church operates a territorial parish structure, with every community in Scotland having a local congregation( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). Scotland also has a significant Roman Catholic population, 19% claiming that faith, particularly in the west.[190] After the Reformation, Roman Catholicism in Scotland continued in the Highlands and some western islands like Uist and Barra, and it was strengthened during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland. Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the Free Church of Scotland, various other Presbyterian offshoots, and the Scottish Episcopal Church( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). Islam is the largest non-Christian religion (estimated at around 40,000, which is less than 0.9% of the population),[191] and there are also significant Jewish, Hindu and Sikh communities, especially in Glasgow.[191] The Samyé Ling monastery near Eskdalemuir, which celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2007, includes the largest Buddhist temple in western Europe( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). [edit]Health care Main article: Healthcare in Scotland Healthcare in Scotland is mainly provided by NHS Scotland, Scotland's public health care system. This was founded by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947 (later repealed by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the NHS in England and Wales( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). However, even prior to 1948, half of Scotland's landmass was already covered by state funded health care, provided by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service.[193] In 2008, the NHS in Scotland had around 158,000 staff including more than 47,500 nurses, midwives and health visitors and over 3,800 consultants. In addition, there are also more than 12,000 doctors, family practitioners and allied health professionals( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), including dentists, opticians and community pharmacists, who operate as independent contractors providing a range of services within the NHS in return for fees and allowances. These fees and allowances have been removed as of May 2010, prescriptions are entirely free, (dentists and opticians are chareable if the household you stay in is making over a certain amount) (the amount is within the region of £30,000 per annum) ( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery) Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's Health Directorates. The current Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing is Nicola Sturgeon and the Director-General (DG) Health and Chief Executive, NHS Scotland is Derek Feeley. ( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery) Military Main article: Military of Scotland Soldiers of the five regular battalions of the Royal Regiment of Scotland Although Scotland has a long military tradition that predates the Treaty of Union with England, its armed forces now form part of the British Armed Forces, with the notable exception of the Atholl Highlanders, Europe's only legal private army. In 2006, the infantry regiments of the Scottish Division were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery). Other distinctively Scottish regiments in the British Army include the Scots Guards, the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and the Scottish Transport Regiment, a Territorial Army Regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps. Because of their topography and perceived remoteness, parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments, with mixed public feelings. Between 1960 and 1991, the Holy Loch was a base for the U.S. fleet of Polaris ballistic missile submarines( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery). Today, Her Majesty's Naval Base Clyde, 25 miles (40 kilometres) north west of Glasgow, is the base for the four Trident-armed Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines that comprise the UK's nuclear deterrent. Scapa Flow was the major Fleet base for the Royal Navy until 1956. Two frontline Royal Air Force bases are also located in Scotland. These are RAF Leuchars and RAF Lossiemouth, the last of which is the most northerly air defence fighter base in the United Kingdom( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery). A third, RAF Kinloss will be closed as an RAF unit in 2013–14. RAF Leuchars is due to be turned into an army barracks, ending the RAF's connection in Fife.[200] The only open-air live depleted uranium weapons test range in the British Isles is located near Dundrennan. As a result, over 7,000 radioactive munitions lie on the seabed of the Solway Firth. Culture( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery) Main article: Culture of Scotland See also: Scottish people, Music of Scotland, Scottish literature, Scottish art, Media of Scotland, and Scottish cuisine A Pipe Major playing the Great Highland Bagpipe Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland Bagpipe, a wind instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe (called the chanter) ( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery), which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. Bagpipe bands, featuring bagpipes and various types of drums, and showcasing Scottish music styles while creating new ones, have spread throughout the world. The clàrsach (harp), fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery). Today, there are many successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles including Runrig, Susan Boyle, Cocteau Twins, Franz Ferdinand and Texas. Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in Brythonic speech in the 6th century, but is preserved as part of Welsh literature.[204] Later medieval literature included works in Latin,[205] Gaelic,[206] Old English[207] and French( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery). The first surviving major text in Early Scots is the 14th century poet John Barbour's epic Brus, focusing on the life of Robert I,[209] and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works. In the 16th century the crown's patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry, but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language. ( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery) Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including James Macpherson, whose Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment. It was also a major influence on Robert Burns, considered by many to be the national poet, and Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald. In the 20th century the Scottish Renaissance saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature. ( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery) Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including Edwin Morgan, who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.[218] From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers including Irvine Welsh. ( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery) Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy, who was named as the first Scot to be UK Poet Laureate in May 2009. Headquarters and studios of BBC Scotland Scottish theatre has for many years played an important role in Scottish society, from the music hall variety of Sir Harry Lauder and his contemporaries to the more serious plays put on at the Citizens Theatre in Glasgow and many other theatres throughout Scotland. ( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery) Television in Scotland is largely the same as UK-wide broadcasts, however the national broadcaster is BBC Scotland, a constituent part of the British Broadcasting Corporation, the publicly funded broadcaster of the United Kingdom. It runs three national television stations, and the national radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio nan Gaidheal, amongst others( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery). Scotland also has some programming in the Gaelic language. BBC Alba is the national Gaelic-language channel. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV. National newspapers such as the Daily Record, The Herald, and The Scotsman are all produced in Scotland.[220] Important regional dailies include the Evening News in Edinburgh 'The Courier in Dundee in the east( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery), and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north.[220] Scotland is represented at the Celtic Media Festival, which showcases film and television from the Celtic countries. Scottish entrants have won many awards since the festival began in 1980. As one of the Celtic nations, Scotland and Scottish culture is represented at interceltic events at home and over the world. Scotland hosts several music festivals including Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway) ( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery). Festivals celebrating Celtic culture, such as Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), and the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), feature elements of Scottish culture such as language, music and dance. Main article: Sport in Scotland The Old Course at St Andrews Sport is an important element in Scottish culture, with the country hosting many of its own national sporting competitions. It enjoys independent representation at many international sporting events including the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby Union World Cup( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery), the Rugby League World Cup, the Cricket World Cup and the Commonwealth Games, but not at the Olympic Games where Scottish athletes are part of the Great Britain team. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world)[229] and the Scottish Rugby Union( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries with the earliest reference dating back to 1424.[230] Association football is now the most popular sport and the Scottish Cup is the world's oldest national trophy. Scotland contested the first ever international football game in 1872, a 0–0 draw against England. The match took place at Hamilton Crescent, Glasgow, home of the West of Scotland Cricket Club( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). Scottish clubs have been successful in European competitions with Celtic winning the European Cup in 1967, Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1972 and 1983 respectively, and Aberdeen also winning the UEFA Super Cup in 1983. Dundee United have also made it to a European final, reaching the UEFA Cup Final in 1987, but losing on aggregate 2-1 to IFK Göteborg( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). The Fife town of St. Andrews is known internationally as the Home of golf[232] and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield, and Royal Troon. Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and Shinty, ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery) which, given its arrival with the Gaelic language and the original Scottish culture from Ireland, can claim to be Scotland's national sport. Scotland has competed at every Commonwealth Games since 1930 and have won 356 medal in total—91 Gold, 104 Silver and 161 Bronze.[234] Scotland played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986, and will do so again in 2014 with Glasgow the host city( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery). National symbols Main article: National symbols of Scotland The thistle, Scotland's Floral emblem. The national flag of Scotland, known as the Saltire or St. Andrew's Cross, dates from the 9th century, and is thus the oldest national flag still in use. Since 1606 the Saltire has also formed part of the design of the Union Flag. There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the thistle( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery), the nation's floral emblem (celebrated in the song, The Thistle o' Scotland), 6 April 1320 statement of political independence the Declaration of Arbroath, the textile pattern tartan that often signifies a particular Scottish clan, and the Lion Rampant flag. Highlanders can thank James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose, for the repeal in 1782 of the Act of 1747 prohibiting the wearing of tartans( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). Although there is no official National anthem of Scotland, Flower of Scotland is played on special occasions and sporting events such as football and rugby matches involving the Scotland national teams and as of 2010 is also played at the Commonwealth Games after it was voted the overwhelming favourite by participating Scottish athletes. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery)Other less popular candidates for the National Anthem of Scotland include Scotland the Brave, Highland Cathedral, Scots Wha Hae and A Man's A Man for A' That. St Andrew's Day, 30 November, is the national day, although Burns' Night tends to be more widely observed, particularly outside Scotland. Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery), designating the day to be an official bank holiday.
The central processing unit (CPU, occasionally central processor unit[1]) is the hardware within a computer system which carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. sony vgp-bps2 battery The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single silicon chip called a microprocessor. Since the 1970s the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other CPU implementations sony vgp-bps3 battery. Modern CPUs are large scale integrated circuits in packages typically less than four centimeters square, with hundreds of connecting pins. Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary sony vgp-bps4 battery. Not all computational systems rely on a central processing unit. An array processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with no one unit considered the "center". In the distributed computing model, problems are solved by a distributed interconnected set of processors sony vgp-bps5 battery. History Main article: History of general purpose CPUs EDVAC, one of the first stored program computers Computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed-program computers." Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer sony vgp-bps7 battery. The idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC sony vgp-bpl7 battery. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.[3] EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. These instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the EDVAC to run. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed sony vgp-bps8 battery computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory sony vgp-bps8a battery. Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are made for many purposes. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC) sony vgp-bps8b battery. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones and children's toys sony vgp-bpl8 battery. While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory sony vgp-bps9 battery. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but elements of the Harvard architecture are commonly seen as well. sony vgp-bps9/s batteryRelays and vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the sony vgp-bps9a/s battery (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.[2] In the end, tube based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs (see below for a discussion of clock rate) sony vgp-bps9/b battery. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with. Transistor and integrated circuit CPUs CPU, core memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I. Made of medium-scale integrated circuits The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and electrical relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components sony vgp-bps9a battery. During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or "chip." At first only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs sony vgp-bps9b battery. CPUs based upon these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few score transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs sony vgp-bpl9c battery. As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration) ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. In 1964 IBM introduced its System/360 computer architecture which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance sony vgp-bpl9 battery. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.[4] The System/360 architecture was so popular that sony vgp-bps10 battery it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In the same year (1964), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8. DEC would later introduce the extremely popular PDP-11 line that originally was built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented Sony VGP-BPS12 Batterywith LSI components once these became practical. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits. Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery. Thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc. Microprocessors Main article: Microprocessor Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging Intel Core i5 CPU on a Vaio E series laptop motherboard (on the right, beneath the heat pipe). In the 1970s the fundamental inventions by Federico Faggin (Silicon Gate MOS ICs with self aligned gates along with his new random logic design methodology) Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q batterychanged the design and implementation of CPUs forever. Since the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor (the Intel 4004) in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor (the Intel 8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery to microprocessors. Several CPUs can be combined in a single processing chip. Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has increased many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity. Sony VGP-BPS13/B batteryWhile the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately[according to whom?] described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery [according to whom?], concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer Sony VGP-BPS13A battery, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model. Operation The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of computer memory. There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and writeback Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery. The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program. After an instruction is fetched Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units.[7] Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below) Sony VGP-BPS13S battery. The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do. In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).[8] Often, one group of numbers in the instruction Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery, called the opcode, indicates which operation to perform. The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an addition operation. Such operands may be given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as a place to locate a value: a register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery. In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices. However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a microprogram is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the numbers to be added Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery, and the outputs will contain the final sum. The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like addition and bitwise operations). If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register may also be set Sony VGP-BPL21 battery. The final step, writeback, simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form of memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main memory. Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. These are generally called "jumps" and facilitate behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and functions in programs.[9] Many instructions will also change the state of digits in a "flags" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example Sony VGP-BPS21A battery, one type of "compare" instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater. This flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter Sony VGP-BPS21B battery. If the completed instruction was a jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "classic RISC pipeline", which in fact is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline. Design and implementation Main article: CPU design The basic concept of a CPU is as follows: Hardwired into a CPU's design is a list of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may include adding or subtracting two numbers Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery, comparing numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each of these basic operations is represented by a particular sequence of bits; this sequence is called the opcode for that particular operation. Sending a particular opcode to a CPU will cause it to perform the operation represented by that opcode. To execute an instruction in a computer program Sony VGP-BPS13 battery(without CD), the CPU uses the opcode for that instruction as well as its arguments (for instance the two numbers to be added, in the case of an addition operation). A computer program is therefore a sequence of instructions, with each instruction including an opcode and that operation's arguments. The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a subunit of the CPU known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery(without CD). In addition to using its ALU to perform operations, a CPU is also responsible for reading the next instruction from memory, reading data specified in arguments from memory, and writing results to memory. In many CPU designs, an instruction set will clearly differentiate between operations that load data from memory, and those that perform math. In this case the data loaded from memory is stored in registers Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery(without CD), and a mathematical operation takes no arguments but simply performs the math on the data in the registers and writes it to a new register, whose value a separate operation may then write to memory. Control unit Main article: Control unit The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery(without CD); rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory. [edit]Integer range The way a CPU represents numbers is a design choice that affects the most basic ways in which the device functions. Some early digital computers used an electrical model of the common decimal (base ten) numeral system to represent numbers internally. A few other computers have used more exotic numeral systems like ternary (base three) Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery(without CD). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a "high" or "low" voltage. MOS 6502 microprocessor in a dual in-line package, an extremely popular 8-bit design Related to number representation is the size and precision of numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery(without CD), a bit refers to one significant place in the numbers a CPU deals with. The number of bits (or numeral places) a CPU uses to represent numbers is often called "word size", "bit width", "data path width", or "integer precision" when dealing with strictly integer numbers (as opposed to floating point). This number differs between architectures, and often within different parts of the very same CPU Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery(without CD). For example, an 8-bit CPU deals with a range of numbers that can be represented by eight binary digits (each digit having two possible values), that is, 28 or 256 discrete numbers. In effect, integer size sets a hardware limit on the range of integers the software run by the CPU can utilize. Integer range can also affect the number of locations in memory the CPU can address (locate). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address Sony VGP-BPS13A battery(without CD), and each memory address represents one octet (8 bits), the maximum quantity of memory that CPU can address is 232 octets, or 4 GiB. This is a very simple view of CPU address space, and many designs use more complex addressing methods like paging to locate more memory than their integer range would allow with a flat address space Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery(without CD). Higher levels of integer range require more structures to deal with the additional digits, and therefore more complexity, size, power usage, and general expense. It is not at all uncommon, therefore, to see 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers used in modern applications, even though CPUs with much higher range (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery(without CD). The simpler microcontrollers are usually cheaper, use less power, and therefore generate less heat, all of which can be major design considerations for electronic devices. However, in higher-end applications, the benefits afforded by the extra range (most often the additional address space) are more significant and often affect design choices. To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths Sony VGP-BPS13S battery(without CD), many CPUs are designed with different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/370 used a CPU that was primarily 32 bit, but it used 128-bit precision inside its floating point units to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers.[4] Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery(without CD). Clock rate Main article: Clock rate The clock rate is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions. Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery(without CD). The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second. Most CPUs, and indeed most sequential logic devices, are synchronous in nature.[12] That is, they are designed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal. This signal, known as a clock signal, usually takes the form of a periodic square wave. By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery(without CD), the designers can select an appropriate period for the clock signal. This period must be longer than the amount of time it takes for a signal to move, or propagate, in the worst-case scenario. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges" of the rising and falling clock signal Sony VGP-BPS13B battery(without CD). This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism. (see below) Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery(without CD)However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit Sony VGP-BPL21 battery(without CD). This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue as clock rates increase dramatically is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time Sony VGP-BPS21 battery(without CD). In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does heat dissipation, causing the CPU to require more effective cooling solutions. One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components Sony VGP-BPS21A battery(without CD) (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable late CPU design that uses clock gating is that of the IBM PowerPC-based Xbox 360. It utilizes extensive clock gating to reduce the power requirements of the aforementioned videogame console in which it is used. Sony VGP-BPS21B battery(without CD)Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS. Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers. Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery[edit]Parallelism The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time. This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets "hung up" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per cycle) Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques. Instruction level parallelism (ILP) seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources) Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery, and thread level parallelism (TLP) purposes to increase the number of threads (effectively individual programs) that a CPU can execute simultaneously. Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application. Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery[edit]Instruction level parallelism One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired. Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so) Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage). Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery. Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) Sony VGP-BPS22 Batterya conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies Sony VPCCA1C5E Battery. Also in case of Single Instructions Multiple Data — a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing Sony VPCCA1S1E Battery. In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar Sony VPCCA1S1E/B Battery. Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance. Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per cycle (IPC).[17] Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar Sony VPCCA1S1E/D Battery, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity Sony VPCCA1S1E/G Battery. [edit]Thread-level parallelism Another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple programs or threads in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as Multiple Instructions-Multiple Data or MIMD. One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) Sony VPCCA1S1E/P Battery, where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful Sony VPCCA1S1E/W Battery, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors Sony VPCCA2AJ Battery. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single silicon chip, the technology is known as a multi-core microprocessor. It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread Sony VPCCA2S0E Battery. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP Sony VPCCA2S1E Battery. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as block multithreading Sony VPCCB3M1E Battery, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC Technology. Another type of MT is known as simultaneous multithreading, where instructions of multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle Sony VPCCB3P1E Battery. For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s Sony VPCCB3S1E Battery, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques. CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs Sony VPCCB4X1E Battery, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or program. This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and multiple core CMP (chip-level multiprocessing) designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP Sony VPCEG14FJ/P Battery, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PS3's 7-core Cell microprocessor. Data parallelism Main articles: Vector processor and SIMD A less common but increasingly important paradigm of CPUs (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device.[18] As the name implies Sony VPCEG14FJ/W Battery, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as SIMD (single instruction, multiple data) and SISD (single instruction, single data), respectively SONY VGN-FZ11E battery. The great utility in creating CPUs that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks are multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. Whereas a scalar CPU must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector CPU can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data SONY VGN-FZ11M battery. Most early vector CPUs, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose CPUs has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating point execution units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose CPUs. Some of these early SIMD specifications like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating point numbers SONY VGN-FZ130E/B battery. Progressively, these early designs were refined and remade into some of the common, modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples are Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX). Performance Main article: computer performance The performance or speed of a processor depends on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform. SONY VGN-FZ130E battery Many reported IPS values have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations SONY VGN-FZ15 battery. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called "benchmarks" for this purpose—such as SPECint – have been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called cores in this sense) into one integrated circuit SONY VGN-FZ150E battery. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, however, the performance gain is far less, only about 50%,[21] due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that a computer can handle. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, Interrupts, etc SONY VGN-FZ15G battery. which can take a toll on the CPU (Central Processing Unit) when overwhelmed. It is best to think of these numerous cores as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information to prevent a crash SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. In psychology, memory is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain information over periods of time. Finally the third process is retrieval. This is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information. From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory SONY VGN-FZ15S battery: Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information) Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity) Sensory memory Main article: Sensory memory Sensory memory corresponds approximately to the initial 200–500 milliseconds after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorisation, is an example of sensory memory SONY VGN-FZ15T battery. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) [1] using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation SONY VGN-FZ160E/B battery, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display SONY VGN-FZ17 battery, but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal. There are many types of sensory memories. Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds which has been perceived for a small duration. Short-term memory SONY VGN-FZ17G batteryMain article: Short-term memory Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower SONY VGN-FZ17L battery, typically of the order of 4–5 items, however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits SONY VGN-FZ18 battery; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of three numbers, with the final four-number group generally broken down into two groups of two. Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code SONY VGN-FZ180E/B battery. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's (1964) study however, deals with the encoding of written text, thus while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made SONY VGN-FZ180E battery. Long-term memory Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. Main article: Long-term memory The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span) SONY VGN-FZ18E battery. Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory SONY VGN-FZ18G battery. While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory "which attempts to capture information such as “what”, “when” and “where” SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. With episodic memory individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings. Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memories, on the other hand, are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain SONY VGN-FZ18ME battery. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from HM after removal of his hippocampus[citation needed], and there will be a very short attention span SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be improving consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. SONY VGN-FZ18T batteryAdditionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain which mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day[citation needed], suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal. Research has suggested that long-term memory storage in humans may be maintained by DNA methylation, or prions SONY VGN-FZ190 batteryModels Models of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work. Below are several models proposed over the years by various psychologists. Note that there is some controversy as to whether there are several memory structures, for example, Tarnow (2005) finds that it is likely that there is only one memory structure between 6 and 600 seconds SONY VGN-FZ21E battery. Atkinson-Shiffrin model The multi-store model (also known as Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model) was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The multi-store model has been criticised for being too simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term storage SONY VGN-FZ21J battery, but evidence shows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal. The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. Patient KF proves this. Patient KF was brain damaged and had problems with his short term memory SONY VGN-FZ21M battery. He had problems with things such as spoken numbers, letters and words and with significant sounds (such as doorbells and cats meowing). Other parts of short term memory were unaffected, such as visual (pictures). It also shows the sensory store as a single unit whilst we know that the sensory store is split up into several different parts such as taste, vision, and hearing SONY VGN-FZ21S battery. Working memory In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model which replaced the concept of general short term memory with specific, active components. In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery. The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop: the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone number over and over again). A short list of data is easier to remember SONY VGN-FZ220E/B battery. The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images). The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene) SONY VGN-FZ220E battery. The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantical meaning. The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague. SONY VGN-FZ31B battery Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics. Types of memory Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall memory. Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before SONY VGN-FZ31E battery. Recall memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For example, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before. Classification by information type Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places. Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory SONY VGN-FZ31J battery. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory. Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly emotional events. Remembering where you were or what you were doing when you first heard the news of President Kennedy’s assassination or about 9/11 are examples of flashbulb memories SONY VGN-FZ31M battery. Anderson (1976) divides long-term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories. Declarative memory Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery. Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, which concerns facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France" SONY VGN-FZ32B battery. Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience Sony VAIO VGN-CR110 battery. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon. Procedural memory In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning Sony VAIO VGN-CR115 battery. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia Sony VAIO VGN-CR115E battery. [edit]Classification by temporal direction A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or whether the content is to be remembered in the future, prospective memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory Sony VAIO VGN-CR116 battery. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B battery, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L battery. Techniques used to study memory Techniques used to assess infants’ memory Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories, and so, verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P batterythe deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall memory. Techniques used to assess infants’ recognition memory Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on habituation): infants are first presented with pairs of visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white photos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time; then, after being familiarized with the two photos Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W battery, they are presented with the “familiar” photo and a new photo. The time spent looking at each photo is recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indicates that they remember the “familiar” one. Studies using this procedure have found that 5- to 6-month-olds can retain information for as long as fourteen days Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R battery. Operant conditioning technique: infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon that is connected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. Infants notice that when they kick their foot the mobile moves – the rate of kicking increases dramatically within minutes. Studies using this technique have revealed that infants’ memory substantially improves over the first 18-months. Whereas 2- to 3-month-olds can retain an operant response Sony VAIO VGN-CR120 battery(such as activating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week, 6-month-olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18-month-olds can retain a similar operant response for as long as 13 weeks. Techniques used to assess infants’ recall memory Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows infants a unique sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box) and then, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E battery. Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14-month-olds’ memories for the sequence of actions can last for as long as four months. Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the deferred imitation technique; the difference is that infants are allowed to imitate the actions before the delay. Studies using the elicited imitation technique have shown that 20-month-olds can recall the action sequences twelve months later Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/L battery. Techniques used to assess older children and adults' memory Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children and adults' memory. Some examples are: Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus and response Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/P battery. Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember. Earlier items are affected by retroactive interference, or RI, which means the longer the list, the greater the interference, and the less likelihood that they are recalled. On the other hand Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/R battery, items that have been presented lastly suffer little RI, but suffers a great deal from proactive interference, or PI, which means the longer the delay in recall, the more likely that the items will be lost. Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/W battery. Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a number of objects and colors samples, during a certain period of time. They are then tested on their visual ability to remember as much as they can by looking at testers and pointing out whether the testers are similar to the sample, or if any change is present Sony VAIO VGN-CR123 battery. Physiology Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G battery Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B battery, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression. In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenon is known as the memory enhancement effect. Patients with amygdala damage, however, do not show a memory enhancement effect Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L battery. Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P battery. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R battery. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W battery. Cognitive neuroscience of memory Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L battery. The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P battery. One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R battery, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves the spiking of individual neurons induced by sensory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005; Fransen et al. 2002). Encoding of episodic memory involves persistent changes in molecular structures that alter synaptic transmission between neurons Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L battery. Examples of such structural changes include long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP). The persistent spiking in working memory can enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the encoding of episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman 2005). Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working memory signals in both medial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex (Ranganath et al. 2005) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P battery, suggesting a strong relationship between working memory and long-term memory. However, the substantially more working memory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest that this area play a more important role in working memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007). Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-term memory (STM) is temporary and subject to disruption, while long-term memory (LTM), once consolidated Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R battery, is persistent and stable. Consolidation of STM into LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes: synaptic consolidation and system consolidation. The former involves a protein synthesis process in the medial temporal lobe (MTL), whereas the latter transforms the MTL-dependent memory into an MTL-independent memory over months to years (Ledoux 2007) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W battery. In recent years, such traditional consolidation dogma has been re-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsolidation. These studies showed that prevention after retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors and many other compounds can lead to an amnestic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai 2006) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/W battery. These findings on reconsolidation fit with the behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not a carbon copy of the initial experiences, and memories are updated during retrieval. Genetics Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association of APOE with memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. The search for genes associated with normally varying memory continues Sony VAIO VGN-CR140 battery. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA, which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period. Memory in infancy Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information.[35] A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay. Sony VAIO VGN-CR140E battery Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months.[37] In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B battery. Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it. It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L battery - that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2. In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P battery. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months. Memory and aging Main article: Memory and aging One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W battery (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information;[43] source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L battery and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example. Disorders Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P battery, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices[45] or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[46] There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W battery, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N battery Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory. While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic aphasia (also called Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/R battery. Factors that influence memory Influence of odors and emotions In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.[49] Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events Sony VAIO VGN-CR220 battery. The part of the brain that is critical in creating the feeling of emotion is the amygdala, which allows for stress hormones to strengthen neuron communication. The most common way to get high activity from the amygdala is the feeling of excitement present both in good and bad situations. The chemicals cortisone and adrenaline are released in the brain Sony VAIO VGN-CR220E battery. The most effective way to activate the amygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protective mechanism which comes on strong making it memorable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. This is when a memory can be hazy yet vivid, or haunting with perfect clarity. This discovery lead to a drug to help a disorder called PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder) Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/B battery. When someone is in a heightened emotional state, the events causing it become strong and ground in the memory, sometimes disrupting daily life for years. An experiment done with rats helped create the drug for this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory University, used tones and shocks to test an existing drug called dicyclomine used commonly for tuberculosis. Rats would hear a tone and receive a mild shock training them to fear the tone Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/L battery. Then the drug was given to one set of rats then the test were done again. The rats that did not receive the drug froze in fear. When the tone was heard the rats given the drug ignored the tone and continued on. The drug can effectively allow for new receptor connections between neurons and relax the amygdala when it comes to fear. Allowing for patients to have a chance of recovery from PTSD Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/P battery. Barbara Rothbaum, PhD, works out of Emory University conducting experimental treatment for PTSD. Having the knowledge that exactly the same neurons are active when remembering and event as when it was created. Gives the drug dicyclomine the ability to make new connections between neurons this gives people a window to lesson the connection between neurons Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/R battery. Rothbaum decided to use the drug in a therapy session that utilities virtual reality to give PTSD suffers a second chance. When the events that have caused the PTSD are identified the process can begin. The surroundings of the events are recreated in a virtual reality helmet for instance in a combat vehicle in the desert.[53] This would remind or recall the target memories in a safe environment and activate the neurons without activating the fear response from the amygdala Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/W battery. So when the dicyclomine is in the system and the same neurons are active that were active during the event can now have a chance to reform with less chemicals from the amygdala. This does not erase the memory but rather lessens the strength of it giving some relief so people with PTSD can try to move on and live their life Sony PCG-5G2L battery. It is astounding the way memory is formed and how it can be manipulated just by emotion. If pain, joy, excitement, or any other strong emotion is present during an event the neurons active during the event make a stronger connection with each other. This means when remembered or recalled in the future the neurons will make the connections faster and easier Sony PCG-5G3L battery. The strength and longevity of memories is directly related to the amount of emotion felt during the event of their creation. Knowing this helps the future of this since as well as offering healthy and better solutions to memory problems like PTSD. Interference from previous knowledge At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University Sony PCG-5J1L battery, researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science. Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information Sony PCG-5J2L battery and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer Sony PCG-5K1L battery. Memory and Stress Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact Sony PCG-5K2L battery the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) Sony PCG-5L1L batteryfor up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance) Sony PCG-6S2L battery. The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process. However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress Sony PCG-6S3L battery. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group Sony PCG-6V1L battery, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game “Concentration” or “Memory.” The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance Sony PCG-6W1L battery. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent Sony PCG-6W2L battery (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar. This research on the effects of stress on memory may have practical implications for education, for eyewitness testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform better when tested in their regular classroom rather than an exam room Sony PCG-6W3L battery, eyewitnesses may recall details better at the scene of an event than in a courtroom, and persons suffering from post-traumatic stress may improve when helped to situate their memories of a traumatic event in an appropriate context. Memory Construction Although we like to think that our memory operates like recording equipment, that is not actually the case Sony PCG-7111L battery. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime.[60] In fact research has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memories when they encode them and/or when they recall them Sony PCG-7112L battery. To illustrate consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) [61] in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that, those people who were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” gave higher estimates than those who were asked Sony PCG-7113L battery, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” Furthermore, when asked a week later whether they have seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question with smashed were twice more likely to report that they have seen broken glass than those who had been asked the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus Sony PCG-7133L battery, the wording of the questions distorted viewers’ memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led people to construct different memories of the event – those who were asked the question with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this experiment were replicated around the world and researchers Sony PCG-7Z1L batteryconsistently demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.[62] Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories Sony PCG-7Z2L battery. For instance, Goff and Roediger [63] (1998) asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment Sony PCG-8Y1L battery. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues (1996) [64] asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children Sony PCG-8Y2L battery. That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events. Improving memory Main article: Improving memory A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises Sony PCG-8Z1L battery, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted Sony PCG-8Z2L battery, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory. There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory known as the Art of memory. The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report[66] which includes in pages 14–16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery, training or reading, to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition. Levels of processing Main article: Levels-of-processing effect Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery. Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked to recall as many of the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered more words. This study suggested that the organization of memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011) Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery. Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to say words in a distinctive way, e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them off a list. Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because they put more effort into them Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery. Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There were some short paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs. Methods to optimize memorization Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorization in a short period of time Sony VAIO VGN-FW25T/B battery. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
Graphics (from Greek γραφικός graphikos) are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Graphics word is derived from the word graph. A graph has x and y axis. Same way something which is created in digital word is seen on a digital screen, this screen also has x and y axis Sony PCG-71313M battery. So the output on any digital device is termed as graphics. In other words an image that is generated by a computer called graphics. The pictorial representation and manipulation of data, as used in computer-aided design and manufacture, in typesetting and the graphic arts, and in educational and recreational programs Sony PCG-71212M battery. Examples are photographs, drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site Sony PCG-71311M battery, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such as a photograph, or an interpretation by a scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction with imaginary graphics may become blurred Sony PCG-71213M battery. History Main article: History of graphic design The earliest graphics known to anthropologists studying prehistoric periods are cave paintings and markings on boulders, bone, ivory, and antlers, which were created during the Upper Palaeolithic period from 40,000–10,000 B.C. or earlier. Many of these were found to record astronomical, seasonal, and chronological details Sony PCG-61211M battery. Some of the earliest graphics and drawings known to the modern world, from almost 6,000 years ago, are that of engraved stone tablets and ceramic cylinder seals, marking the beginning of the historic periods and the keeping of records for accounting and inventory purposes. Records from Egypt predate these and papyrus was used by the Egyptians as a material on which to plan the building of pyramids; they also used slabs of limestone and wood Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. From 600–250 BC, the Greeks played a major role in geometry. They used graphics to represent their mathematical theories such as the Circle Theorem and the Pythagorean theorem. In art, "graphics" is often used to distinguish work in a monotone and made up of lines, as opposed to painting Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. Drawing Main articles: Drawing and Technical drawing Drawing generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, blending, and shading Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. Drawing is generally considered distinct from painting, in which colored pigments are suspended in a liquid medium and are usually applied with a brush. Notable great drawers include Michelangelo, Rembrandt, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci. Many people choose drawing as a main art style, or they may use it to make sketches for paintings, sculptures and other types of art Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. The other term is Engineering Graphics, preferably the language of engineers that simulates Three Dimensional capability of engineer to plan and Implement his ideas. It comprises Projection, Development, Perspective, Section, Intersection, and Isometric ideations. Printmaking Main article: Printmaking Woodblock printing, including images is first seen in China after paper was invented (about A.D. 105). In the West the main techniques have been woodcut, engraving and etching, but there are many others Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. Main article: Etching Etching is an intaglio method of printmaking in which the image is incised into the surface of a metal plate using an acid. The acid eats the metal, leaving behind roughened areas, or, if the surface exposed to the acid is very thin, burning a line into the plate. The use of the process in printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer (c. 1470–1536) of Augsburg, Germany, who decorated armour in this way Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. Etching is also used in the manufacturing of printed circuit boards and semiconductor devices. Line Art Main article: Line art Line art is a rather non-specific term sometimes used for any image that consists of distinct straight and curved lines placed against a (usually plain) background, without gradations in shade (darkness) or hue (color) to represent two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects. Line art is usually monochromatic, although lines may be of different colors Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. Illustration Main article: Illustration An illustration of a character from a story; also, an illustration of illustrations An illustration is a visual representation such as a drawing, painting, photograph or other work of art that stresses subject more than form. The aim of an illustration is to elucidate or decorate a story, poem or piece of textual information (such as a newspaper article), traditionally by providing a visual representation of something described in the text Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. The editorial cartoon, also known as a political cartoon, is an illustration containing a political or social message. Illustrations can be used to display a wide range of subject matter and serve a variety of functions, such as: giving faces to characters in a story displaying a number of examples of an item described in an academic textbook (e.g. A Typology) visualising step-wise sets of instructions in a technical manual Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H batterycommunicating subtle thematic tone in a narrative linking brands to the ideas of human expression, individuality and creativity making a reader laugh or smile for fun (to make laugh) funny A graph or chart is a type of information graphic that represents tabular, numeric data. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand large quantities of data and the relationships between different parts of the data Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. Diagrams Main article: Diagrams A diagram is a simplified and structured visual representation of concepts, ideas, constructions, relations, statistical data, etc., used to visualize and clarify the topic. Symbols Main article: Symbols A symbol, in its basic sense, is a representation of a concept or quantity; i.e., an idea, object, concept, quality, etc. In more psychological and philosophical terms, all concepts are symbolic in nature Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery, and representations for these concepts are simply token artifacts that are allegorical to (but do not directly codify) a symbolic meaning, or symbolism. Graphic Design Such things as working with Photoshop or some other computer based program to produce designs such as Album Cover, Web Page layouts, or just wallpaper you want to use for your computer. This area of Computer making Graphic Designing is becoming really popular and jobs are looking for people that are good in this area Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery. Main article: Maps A map is a simplified depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space. Usually, a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation of a three-dimensional space. One of the first 'modern' maps was made by Waldseemüller. Photography Main article: Photography One difference between photography and other forms of graphics is that a photographer, in principle, just records a single moment in reality Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery, with seemingly no interpretation. However, a photographer can choose the field of view and angle, and may also use other techniques, such as various lenses to distort the view or filters to change the colors. In recent times, digital photography has opened the way to an infinite number of fast, but strong, manipulations. Even in the early days of photography Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery, there was controversy over photographs of enacted scenes that were presented as 'real life' (especially in war photography, where it can be very difficult to record the original events). Shifting the viewer's eyes ever so slightly with simple pinpricks in the negative could have a dramatic effect. The choice of the field of view can have a strong effect, effectively 'censoring out' other parts of the scene Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, accomplished by cropping them out or simply not including them in the photograph. This even touches on the philosophical question of what reality is. The human brain processes information based on previous experience, making us see what we want to see or what we were taught to see. Photography does the same, although the photographer interprets the scene for their viewer Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Engineering drawings Image of a part represented in First Angle Projection Main article: Engineering drawings An engineering drawing is a type of drawing and is technical in nature, used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items. It is usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. Computer graphics Main article: Computer graphics There are two types of computer graphics: raster graphics, where each pixel is separately defined (as in a digital photograph), and vector graphics, where mathematical formulas are used to draw lines and shapes, which are then interpreted at the viewer's end to produce the graphic. Using vectors results in infinitely sharp graphics and often smaller files Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery, but, when complex,like vectors take time to render and may have larger file sizes than a raster equivalent. In 1950, the first computer-driven display was attached to MIT's Whirlwind I computer to generate simple pictures. This was followed by MIT's TX-0 and TX-2, interactive computing which increased interest in computer graphics during the late 1950s Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. In 1962, Ivan Sutherland invented Sketchpad, an innovative program that influenced alternative forms of interaction with computers. In the mid-1960s, large computer graphics research projects were begun at MIT, General Motors, Bell Labs, and Lockheed Corporation. Douglas T. Ross of MIT developed an advanced compiler language for graphics programming. S.A.Coons, also at MIT, and J. C. Ferguson at Boeing Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery, began work in sculptured surfaces. GM developed their DAC-1 system, and other companies, such as Douglas, Lockheed, and McDonnell, also made significant developments. In 1968, ray tracing was first described by Arthur Appel of the IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, N.Y.[1] During the late 1970s, personal computers became more powerful, capable of drawing both basic and complex shapes and designs Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery. In the 1980s, artists and graphic designers began to see the personal computer, particularly the Commodore Amiga and Macintosh, as a serious design tool, one that could save time and draw more accurately than other methods. 3D computer graphics became possible in the late 1980s with the powerful SGI computers, which were later used to create some of the first fully computer-generated short films at Pixar Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery. The Macintosh remains one of the most popular tools for computer graphics in graphic design studios and businesses. Modern computer systems, dating from the 1980s and onwards, often use a graphical user interface (GUI) to present data and information with symbols, icons and pictures, rather than text. Graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery. 3D graphics became more popular in the 1990s in gaming, multimedia and animation. In 1996, Quake, one of the first fully 3D games, was released. In 1995, Toy Story, the first full-length computer-generated animation film, was released in cinemas. Since then, computer graphics have become more accurate and detailed Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery, due to more advanced computers and better 3D modeling software applications, such as Maya, 3D Studio Max, and Cinema 4D. Another use of computer graphics is screensavers, originally intended to preventing the layout of much-used GUIs from 'burning into' the computer screen. They have since evolved into true pieces of art, their practical purpose obsolete; modern screens are not susceptible to such burn in artifacts Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. Web graphics Signature art used on web forums In the 1990s, Internet speeds increased, and Internet browsers capable of viewing images were released, the first being Mosaic. Websites began to use the GIF format to display small graphics, such as banners, advertisements and navigation buttons, on web pages. Modern web browsers can now display JPEG, PNG and increasingly, SVG images in addition to GIFs on web pages Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. SVG, and to some extent VML, support in some modern web browsers have made it possible to display vector graphics that are clear at any size. Plugins expand the web browser functions to display animated, interactive and 3-D graphics contained within file formats such as SWF and X3D Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery. Modern web graphics can be made with software such as Adobe Photoshop, the GIMP, or Corel Paint Shop Pro. Users of Microsoft Windows have MS Paint, which many find to be lacking in features. This is because MS Paint is a drawing package and not a graphics package. Numerous platforms and websites have been created to cater to web graphics artists and to host their communities Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. A growing number of people use create internet forum signatures—generally appearing after a user's post—and other digital artwork, such as photo manipulations and large graphics. With computer games' developers creating their own communities around their products, many more websites are being developed to offer graphics for the fans and to enable them to show their appreciation of such games in their own gaming profiles Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. Uses Graphics are visual elements often used to point readers and viewers to particular information. They are also used to supplement text in an effort to aid readers in their understanding of a particular concept or make the concept more clear or interesting. Popular magazines, such as TIME, Wired and Newsweek, usually contain graphic material in abundance to attract readers Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery, unlike the majority of scholarly journals. In computing, they are used to create a graphical interface for the user; and graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology. Graphics are among the primary ways of advertising the sale of goods or services. Business Graphics are commonly used in business and economics to create financial charts and tables. The term Business Graphics came into use in the late 1970s, when personal computers became capable of drawing graphs and charts instead of using a tabular format Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. Business Graphics can be used to highlight changes over a period of time. Advertising Advertising is one of the most profitable uses of graphics; artists often do advertising work or take advertising potential into account when creating art, to increase the chances of selling the artwork. Political The use of graphics for overtly political purposes—cartoons, graffiti, poster art, flag design, etc.—is a centuries old practice which thrives today in every part of the world. The Northern Irish murals are one such example Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. Education Graphics are heavily used in textbooks, especially those concerning subjects such as geography, science, and mathematics, in order to illustrate theories and concepts, such as the human anatomy. Diagrams are also used to label photographs and pictures. Educational animation is an important emerging field of graphics. Animated graphics have obvious advantages over static graphics when explaining subject matter that changes over time Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary uses graphics and technical illustrations to make reading material more interesting and easier to understand. In an encyclopedia, graphics are used to illustrate concepts and show examples of the particular topic being discussed. In order for a graphic to function effectively as an educational aid, the learner must be able to interpret it successfully. This interpretative capacity is one aspect of graphicacy Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Film and animation Computer graphics are often used in the majority of new feature films, especially those with a large budget. Films that heavily use computer graphics include The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, the Harry Potter films, Spider-Man and War of the Worlds. Graphics education The majority of schools, colleges and universities around the world educate students on the subject of graphics and art Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. The subject is taught in a broad variety of ways, each course teaching its own distinctive balance of craft skills and intellectual response to the client's needs. Some graphics courses prioritize traditional craft skills—drawing, printmaking and typography—over modern craft skills. Other courses may place an emphasis on teaching digital craft skills. Still other courses may downplay the crafts entirely Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery, concentrating on training students to generate novel intellectual responses that engage with the brief. Despite these apparent differences in training and curriculum, the staff and students on any of these courses will generally consider themselves to be graphic designers. The typical pedagogy of a graphic design (or graphic communication, visual communication, graphic arts or any number of synonymous course titles) SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery will be broadly based on the teaching models developed in the Bauhaus school in Germany or Vkhutemas in Russia. The teaching model will tend to expose students to a variety of craft skills (currently everything from drawing to motion capture), combined with an effort to engage the student with the world of visual culture SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. Famous graphic designers Aldus Manutius designed the first Italic type style which is often used in desktop publishing and graphic design. April Greiman is known for her influential poster design. Paul Rand is well known as a design pioneer for designing many popular corporate logos, including the logo for IBM, NeXT and UPS. William Caslon, during the mid-18th century SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, designed many typefaces, including ITC Founder's Caslon, ITC Founder's Caslon Ornaments, Caslon Graphique, ITC Caslon No. 224, Caslon Old Face and Big Caslon. J.P.Singh from Government college of Arts Chandigarh experimented with glass etching Graphic prints,successfully printed from the glass etched surface, created his own etching cream to take special effects from the glass surface SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery.He has demonstrated his graphic skill at London Art Center.He had ingeniously created a non dripping cream for glass etching. In psychology, memory is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain information over periods of time. Finally the third process is retrieval. This is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery. From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory: Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information) Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity) SONY VAIO PCG-81212M batterySensory memory Main article: Sensory memory Sensory memory corresponds approximately to the initial 200–500 milliseconds after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorisation, is an example of sensory memory. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display, but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal. There are many types of sensory memories. Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds which has been perceived for a small duration. Short-term memory SONY VAIO PCG-7195M batteryMain article: Short-term memory Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2") SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items, however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890) SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of three numbers, with the final four-number group generally broken down into two groups of two SONY PCG-8113M battery. Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically SONY PCG-8112M battery. Conrad's (1964) study however, deals with the encoding of written text, thus while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made. Long-term memory Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. SONY PCG-7134M batteryMain article: Long-term memory The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large SONY PCG-7131M battery. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory SONY PCG-7122M battery. While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Adderley (1966) discovered that after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory "which attempts to capture information such as “what”, “when” and “where” SONY PCG-7121M battery . With episodic memory individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings. Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially collateral frontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memories, on the other hand, are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain SONY PCG-7113M battery. The hippo-campus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippo campus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from HM after removal of his hippo-campus[citation needed] SONY PCG-7112M battery , and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be improving consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. SONY PCG-8Z3M batteryAdditionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain which mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day[citation needed], suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal. Research has suggested that long-term memory storage in humans may be maintained by DNA methylation, or prions SONY PCG-8Z2M batteryModels Models of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work. Below are several models proposed over the years by various psychologists. Note that there is some controversy as to whether there are several memory structures, for example, Tarnow (2005) finds that it is likely that there is only one memory structure between 6 and 600 seconds SONY PCG-8Z1M battery. Atkinson-Shiffrin model See also: Memory consolidation The multi-store model (also known as Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model) was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The multi-store model has been criticised for being too simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. It also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence shows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal. The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. Patient KF proves this SONY PCG-8Y2M battery. Patient KF was brain damaged and had problems with his short term memory. He had problems with things such as spoken numbers, letters and words and with significant sounds (such as doorbells and cats meowing). Other parts of short term memory were unaffected, such as visual (pictures) SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. It also shows the sensory store as a single unit whilst we know that the sensory store is split up into several different parts such as taste, vision, and hearing. Working memory In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model which replaced the concept of general short term memory with specific, active components. In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive SONY PCG-6W2M battery, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer. The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer SONY PCG-5J5M battery. The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop: the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone number over and over again). A short list of data is easier to remember. The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images) SONY PCG-5K2M battery . The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantical meaning SONY PCG-5K1M battery. The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague. SONY PCG-5J4M battery Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics. Types of memory Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall memory. Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Recall memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For example, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before. [edit]Classification by information type Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places SONY PCG-5G2M battery. Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory. Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly emotional events. Remembering where you were or what you were doing when you first heard the news of President Kennedy’s assassination or about 9/11 are examples of flashbulb memories Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. Anderson (1976) divides long-term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories. Declarative memory Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, which concerns facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. Procedural memory In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Classification by temporal direction A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or whether the content is to be remembered in the future, prospective memory Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. Techniques used to study memory Techniques used to assess infants’ memory Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories, and so, verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall memory. Techniques used to assess infants’ recognition memory Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on habituation): infants are first presented with pairs of visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white photos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time; then, after being familiarized with the two photos Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, they are presented with the “familiar” photo and a new photo. The time spent looking at each photo is recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indicates that they remember the “familiar” one. Studies using this procedure have found that 5- to 6-month-olds can retain information for as long as fourteen days. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M batteryOperant conditioning technique: infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon that is connected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. Infants notice that when they kick their foot the mobile moves – the rate of kicking increases dramatically within minutes. Studies using this technique have revealed that infants’ memory substantially improves over the first 18-months Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. Whereas 2- to 3-month-olds can retain an operant response (such as activating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week, 6-month-olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18-month-olds can retain a similar operant response for as long as 13 weeks. Techniques used to assess infants’ recall memory Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows infants a unique sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box) and then Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions. Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14-month-olds’ memories for the sequence of actions can last for as long as four months. Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the deferred imitation technique; the difference is that infants are allowed to imitate the actions before the delay Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Studies using the elicited imitation technique have shown that 20-month-olds can recall the action sequences twelve months later. Techniques used to assess older children and adults' memory Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children and adults' memory. Some examples are: Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus and response Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember. Earlier items are affected by retroactive interference, or RI, which means the longer the list, the greater the interference, and the less likelihood that they are recalled. On the other hand Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery, items that have been presented lastly suffer little RI, but suffers a great deal from proactive interference, or PI, which means the longer the delay in recall, the more likely that the items will be lost. Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a number of objects and colors samples, during a certain period of time. They are then tested on their visual ability to remember as much as they can by looking at testers and pointing out whether the testers are similar to the sample, or if any change is present Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. Physiology Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory.[30] Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression. In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenon is known as the memory enhancement effect Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery. Patients with amygdala damage, however, do not show a memory enhancement effect. Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. Cognitive neuroscience of memory Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007) Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007) Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves the spiking of individual neurons induced by sensory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005; Fransen et al. 2002) Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery. Encoding of episodic memory involves persistent changes in molecular structures that alter synaptic transmission between neurons. Examples of such structural changes include long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP). The persistent spiking in working memory can enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the encoding of episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman 2005) Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working memory signals in both medial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex (Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong relationship between working memory and long-term memory Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. However, the substantially more working memory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest that this area play a more important role in working memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007). Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-term memory (STM) is temporary and subject to disruption, while long-term memory (LTM), once consolidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidation of STM into LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery: synaptic consolidation and system consolidation. The former involves a protein synthesis process in the medial temporal lobe (MTL), whereas the latter transforms the MTL-dependent memory into an MTL-independent memory over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In recent years, such traditional consolidation dogma has been re-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsolidation Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. These studies showed that prevention after retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors and many other compounds can lead to an amnestic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai 2006) Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. These findings on reconsolidation fit with the behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not a carbon copy of the initial experiences, and memories are updated during retrieval. Genetics Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association of APOE with memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. The search for genes associated with normally varying memory continues Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA, which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period. Memory in infancy Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information. A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay.[36] Furthermore Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months. In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery, 6-month-olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it. It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2 Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months. Memory and aging Main article: Memory and aging One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information;[44] and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. Disorders Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[46] There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory. While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic aphasia (also called Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery. Factors that influence memory Influence of odors and emotions In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.[49] Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events. Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L batteryThe part of the brain that is critical in creating the feeling of emotion is the amygdala, which allows for stress hormones to strengthen neuron communication. The most common way to get high activity from the amygdala is the feeling of excitement present both in good and bad situations. The chemicals cortisone and adrenaline are released in the brain Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. The most effective way to activate the amygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protective mechanism which comes on strong making it memorable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. This is when a memory can be hazy yet vivid, or haunting with perfect clarity. This discovery lead to a drug to help a disorder called PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder) Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. When someone is in a heightened emotional state, the events causing it become strong and ground in the memory, sometimes disrupting daily life for years. An experiment done with rats helped create the drug for this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory University, used tones and shocks to test an existing drug called dicyclomine used commonly for tuberculosis. Rats would hear a tone and receive a mild shock training them to fear the tone Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Then the drug was given to one set of rats then the test were done again. The rats that did not receive the drug froze in fear. When the tone was heard the rats given the drug ignored the tone and continued on. The drug can effectively allow for new receptor connections between neurons and relax the amygdala when it comes to fear. Allowing for patients to have a chance of recovery from PTSD Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery. Barbara Rothbaum, PhD, works out of Emory University conducting experimental treatment for PTSD. Having the knowledge that exactly the same neurons are active when remembering and event as when it was created. Gives the drug dicyclomine the ability to make new connections between neurons this gives people a window to lesson the connection between neurons Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. Rothbaum decided to use the drug in a therapy session that utilities virtual reality to give PTSD suffers a second chance. When the events that have caused the PTSD are identified the process can begin. The surroundings of the events are recreated in a virtual reality helmet for instance in a combat vehicle in the desert. This would remind or recall the target memories in a safe environment and activate the neurons without activating the fear response from the amygdala Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery. So when the dicyclomine is in the system and the same neurons are active that were active during the event can now have a chance to reform with less chemicals from the amygdala. This does not erase the memory but rather lessens the strength of it giving some relief so people with PTSD can try to move on and live their life Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. It is astounding the way memory is formed and how it can be manipulated just by emotion. If pain, joy, excitement, or any other strong emotion is present during an event the neurons active during the event make a stronger connection with each other. This means when remembered or recalled in the future the neurons will make the connections faster and easier Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. The strength and longevity of memories is directly related to the amount of emotion felt during the event of their creation. Knowing this helps the future of this since as well as offering healthy and better solutions to memory problems like PTSD. Interference from previous knowledge At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information[54] and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer. Memory and Stress Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. [56] An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game “Concentration” or “Memory.” The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar. This research on the effects of stress on memory may have practical implications for education Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery, for eyewitness testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform better when tested in their regular classroom rather than an exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better at the scene of an event than in a courtroom, and persons suffering from post-traumatic stress may improve when helped to situate their memories of a traumatic event in an appropriate context Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery. Memory Construction Although we like to think that our memory operates like recording equipment, that is not actually the case. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime.[60] In fact research has revealed that our memories are constructed Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. People can construct their memories when they encode them and/or when they recall them. To illustrate consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) [61] in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that, those people who were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Sony VAIO PCG-7185L batterygave higher estimates than those who were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” Furthermore, when asked a week later whether they have seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question with smashed were twice more likely to report that they have seen broken glass than those who had been asked the question with hit Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted viewers’ memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led people to construct different memories of the event – those who were asked the question with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this experiment were replicated around the world and researchers consistently demonstrated that Sony VAIO PCG-7183L batterywhen people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect. Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. For instance, Goff and Roediger (1998) Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment. Similarly Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, Garry and her colleagues (1996) asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events. Improving memory Main article: Improving memory A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery. There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory known as the Art of memory. The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report[66] which includes in pages 14–16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery, training or reading, to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition. Levels of processing Main article: Levels-of-processing effect Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked to recall as many of the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered more words. This study suggested that the organization of memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011) Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to say words in a distinctive way, e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them off a list. Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because they put more effort into them Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There were some short paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs. Methods to optimize memorization Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorization in a short period of time Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S., is the flagship university of the six-campus Purdue University system. Purdue was founded on May 6, 1869, as a land-grant university when the Indiana General Assembly, taking advantage of the Morrill Act, accepted a donation of land and money from Lafayette businessman John Purdue to establish a college Sony PCG-71313M battery of science, technology, and agriculture in his name. The first classes were held on September 16, 1874, with six instructors and 39 students. Today, Purdue enrolls the second largest student body of any university in Indiana as well as the second largest international student population of any public university in the United States Sony PCG-71212M battery. Purdue offers both undergraduate and graduate programs in over 210 major areas of study, and is well known for its competitive engineering curricula. The university has also been highly influential in America's history of aviation, having established the first college credit offered in flight training, the first four-year bachelor's degree in aviation Sony PCG-71311M battery, and the first university airport (Purdue University Airport). In the mid-20th century, Purdue's aviation program expanded to encompass advanced spaceflight technology giving rise to Purdue's nickname, Cradle of Astronauts. Twenty-two Purdue graduates have gone on to become astronauts, including Gus Grissom (one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts) Sony PCG-71213M battery, Neil Armstrong (the first person to walk on the moon), and Eugene Cernan (the most recent person to walk on the moon). History John Purdue, the university's eponymous benefactor In 1865, the Indiana General Assembly voted to take advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862, and began plans to establish an institution with a focus on agriculture and engineering. Communities throughout the state offered their facilities and money to bid for the location of the new college Sony PCG-61211M battery. Popular proposals included the addition of an agriculture department at Indiana University or at what is now Butler University. By 1869, Tippecanoe County’s offer included $150,000 from Lafayette business leader and philanthropist John Purdue, $50,000 from the county, and 100 acres (40 ha) of land from local residents. On May 6, 1869 Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery, the General Assembly established the institution in Tippecanoe County as Purdue University, in the name of the principal benefactor. Classes began at Purdue on September 16, 1874, with six instructors and 39 students. A campus of five buildings was completed by the end of the year.[9] Purdue issued its first degree, a Bachelor of Science in chemistry, in 1875 and admitted its first women students that fall Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. Emerson E. White, the university’s president from 1876 to 1883, followed a strict interpretation of the Morrill Act. Rather than emulate the classical universities, White believed that Purdue should be an "industrial college" and devote its resources toward providing a liberal (or broad) education with an emphasis on science, technology, and agriculture Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. He intended not only to prepare students for industrial work, but also to prepare them to be good citizens and family members. Part of White’s plan to distinguish Purdue from classical universities included a controversial attempt to ban fraternities. This ban was ultimately overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court and led to White’s resignation Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. A view of Purdue University in 1904 In the late 1890s former U.S. President Benjamin Harrison served on the board of trustees and delivered lectures about world affairs. By the end of the nineteenth century, the university was organized into schools of agriculture, engineering (mechanical, civil, and electrical), and pharmacy. Purdue had a number of engineering laboratories, including testing facilities for a locomotive and a Corliss steam engine, one of the most efficient engines of the time Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. The School of Agriculture was sharing its research with farmers throughout the state with its cooperative extension services and would undergo a period of growth over the following two decades. Programs in education and home economics were soon established, as well as a short-lived school of medicine Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. President Edward C. Elliott oversaw a campus building program between the world wars. Inventor, alumnus, and trustee David E. Ross coordinated several fundraisers, donated lands to the university, and was instrumental in establishing the Purdue Research Foundation. Ross’s gifts and fundraisers supported such projects as Ross–Ade Stadium, the Memorial Union, a civil engineering surveying camp, and the Purdue University Airport Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. The Purdue Airport was the country’s first university-owned airport and the site of the country’s first college-credit flight training courses. Amelia Earhart joined the Purdue faculty in 1935 as a consultant for these flight courses and as a counselor on women’s careers. In 1937, the Purdue Research Foundation provided the funds for the Lockheed Electra 10-E that Earhart flew on her attempted round-the-world flight Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. Every school and department at the university was involved in some type of military research or training during World War II. During a project on radar receivers, Purdue physicists discovered properties of germanium that led to the making of the first transistor. The Army and the Navy conducted training programs at Purdue and more than 17,500 students, staff, and alumni served in the armed forces Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. Purdue also set up about a hundred centers throughout Indiana to train skilled workers for defense industries. As veterans returned to the university under the G.I. Bill, first-year classes were taught at some of these sites to alleviate the demand for campus space. Four of these sites are now degree-granting regional campuses of the Purdue University system Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. Purdue’s on-campus housing became racially desegregated in 1947, following pressure from Purdue President Frederick L. Hovde and Indiana Governor Ralph F. Gates. After the war, Hovde worked to expand the academic opportunities at the university. The 1950s saw a decade-long construction program with an emphasis on science and research. The university established programs in veterinary medicine, industrial management, and nursing, as well as the first computer science department in the United States. Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery Undergraduate humanities courses were strengthened, although Hovde only reluctantly approved of graduate-level study in these areas. Purdue awarded its first Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1960.[24] The programs in liberal arts and education, formerly administered by the School of Science, were soon split into their own school Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery. In recent years, Purdue’s leaders have continued to support high-tech research and international programs. In 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan visited the West Lafayette campus to give a speech about the influence of technological progress on job creation. In the 1990s, the university expanded its course offerings in foreign languages and world cultures and added more opportunities to study abroad Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery. The first buildings of the Discovery Park interdisciplinary research center were dedicated in 2004. Purdue launched a Global Policy Research Institute in 2010 to explore the potential impact of technical knowledge on public policy decisions. Campus View of the entrance to the Purdue Mall Purdue's campus is situated in the small city of West Lafayette, near the western bank of the Wabash River, across which sits the larger city of Lafayette. State Street, which is concurrent with State Road 26, divides the northern and southern portions of campus Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Academic buildings are mostly concentrated on the eastern and southern parts of campus, with residence halls to the west, and athletic facilities to the north. The Greater Lafayette Public Transportation Corporation (CityBus) operates eight campus loop bus routes on which students, faculty, and staff can ride free of charge Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. Purdue Mall Engineering Fountain The Purdue Mall is the central quad of Purdue University. It is also known as the Engineering Mall, due to its proximity to several engineering buildings. The most prominent feature of the Purdue Mall is the 38-foot (12 m)-tall concrete Engineering Fountain, and also features the Frederick L. Hovde Hall of Administration, which houses the office of the university president Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery, France A. Córdova. The Purdue Bell Tower is located between the Purdue and Memorial Malls. The Bell Tower is considered an icon of the university and can be found on many Purdue logos and those of the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette. Southwest of the Purdue Mall is the Edward C. Elliott Hall of Music, one of the largest proscenium theaters in the world Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Purdue's Student Concert Committee often invites famous entertainers to perform there for an audience of students, faculty, and the general public. Memorial Mall Purdue Memorial Union The Purdue Memorial Mall, located south of the Purdue Mall, is the original section of campus. A popular meeting place for students, the grassy, open Memorial Mall is surrounded by the Stewart Student Center, Stanley Coulter Hall, the Class of 1950 Lecture Hall, Recitation Building Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery, Winthrop Stone Hall, and University Hall. The Memorial Mall also features the Hello Walk. Near this section of campus is Felix Haas Hall, which was constructed in 1909 as Memorial Gymnasium in memory of the 17 Purdue University football players, coaches, alumni, and fans who perished in the Purdue Wreck railroad accident on October 31, 1903. The structure was renovated in 1985 to house the Computer Science department Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery. In 2006, it was renamed in honor of retired Provost Felix Haas and began to also house the Statistics department. East of the Memorial Mall is the Purdue Memorial Union, Purdue's student union building, and the adjacent Union Club Hotel. University Hall is the only building remaining from the original six-building campus. Construction began in 1871, when the building was known as "The Main Building" Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. The building was dedicated in 1877 and the project cost $35,000 to complete. University Hall originally housed the office of the president, a chapel, and classrooms, but was remodeled in 1961 to house only the department of history and classrooms used by the School of Liberal Arts. At the request of John Purdue, he was buried in the Memorial Mall, directly across from the main entrance of University Hall Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. South campus This section requires expansion. (December 2011) The area south of State Street is home to Purdue's agricultural, fine arts, life sciences, and veterinary buildings. This area also includes the Horticulture Gardens, Discovery Park, and the Purdue Airport. Purdue University Horticulture Gardens West campus The western portion of campus consists of student housing, dining, and recreation facilities. Students can play club and intramural sports at the Recreational Sports Center Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, the Boilermaker Aquatic Center, and the intramural playing fields in this area. Purdue's Recreational Sports Center, built in 1957, is the first building in the nation created solely to serve university student recreational needs. As a replacement for the previously separate women's and men's gymnasiums, it was originally called the "Co-recreational Gymnasium". Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery Despite several official name changes, it has been nicknamed "the Co-rec" ever since. From January 2011 until August 2012, the building will undergo a LEED-certified expansion and renovation project to become the Student Wellness and Fitness Center. Stadium area Much of the northern part of campus sits on land purchased for the university by industrialist David E. Ross and author and humorist George Ade in the 1920s Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery. Many of Purdue's athletic facilities are located there, including Ross–Ade Stadium (American football), Mackey Arena (basketball), and Lambert Fieldhouse (indoor track and field). This area also includes the Slayter Center of Performing Arts and Cary Quadrangle, one of the largest all-male housing units in the country. David Ross is one of two people buried on Purdue's campus (the other being John Purdue) Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. His grave site is in a garden atop the hill just to west of the Slayter band shell. Other athletic facilities are located a mile west of the stadium, at the newer Northwest Athletic Complex. Academics Organization and administration Purdue offers more than 200 options for major areas of study at the West Lafayette campus alone, and a variety of options for minors. Purdue is organized into ten colleges and schools. On July 1, 2010 the College of Health and Human Sciences was formed Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. The new college was created by combining existing academic units. These units include the School of Nursing, the School of Health Sciences, the College of Consumer and Family Sciences, and non-humanities majors from the College of Liberal Arts; namely psychology and hearing and speech pathology Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. The University President, appointed by the Board of Trustees, is the chief administrative officer of the university. The office of the president oversees admission and registration, student conduct and counseling, the administration and scheduling of classes and space, the administration of student athletics and organized extracurricular activities, the libraries, the appointment of the faculty and conditions of their employment Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery, the appointment of all non-faculty employees and the conditions of employment, the general organization of the university, and the planning and administration of the university budget. The Board of Trustees directly appoints other major officers of the university including a provost, who serves as the chief academic officer for the university, a number of vice presidents with oversight over specific university operations, and the regional campus chancellors Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery. Research The University expended $472.7 million in support of research system-wide in 2006–07, using funds received from the state and federal governments, industry, foundations, and individual donors. The faculty and more than 400 research laboratories put Purdue University among the leading research institutions Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. Purdue University is considered by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to have "very high research activity". Purdue also was rated the nation's fourth best place to work in academia, according to rankings released in November 2007 by The Scientist magazine. Purdue's researchers provide insight, knowledge, assistance, and solutions in many crucial areas Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery. These include, but are not limited to Agriculture; Business and Economy; Education; Engineering; Environment; Healthcare; Individuals, Society, Culture; Manufacturing; Science; Technology; Veterinary Medicine. Materials Science and Electrical Engineering Building Purdue University generated a record $438 million in sponsored research funding during the 2009–10 fiscal year with participation from National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery, and the U.S. departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, and Health and Human Services. Purdue University established the Discovery Park to bring innovation through multidisciplinary action. In all of the eleven centers of Discovery Park, ranging from entrepreneurship to energy and advanced manufacturing, research projects reflect a large economic impact and address global challenges Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. Purdue University's nanotechnology research program, built around the new Birck Nanotechnology Center in Discovery Park, ranks among the best in the nation. The Purdue Research Park which opened in 1961 was developed by Purdue Research Foundation which is a private, nonprofit foundation created to assist Purdue. The park is focused on companies operating in the arenas of life sciences, homeland security Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery, engineering, advanced manufacturing and information technology. It provides an interactive environment for experienced Purdue researchers and for private business and high-tech industry.[44] It currently employs more than 3,000 people in 155 companies, including 90 technology-based firms. The Purdue Research Park was ranked first by the Association of University Research Parks in 2004 Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Rankings In national rankings for 2011, Purdue was ranked #40 by ARWU, #62 by U.S. News & World Report, and #79 by Washington Monthly. In global rankings for 2011, the university was ranked #61 by ARWU, #85 by QS, and #98 by Times. The engineering program has been ranked in the top by both national and international ranking agencies Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. The Academic Ranking of World Universities has ranked Purdue's engineering program #10 internationally in Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences rankings. The U.S. News & World Report] has featured Purdue's engineering program among its top 10, ever since its inception. In 2012, [U.S. News & World Report has ranked Purdue's undergraduate engineering program at #9 in the nation Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. In the 2013 U.S. News & World Report Graduate School Rankings, Purdue is ranked #10 in the nation for its engineering program. Sustainability Purdue's Sustainability Council, composed of University administrators and professors, meets monthly to discuss environmental issues and sustainability initiatives at Purdue. The University is currently constructing its first LEED Certified building in an addition to the Mechanical Engineering building, which is to be completed in Spring 2011 SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The school is also in the process of developing an arboretum on campus. In addition, a system has been set up to display live data detailing current energy production at the campus utility plant. The school holds an annual "Green Week" each fall, an effort to engage the Purdue community with issues relating to environmental sustainability SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. Student life Student body Graduation Ceremony The Purdue student body is composed primarily of students from Indiana. In 2006–07, 23,086 out of a total of 39,288 students enrolled were Indiana residents. As of 2007, the racial diversity of the undergraduate student body was 86.9% white, 5.51% Asian, 3.53% African American, and 2.75% Hispanic. Of these students, 41.2% are female SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. Domestic minorities constitute a total of 15.4% in the Graduate student body population of which 38.5% are female. The largest minority (six percent of the full-time student body) is international, representing 123 countries. In graduate student population, non-residents occupy an overwhelming majority, about 78%.Almost all undergraduates and about 70% of the graduate student population attend full-time SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. The school's selectivity for admissions is "more selective" by USNWR: approximately 70% of applicants are admitted. Housing Cary Quad and Spitzer Court at Purdue University Purdue University operates fifteen separate residence halls for its undergraduate and graduate students, including Cary Quadrangle, Earhart Hall, First Street Towers, Harrison Hall, Hawkins Hall, Hillenbrand Hall, Hilltop Apartments, McCutcheon Hall, Meredith Hall, Owen Hall, Purdue Village, Shreve Hall, Tarkington Hall, Wiley Hall, and Windsor Halls. Of the residence halls SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery, Cary and Tarkington are male-only while Windsor is female-only; the remainder are coed. The newest residence hall, First Street Towers, opened in July 2009. There are 12 cooperative houses at Purdue (5 men's houses and 7 women's houses). The men's houses include Circle Pines, Fairway, Marwood, Chauncey, and Gemini. The women's houses include Ann Tweedale, Glenwood SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, Twin Pines, Maclure, Stewart, Devonshire, and Shoemaker. All cooperative houses are governed under the Purdue Cooperative Council which is led by Purdue University students who live in these houses. The cooperative system allows for a much lower cost of living than other types of housing, as the members take an active role in sharing chores and cooking all meals themselves, as opposed to hiring out cleaning and cooking staff SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. Purdue University hosts the nation's third largest Greek community, with approximately 5,000 students participating in one of the 46 men's fraternities or 29 women's sororities. Several of Purdue's most distinguished graduates are members of fraternities and sororities. Purdue's Greek system is very strong and works together in various aspects, including the Inter-Fraternity Council, Panhellenic, and many very successful philanthropies Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. For example, in 2010, Zeta Tau Alpha's philanthropy, Big Man On Campus (BMOC) raised over $125,000 with the help of the rest of the Greek community, all benefitting Breast Cancer awareness and research. Every Chapter has their own national philanthropy dedicated to a certain cause that many chapters also participate in. Besides philanthropy SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery, Purdue Greeks are involved all over campus including College Mentors for Kids, Purdue University Dance Marathon, Boiler Gold Rush, Purdue Student Government and many other various activities. Media The Purdue Exponent, an independent student newspaper, has the largest circulation of any Indiana college newspaper, with a daily circulation of 17,500 copies during the spring and fall semesters SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. WBAA is a radio station owned by Purdue University. The station operates on the AM frequency of 920 kHz and FM frequency of 101.3 MHz. Its studios are in the Edward C. Elliott Hall of Music on the Purdue campus, and the transmitters are located in Lafayette, Indiana. WBAA is the longest continuously-operating radio station in Indiana, having been licensed on April 4, 1922 SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. WBAA airs NPR and local news/talk programming during the day. Overnight, the AM station airs jazz while the FM station airs classical music. There are also a few campus radio stations on campus. Currently, three radio stations operate from residence halls, broadcasting via internet only; WCCR from Cary Quadrangle (not to be confused with the current WCCR FM or WCCR-LP stations in other states) SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery, WILY from Wiley Hall, and WHHR from Harrison Hall. A fourth student station, the Purdue Student Radio club operates from the Purdue Memorial Union and broadcasts on low power AM in addition to internet streaming. W9YB is the callsign of the Amateur Radio Club at Purdue University. W9YB also holds the self declared title of having one of the largest and most active collegiate amateur radio stations in the country SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. W9YB actively participates in emergency management for the Tippecanoe County area and maintains ready status with its members in skills to assist. Athletics See also: Purdue Boilermakers Former Purdue Football head coach, Joe Tiller Purdue is home to 18 Division I/I-A NCAA teams including football, basketball, cross country, tennis, wrestling, golf, volleyball, and others. Purdue is a founding member of the Big Ten Conference, and played a central role in its creation SONY PCG-8113M battery. Traditional rivals include Big Ten colleagues the Indiana Hoosiers (see Indiana–Purdue rivalry), the Illinois Fighting Illini, and the Notre Dame Fighting Irish from the Big East Conference (football program independent, however). The Boilermaker men's and women's basketball teams have won more Big Ten Championships than any other conference school, with 27 conference banners, including a league-leading 22 for the men’s team SONY PCG-8112M battery. Purdue men's basketball has an all-time winning record against all Big Ten schools. Best the 7th seed St Mary's team in the 2012 NCAA March Madness Purdue has one of the few college athletic programs that is not funded by student fees or subsidized by the university. Insignia and traditions See also: Purdue University legends Boilermakers Purdue Pete – one of the most recognized symbols of Purdue University Main article: Purdue Boilermakers The moniker for the University's athletics teams has become a popular reference for all things Purdue. A reporter first used the name in 1891 to describe the year's winning football team and quickly gained approval from students SONY PCG-7134M battery. Mascots, logos, and colors In the more than 130 years since the founding of the university, several mascots have emerged in support of the Boilermaker athletic teams, including: The Boilermaker Special, Purdue Pete, and more recently, Rowdy. The Boilermaker Special has been the official mascot of Purdue University since 1940. Designed to look like a train locomotive, the Special was originally designed to demonstrate Purdue's engineering programs and is maintained by the members of the Purdue Reamer Club SONY PCG-7131M battery . As the official mascot of Purdue Athletics, Purdue Pete is one of the most recognized symbols of Purdue University. An 18-foot (5.5 m) statue of "The Boilermaker" was erected in 2005 across from Ross Ade Stadium. Purdue University adopted its school colors, Old Gold and Black, in the fall of 1887 SONY PCG-7122M battery . Members of Purdue's first football team in 1887 felt that the squad should be distinguished by certain colors, and since Princeton was at the time the most successful gridiron unit, its colors were considered. Though actually orange and black, the Princeton colors were known by many as yellow and black. Purdue gridders opted for old gold over yellow, kept the black, and began flying the colors that endure today SONY PCG-7121M battery. Seal The official seal of Purdue was officially inaugurated during the University's centennial in 1969. The seal, approved by the Board of Trustees, was designed by Prof. Al Gowan, formerly at Purdue. It replaced one that had been in use for 73 years, but was never officially accepted by the board. In medieval heraldry, a griffin symbolized strength SONY PCG-7113M battery, and Abby P. Lytle used it in her 1895 design for a Purdue seal. When Professor Gowan redesigned the seal, he retained the griffin symbol to continue identification with the older, unofficial seal. As on the older seal, the words "Purdue University" are set in the typeface Uncial. The three-part shield indicates three stated aims of the University: education, research, and service SONY PCG-7112M battery, replacing the words Science, Technology, and Agriculture on the earlier version. Song The official fight song of Purdue University, "Hail Purdue!", was composed in 1912 by alumni Edward Wotawa (music) and James Morrison (lyrics) as the "Purdue War Song".[79] "Hail Purdue" was copyrighted in 1913 and dedicated to the Varsity Glee Club SONY PCG-8Z3M battery . Grand Prix Main article: Purdue Grand Prix This 50-mile, 160-lap go-kart race is "The Greatest Spectacle in College Racing" and wraps up Gala Week each year. All 33 participating karts are made from scratch by student teams. The event has been raising money for student scholarships since it began in 1958. Old Oaken Bucket Found on a farm in southern Indiana, the oaken bucket is one of the oldest football trophies in the nation. The winner of the annual Purdue vs SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. Indiana University American football game gets to add a bronze "P" or "I" chain link and keep the trophy until the next face-off. Ironically, the first competition in 1925 led to a 0–0 tie, resulting in the first link on the chain being an "IP." Purdue currently leads the trophy series at 57-27-3. Boiler Gold Rush Boiler Gold Rush (BGR) is Purdue's new-student orientation program. BGR, which takes place before each fall semester SONY PCG-8Z1M battery, was formed to ease the transition to college for incoming students and to help them get acquainted with successful college life. The Boiler Gold Rush program was formed by Roger Sharritt in 1993. In the first year, Sharritt’s operation, then called Corn Camp, served just 100 new students with around 15 staff. Since 1993, the program has gone from being called Corn Camp to Boiler Gold Rush SONY PCG-8Y3M battery, has moved from operations in the Cary Quadrangle living residence to the Student Access, Transition and Success (SATS) office, and has increased from 100 students to over 5,500 in 2011. Other significant changes are that the program now takes place the week immediately preceding the beginning of the fall semester and that during BGR, students live in the rooms they will be living in for the rest of the year SONY PCG-8Y2M battery, which was not the case in the first few years of the program’s development. Boiler Gold Rush activities include speaker presentations from various academic, cultural, safety and professional organizations on campus, campus tours led by Team Leaders, academic 'meet the schools' picnic and interest sessions, late night events at the Purdue Memorial Union, Recreational Sports Center and local stores, and a sports pep rally SONY PCG-7Z1M battery . Breakfast Club Students dress up in costumes – from traditional Halloween garb to creative, hand-made costumes as they bar-hop before Boilermaker home football games. The Breakfast Club plays a significant role during the football season, combining the two most common college hobbies – drinking and football. It can best be described as a mixture between a pep rally and a Halloween party SONY PCG-6W2M battery. Many football fans are very dedicated, getting up at 5 am on Saturdays and lining up at the bars on Chauncey Hill by 6 am. This tradition also takes place the day of the annual Grand Prix race in April. Main article: List of Purdue University people Faculty The original faculty of six in 1874 has grown to 2,563 tenured and tenure-track faculty in the Purdue Statewide System by Fall 2007 totals SONY PCG-5J5M battery. The number of faculty and staff members system-wide is 18,872. The current faculty includes scholars such as Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar – known for his contributions to singularity theory, Arden L. Bement Jr. – Director of the National Science Foundation, R. Graham Cooks, Joseph Francisco, Douglas Comer, Louis de Branges de Bourcia who proved the Bieberbach conjecture SONY PCG-5K2M battery , Ei-ichi Negishi, Victor Raskin, Michael Rossmann who mapped human common cold virus, Leah Jamieson, James L. Mohler, who has written several manuals of computer graphics, and H. Jay Melosh Purdue's tenured faculty comprises sixty Academic Deans, Associate Deans, and Assistant Deans; 63 Academic Department Heads; 753 Professors; 547 Associate Professors SONY PCG-5K1M battery ; and 447 Assistant Professors. Purdue employs 892 non-tenure-track faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctorals at its West Lafayette campus. Purdue employs another 691 tenured and 1,021 Non-Tenure Track Faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctorals at its Regional Campuses and Statewide Technology SONY PCG-5J4M battery. Two faculty members have been awarded Nobel Prizes while at Purdue, in addition to a third laureate, Herbert C. Brown, who was a former Purdue faculty member. In all seven Nobel Prizes have been associated with Purdue including alumni, researchers, current and previous faculty SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Alumni Neil Armstrong Purdue alumni have achieved recognition in a range of areas, particularly in science and industry. The university's alumni pool collectively holds over 15,000 United States patents. Purdue has produced 22 astronauts, including Gus Grissom, the first vertically launched person to return to space, Neil Armstrong, the first to walk on the moon, and Eugene Cernan, the most recent astronaut to do so SONY PCG-5G2M battery . Over one third of all of NASA's manned space missions have had at least one Purdue graduate as a crew member. In science, Purdue has also produced a trio of Nobel prize winning physicists in Edward Mills Purcell, Ben Roy Mottelson, and Julian Schwinger; as well as a trio of Nobel prize winning chemists in Akira Suzuki, Herbert C. Brown, and Ei-ichi Negishi Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. Other noted Purdue alumni in science include pioneer of robotics and remote control technology Thomas B. Sheridan, Debian founder Ian Murdock, Chinese physicist Deng Jiaxian and biochemist Edwin T. Mertz, who is credited with discovery of high-protein corn and beans. In business and economics, Purdue alumni include Stephen Bechtel, owner of Bechtel Corporation; Nobel prize winning economist Vernon L. Smith Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery; Federal Reserve Bank president Jeffrey Lacker; and popcorn specialist Orville Redenbacher. In 2010, Bloomberg also revealed that Purdue was one of the universities in America with the most undergraduate alumni serving as chief executive officers of Standard & Poor's 500 firms. They are Gregory Wasson, president/CEO of Walgreen Co, Mark Miller, chairman/president/CEO of Stericycle Inc, Charles Davidson, chairman/CEO of Noble Energy Inc Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery, Samuel Allen, chairman /president/CEO of Deere & Co., Donald Thompson, president/COO of McDonald's Corp., and John Martin, chairman/CEO of Gilead Sciences Inc. In government and culture, Purdue alumni include former Egyptian Prime Minister Essam Sharaf, Pulitzer Prize winners Booth Tarkington and John T. McCutcheon, theater and television director Tom Moore Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, CEO of Rand Corporation James Thomson, founder and CEO of C-SPAN Brian Lamb, former Governor of Indiana Harry G. Leslie, former Governor of Mississippi Kirk Fordice, former Secretary of the United States Department of Agriculture Earl L. Butz, former United States Senator Birch Bayh, 2012 Presidential Candidate Herman Cain, Current West Virginia Congressman David McKinley Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery, Chinese nationalist General Sun Liren, Anthony W. Miller, United States Deputy Secretary of Education, and University of Chicago president Hugo F. Sonnenschein. In sports, Purdue has produced basketball coach John Wooden, basketball Hall of Famers Stretch Murphy, Piggy Lambert and Rick Mount; NBA Champions Paul Hoffman, Herm Gilliam, Frank Kendrick, Jerry Sichting Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery, Glenn Robinson, and Brian Cardinal and NBA All-Stars Glenn Robinson, Brad Miller, Terry Dischinger, and Joe Barry Carroll. Purdue has three NFL Super Bowl-winning quarterbacks in Drew Brees, Bob Griese, and Len Dawson; in addition a total of 19 Purdue alumni have been on a Super Bowl-winning team, including ten of the past 12 Super Bowl Champions. Purdue also produced Super Bowl IV winning coach Hank Stram Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. Daytona 500 winner Ryan Newman graduated from Purdue with a Bachelor's degree in vehicle structure engineering.] The Dauch Alumni Center acts as a showcase for the university's alumni. The 67,000-square-foot (6,200 m2) center houses the offices of the Purdue Alumni Association and University Development. It is a destination and gathering area for the Purdue Alumni Association’s 68,000 members and more than 410,000 living alumni Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. The University of Southampton is a British Russell Group university located in the city of Southampton, United Kingdom. The origins of the university can be dated back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robertson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery, with degrees awarded by the University of London. On 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status. The university is a member of the Russell Group of research universities and the Worldwide Universities Network. It currently has over 17,000 undergraduate and 7,000 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. The University has six campuses - four in Southampton, one in Winchester, and one international branch in Malaysia. A further campus - the Maritime Centre of Excellence is being developed close to the Highfield Campus. The main campus is located in the Highfield area of Southampton. Three other campuses are located throughout the city - Avenue Campus Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, National Oceanography Centre and Southampton General Hospital, with an additional campus the School of Art based in nearby Winchester. The university has a strong emphasis on world-leading research, having one of the highest proportions of income derived from research activities in Britain. Southampton is highly regarded as a centre for educational excellence and outstanding teaching Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, considered one of the top universities in the UK, ranking nationally as a top 15 university in various tables, 12th in the UK according to the 2009 the Sunday Times, and regularly rated in the top 10 of the National Student Survey. In recent years it has been rated as a top 100 university in the world according to the Times Higher Education Table, and in the 2011 QS World University Rankings Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery ranked the university 75th overall in the world, with Webometrics Ranking of World Universities ranking Southampton 32nd in the world. The university is also a member of the European University Association, and the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Southampton is an accredited institution of the Worldwide Universities Network Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. History Hartley Institution The arrival of Prime Minister Lord Palmerston for the opening of the Hartley Institute on 15 October 1862 The University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley (1777–1850). Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants. At his death in 1850 Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southampton's High Street, in the city centre. “...employ the interest, dividends and annual proceeds in such a manner as best promote the study and advancement of the sciences of Natural History, Astronomy, Antiquities, Classical and Oriental Literature in the town Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery, such as by forming a Public Library, Botanic Gardens, Observatory, and collections of objects with the above sciences.” —Bequest to the Corporation of Southampton of Henry Robertson Hartley estate. Hartley was an eccentric straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks and railways in Southampton. He did not desire to create a college for many Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery (as formed at similar time in other English industrial towns and commercial ports) but a cultural centre for Southampton's intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a public debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will, the Southampton Corporation choose to create the Institute (rather than a more widely accessible college, that some public figures had lobbied for) Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a major civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of financial struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery, teaching staff, an expansion of the facilities and registered lodgings for students. University College Front of the Hartley Library, constructed in the 1930s after the move to Highfield Campus, with the support of private donors. In 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University College, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, and donations from Council members Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery (including William Darwin the then Treasurer). An increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane (now University Road) in the Highfield area of Southampton. On 20 June 1914, Viscount Haldane opened the new site of the renamed Southampton University College Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. However, the outbreak of the First World War six weeks later meant no lectures could take place there, as the buildings were handed over by the college authorities for use as a military hospital. In order to cope with the volume of casualties, wooden huts were erected at the rear of the building. These were donated to university by the War Office after the end of fighting, in time for the transfer from the high street premises in 1920. At this time, Highfield Hall Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, a former country house and overlooking Southampton Common,[16] for which a lease had earlier been secured, commenced use as a halls of residence for female students. South Hill, on what is now the Glen Eyre Halls Complex was also acquired, along with South Stoneham House to house male students. Further expansions through the 1920s and 1930s was made possible through private donors Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, such as the two daughters of Edward Turner Sims for the construction of the University library, and from the people of Southampton, enabling new buildings on both sides of University Road. During World War II the university suffered damage in the Southampton Blitz with bombs landing on the campus and its halls of residence. The college decided against evacuation, instead expanding its Engineering Department Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery, School of Navigation and developing a new School of Radio Telegraphy. Halls of residence were also used to house Polish, French and American troops. After the war, departments such as Electronics grew under the influence of Erich Zepler and the Institute of Sound and Vibration was established Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. University On 29 April 1952, Queen Elizabeth II granted the University of Southampton a Royal Charter, the first to be given to a university during her reign, which enabled it to award degrees.[18] Six faculties were created: Arts, Science, Engineering, Economics, Education and Law. The first University of Southampton degrees were awarded on 4 July 1953 Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery, following the appointment of the Duke of Wellington as Chancellor of the University. Student and staff number grew throughout the next couple of decades as a response to the Robbins Report. The campus also grew significantly, when in July 1961 the university was given the approval to acquire some 200 houses on or near the campus by the Borough Council. In addition Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery, more faculties and departments were founded, including Medicine and Oceanography (despite the discouragement of Sir John Wolfenden, the chairman of the University Grants Committee). Student accommodation was expanded throughout the 1960s and 1970s with the acquisition of Chilworth manor and new buildings at the Glen Eyre and Montefiore complexes Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. In 1987, a crisis developed when the University Grants Committee announced, as part of nationwide cutbacks, a series of reductions in the funding of the university. In order to eliminate the expected losses, the budgets and deficits subcommittee proposed reducing staff numbers. This proposal was met with demonstrations on campus and was later reworked Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery (to reduce the redundancies and reallocate the reductions in faculties funding) after being rejected by the university Senate. By the mid 1980s through to the 1990s, the university looked to expand with new buildings on the Highfield campus, developing the Chilworth Manor site into a science park and conference venue, opening the National Oceanography Centre at a dockside location and purchasing new land from the City Council for the Arts Faculty and sports fields Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery (at Avenue Campus and Wide Lane, respectively). Research University Under the leadership of then Vice Chancellor, Sir Howard Newby the university became more focused in encouraging and investment in more and better quality research.[21] In the mid 1990s, the university gained two new campuses, as the Winchester School of Art and La Sainte Union College became part of the university Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. A new school for Nursing and Midwifery was also created and went on to provide training for NHS professionals in central-southern England. This involved a huge increase in student numbers and the establishment of sub-campuses in Basingstoke, Winchester, Portsmouth and Newport, Isle of Wight Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery. In the autumn of 1997, the university experienced Britain's worst outbreak of meningitis, with the death of three students. The university responded to the crisis by organizing a mass vaccination programme, and later took the ground-breaking decision to offer all new students vaccinations Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. The university celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 22 January 2002. By this time, Southampton had research income that represented over half of the total income, which remains one of the highest proportions of income derived from research activities of British Universities. In recent years a number of new landmark buildings have been added as part of the estates development Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. These have included new buildings for the School of Electronics and Computer Science and the Optoelectronics Research Centre (ORC), (whose original building was destroyed in a fire in 2005), a new Sports Hall and Institute of Developmental Sciences (on the Southampton General Hospital site) Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. The University has six campuses - four in Southampton, one in Winchester, and one international branch in Malaysia. A further campus - the Maritime Centre of Excellence is being developed close to the Highfield Campus. The university's main campus is located in the residential area of Highfield. Opened on 20 June 1914, the site was initially used as a military hospital during World War I. The campus grew gradually, mainly consisting of detailed red brick buildings Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery (such as the Hartley library and West building of the Students' Union) designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. In 1956, Sir Basil Spence was commissioned to prepare a masterplan of the campus for the foreseeable future. This included incorporating the University Road, that split the 59-acre (240,000 m2) campus in two and the quarry of Sir Sidney Kimber's brickyard that itself was split by a stream Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. Unable to remove the road and the private houses along it, Spence designed many of the buildings facing away from it, using contemporary designs working in concrete, glass and mosaic.[26] During recent decades, new buildings were added that contravened the master plan of Spence, such as the Synthetic Chemistry Building and Mountbatten Building (the latter of which was destroyed by fire in 2005) Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. A new masterplan for the Highfield campus was drawn up in 1998 by Rick Mather, who proposed that the University Road should become a tree-lined boulevard backed by white-rendered buildings. He also contributed some of the newer buildings such as the Zepler and Gower Buildings. In 1991, the Highfield Planning Group was formed within the university under the chairmanship of Tim Holt Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. This led to the development of new buildings such as the Jubilee Sports Hall, Student Services Building and the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research. In addition, existing buildings, such as the Hartley Library, were extensively renovated and extended. The campus retains an area of parkland in which are scattered 20th-century sculptures by Barbara Hepworth, Justin Knowles, Nick Pope and John Edwards. It also houses the John Hansard Gallery, the Nuffield Theatre and the Turner Sims Concert Hall Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. Avenue Campus Avenue Campus Main article: Avenue Campus The Avenue Campus site was previously home to the Southampton Tramsheds and Richard Taunton's College. It was purchased by the university in December 1993 from Southampton city council for £2 million. Today it houses most of the Faculty of Humanities including the Centre for Language Study. In 2006, a new purpose-designed building for Archaeology was completed Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. National Oceanography Centre, Southampton National Oceanography Centre Main article: National Oceanography Centre The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton (NOCS) is a purpose-built, joint venture between the University and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Opened in 1995, NOCS is a waterfront campus on Southampton's Empress Dock, close to the Ocean Village development Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. The NOCS comprises the University's Ocean and Earth Sciences academic unit which operates alongside four NERC research divisions. The NOCS is also the base for the purpose-built research vessels RRS Discovery and RRS James Cook (and formerly RRS Charles Darwin). Southampton General Hospital Main article: Southampton General Hospital Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L batteryThe university's presence at the general hospital dates to 1971, when Southampton (along with Nottingham and Leicester universities) became the first new Schools of Medicine to be founded in the United Kingdom in the twentieth century. As a teaching hospital, it is used by a range of undergraduate and postgraduate medical students, research academics and clinicians Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Originally based in the South Academic Block, the university's presence has been expanded to include several other buildings which are home to six different research departments. Maritime Centre of Excellence (formerly Boldrewood Campus) Main article: Boldrewood Campus Boldrewood, located a short distance from the Highfield campus, was the Biomedical Sciences campus of the University. Until 2010, it was used as a non-hospital base for the School of Medicine and home to a research facility for the Biological Sciences. Staff were then relocated to either Southampton General Hospital or Building 85 Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery (the new Life Sciences Building) on the main campus. The site is now being re-developed as the Maritime Centre of Excellence. The site, which will be occupied from 2014, will house, amongst others, the Group Technology Centre of Lloyd's Register who have announced a strategic alliance with the University and the University Maritime Institute Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery. Winchester School of Art Main article: Winchester School of Art Uni-link doubledecker bus passing through Highfield Campus The Winchester School of Art was integrated within the University of Southampton in 1996. The original school premises were purpose build in the 1960s. New buildings were constructed to house the subsequent expansion of student numbers following the merger with the University. Main article: Uni-link Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L batteryThe Uni-link bus service was created in 1998 by the University. Four routes operate that connect the university campuses and halls of residence located throughout the city for students and staff at the university as well as the general public. Malaysia Campus An international campus is set to open in Malaysia, and the first enrollment is expected in October 2012 Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. The Professional Services Building Responsibility for running the University is held formally by the Chancellor, currently Dame Helen Alexander, and led at the executive level by the Vice-Chancellor, currently Don Nutbeam. The key bodies in the University governance structure are the Council, Court and Senate. The Council is the governing body of the University Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. It is ultimately responsible for the overall planning and management of the University. The Council is also responsible for ensuring that the funding made available to the University by the Higher Education Funding Council for England is used as prescribed. The Council is composed of members from 5 different classes, namely (1) officers; Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery (2) twelve members appointed by the Council; (3) six members appointed by the Senate; (4) one member of the non-teaching staff; (5) the President of the Students’ Union. The University Court provides a forum for consultation with the local and regional community, to help promote public awareness of the University and to attract and maintain goodwill. The Court is composed of some 190 members, comprising representatives of the University Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery, which includes members of Council, Deans of the Faculties, Heads of Academic Schools, members of staff, students and graduates; representatives of local authorities and of schools and colleges in the region; members of the UK and European parliaments; and representatives of other local societies and bodies Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. The Senate is the University's primary academic authority, with responsibilities which include the direction and regulation of education and examinations, the award of degrees, and the promotion of research. The Senate has approximately 150 members, including the Deputy Vice-Chancellors/Pro Vice-Chancellors, the Deans and Associate Deans of the Faculties Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery, the Heads of the academic Schools and Research Centres, representatives from the academic staff in each School, representatives of the research staff and those administrative groups most closely associated with educational activities, and representatives of the Students' Union. The Senate is chaired by the Vice-Chancellor Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. Libraries and collections Exterior of the 2005 extension to the Hartley Library The University of Southampton Library has a presence on each of the university's campuses, holding more than 1.5 million books and periodicals, some 6,000 in electronic form, besides specialist materials, including more than 6 million manuscripts. The library contains a number of special collections of rare books and manuscripts. In 1983, the university received the correspondence of Arthur Wellesley Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery, 1st Duke of Wellington. It also houses the Broadlands Archive, including the Palmerston and Mountbatten papers. The library also contains 4,500 volumes of Claude Montefiore's library on Theology and Judaism, the Ford Parliamentary Papers, Frank Perkins' collection of books on agriculture, Sir Samual Gurney-Dixons's Dante collection and the James Parkes Library of Jewish/non-Jewish relations Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. The library also includes six rare editions of the Divina Commedia; the first of these, the Brescia edition of 1487, is the library's earliest book. The Hartley library, first built in 1935, has expanded successively to house special collection and to meet the growth in student numbers. The latest of these was in 2005, when 3200 m² were added and much of the existing building renovated Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Academics Southampton awards a wide range of academic degrees spanning academic degrees for bachelor's in a variety of degrees and master's degrees as well as junior doctorates and higher doctorates. The postnominals awarded are the degree abbreviations used commonly among British universities. The University is part of the Engineering Doctorate scheme, for the award of Eng. D. degrees Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery. Professional qualifications are also awarded, such as Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Short courses and professional development courses are run by many of the University's Academic Schools and Research Centres. The University works closely with members of the Armed Forces. It provides professional military educators in the British Army to study for a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. The University also works with the Royal Navy to provide training and qualifications towards Chartered Engineer status. League table rankings In recent years it has been rated as a top 100 university in the world according to the Times Higher Education Table, and in the 2011 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 75th overall in the world Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery. Subject rankings Southampton is the only UK university in which every engineering department has received the top 5* rating for research. It is cited as being the UK's leading university for engineering. The Guardian ranked the university at number 1 in the UK for Mechanical Engineering and Electronic and Electrical Engineering in 2011 Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. The University of Southampton Science Park Chilworth Manor. In 1983, the Chilworth Science Park was established for companies with connections to the University. The park houses over 50 companies and includes a luxury hotel and conference centre, based in Chilworth Manor. The science park was renamed The University of Southampton Science Park in 2006 Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. The university has produced a number of spin-out companies in a range of fields, including oil and gas exploration, pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology and optoelectronics. Southampton has been particularly noted for its effectiveness in producing spin-out companies in comparison with both its UK and US counterparts Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. Since 2000, three of the twelve successful spin-out companies have been floated on London’s Alternative Investment Market (AIM) with a combined market capitalisation value of £160 million. Over 150 businesses are associated with the university through the key partner scheme, allowing collaboration in the research and development of business and Southampton academics Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery. Main article: EPrints The School of Electronics and Computer Science created the first archiving software (EPrints) to publish its research freely available on the Web. This software is used throughout the university and as an archiving system for many different institutions around the world Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Student life Students' Union The West Building on Highfield Campus. The University of Southampton Students' Union (SUSU), is sited in three buildings opposite the Hartley Library. One, the West Building, dates back to the 1940s in a red brick style, complementing the Hartley Library opposite; the main building was built in the 1960s in the Basil Spence masterplan. This was extended with new nightclub and cinema facilities in 2002 Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. The newest building was built during the mid-1990s which includes the recently refurbished Union shop, on the ground floor, and hairdressers and travel agency, both on the first floor. In May 2002, (after numerous attempts going back several years), it chose to disaffiliate itself from the NUS, believed by SUSU to be too bureaucratic. In December 2010, a referendum was held to decide whether SUSU should re-affiliate with the NUS Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery, with the result being that SUSU should remain outside the NUS. The student union is actually separate from the University of Southampton, and is its own business. It gets funds partially from the University to finance many of its activities. The multiple award winning student radio station, Surge, broadcasts from new studios in the main Union building Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. The award winning website SUSU.org was created and run by students at the university. A brand new purpose built studio has been constructed for the TV station SUSUtv. The student newspaper, originally Wessex News, is now published once every three weeks as Wessex Scene following a name change in 1996. The Edge, originally an insert of the Wessex Scene Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery, is now an editorially independent entertainment magazine. Events are held in The Cube, the Union's nightclub, The Bridge, the Union's cocktail bar, and in the Stag's Head, the Union pub. National touring bands play in the Garden Court in the West Building. Halls of Residence Glen Eyre The university provides accommodation for all first year students who require it and places in residences are further available for international and MSc students Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. Accommodation may be catered, self catered, have ensuite facilities, a sink in the room, or access to communal bathroom facilities. Each of the halls used to have a team of wardens who lived on-site and ensured students' welfare, but not anymore. Each hall also has a JCR committee that is responsible for the running of social events and representing the residents to the students union and the university via the Students union JCR officer Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. Some of the halls also have bars which are separately run by the students union and are staffed by current and ex residents. There are three main complexes of halls of residence. The Glen Eyre Halls Complex lies less than half a mile to the north of Highfield Campus. Set in landscaped surroundings, the complexes houses over 2000 students. These are spread though various buildings, designed and constructed throughout the Universities history Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. The Wessex Lane Halls complex lies approximately one mile east of the Highfield Campus. Situated next to the gardens of South Stoneham House it houses over 1800 students. Included is Connaught Hall, one of the original halls of residence of the University. The Small Halls accommodate around 1000 students across 7 city locations, within 2 miles (3.2 km) of Highfield Campus Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. The University also has halls of residence in Winchester for School of Art students, Portsmouth and Basingstoke for School of Nursing and Midwifery students. Sports Sport and Wellbeing (formerly Sports and Recreation (SportsRec)) runs the university sports facilities which are based predominately at two locations. The Jubilee Sports Centre, opened in 2004 at a cost of £8.5 million is located on the Highfield Campus Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Included within the centre are a six-lane, 25-metre swimming pool, full gym and sports hall. In addition to its indoor sports facilities, the University completed a £4.3 million re-development of its 73-acre (300,000 m2) outdoor facilities located at Wide Lane, Eastleigh (near Southampton) in 2007. Within the complex includes flood-lit synthetic turf pitches, tennis courts, and pavilion Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The university also runs facilities at the Avenue Campus, National Oceanography Centre and the Watersports Centre (formerly known as the Boat Hard) on the River Itchen. The university competes in numerous sports in the BUCS South East Conference (after switching from the Western Conference in 2009). A number of elite athletes are supported by the SportsRec through sports bursaries and the UK Government's Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS) Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. The University Athletic Union was formally established on 29 November 1929, by the University College council. Versions of the union had existed previously to which many clubs such as Cricket, Association Football, Rugby, Boxing, Gymnastics, Tennis and Boat clubs (all formed before the turn of the 20th century) were members Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Throughout its history the university has had a number successful teams in national student championships. Notable people Main article: List of University of Southampton people Academics Academics to work at the university include Sir Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web, Erich Zepler who made leading contributions to radio receiver development, David Payne who invented EDFA for use in fibre optics cables, Sir Barry Cunliffe, a pioneer of modern British Archaeology Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery, Albie Sachs, former Judge of the Constitutional Court of South Africa and Tim Holt, former President of the Royal Statistical Society and Office for National Statistics Alumni Former students of the university include Justine Greening MP, current UK Secretary of State for International Development, and John Denham MP, Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills; Sir John Stevens; former head of the Metropolitan Police Service and Current International Security Advisor to the Prime Minister Sony VPCW21C7E battery; Chris Hohn, founder of The Children's Investment Fund Management and Britain's biggest charity donor; Jon Sopel, presenter of The Politics Show and a lead presenter on BBC News 24 and Sir Adrian Fulford, Judge in the International Criminal Court. Other alumni include actor John Nettles, Technical Director for the Red Bull Racing Formula One team Adrian Newey, musician Brian Eno and Eggheads quiz-show regular Kevin Ashman Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery.
The University of Pittsburgh, commonly referred to as Pitt, is a state-related research university located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787 on what was then the American frontier, Pitt is one of the oldest continuously chartered institutions of higher education in the United States( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). Pitt evolved into the Western University of Pennsylvania with an alteration to its charter in 1819, and upon relocating to its current campus in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh in 1908, the school received its current moniker, the University of Pittsburgh. For most of its history Pitt was a private institution, until it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education in 1966( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Pitt has consistently placed in the top cluster of U.S. public research universities and among the overall top 25 research universities according to the Center for Measuring University Performance,[9] is listed as one of U.S. News & World Report's top 20 public universities, and has been listed among the best colleges for the quality of life of its students( SONY PCG-F305 battery). Pitt has also been named as a "best value" by various publications, and has appeared in multiple rankings of the world's top universities. Pitt is among the nation's and world's most active research institutions as evidenced by its $822 million in annual research expenditures, its standing among the top five schools in the amount of National Institutes of Health research allocations( SONY PCG-5J1L battery), and its election as one of the 61 North American members of the Association of American Universities. Pitt and its medical school are also closely affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, one of the nation's leading academic medical centers. Pitt is popularly recognized for its centerpiece building, the Cathedral of Learning, for its central role in developing the first polio vaccine, and for fielding nationally competitive NCAA Division I athletic programs( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). History of the University Hugh Henry Brackenridge, founder of Pittsburgh Academy in 1787, was a fiery revolutionary, an early supporter of the U.S. Constitution, and is considered America's first novelist. Main article: History of the University of Pittsburgh The founding Founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787, the University of Pittsburgh is one of the few universities and colleges established in the 18th century in the United States( SONY PCG-5K2L battery). It is the oldest continuously chartered institution of learning in the U.S. west of the Allegheny Mountains. The school began its life as a preparatory school, presumably in a log cabin, possibly as early as 1770 in Western Pennsylvania, then a frontier. Hugh Henry Brackenridge sought and obtained a charter for the school from the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania that was passed( SONY PCG-5L1L battery) by the assembly on February 28, 1787, just ten weeks before the opening of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. A brick building was erected in 1790 on the south side of Third Street and Cherry Alley for the Pittsburgh Academy. The small two-story brick building, with a gable facing the alley, contained three rooms: one below and two above( SONY PCG-6S2L battery). The Western University Within a short period, more advanced education in the area was needed, so in 1819 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania amended the school's 1787 charter to confer university status. The school took the name the Western University of Pennsylvania, or WUP, and was intended to be the western sister institution to the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). By 1830, WUP had moved into a new three-story, freestone-fronted building, with Ionic columns and a cupola, near its original buildings fronting the south side of Third Street, between Smithfield Street and Cherry Alley in downtown Pittsburgh. By the 1830s, the university faced severe financial pressure to abandon its traditional liberal education in favor of the state legislature's desire for it to provide more vocational training( SONY PCG-6V1L battery). The decision to remain committed to liberal education nearly killed the university, but it persevered despite its abandonment by the city and state.[33] It was also during this era that founder of Mellon Bank, Thomas Mellon (Class of 1837), graduated and later taught at WUP. Fires Western University of Pennsylvania, the previous name of Pitt, is depicted in this 1833 oil painting at its location on 3rd Avenue in downtown Pittsburgh( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). The University's buildings, along with most of its records and files, were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1845 that wiped out 20 square blocks of Pittsburgh. Classes were temporarily held in Trinity Church until a new building was constructed on Duquesne Way (on what was the site of the former Horne's department store). Only four years later, in 1849( SONY PCG-7111L battery), this building also was destroyed by fire. Due to the catastrophic nature of these fires, operations were suspended for a few years to allow the University time to regroup and rebuild. By 1854, WUP had erected a new building on the corner of Ross and Diamond (now Forbes Avenue) streets (site of the present day City-County building) and classes resumed in 1855( SONY PCG-71511M battery). It is during this era, in 1867, that Samuel Pierpoint Langley, astronomer, inventor, aviation pioneer and future Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was chosen as director of the Allegheny Observatory that was donated to WUP in 1865. Langley was professor of astronomy and physics and remained at WUP until 1891, when he was succeeded by another prominent astronomer( SONY PCG-6W3L battery), James Keeler. Growing quickly during this period, WUP outgrew its downtown facilities and the university moved its campus to Allegheny City (present-day North Side). A move north Western University of Pennsylvania's campus on Observatory Hill on Pittsburgh's North Side from 1890 to 1909 The University eventually found itself on a 10-acre (4.0 ha) site on the North Side's Observatory Hill at the location of its Allegheny Observatory( SONY PCG-7113L battery). There, it constructed two new buildings, Science Hall and Main Hall, that were occupied by 1889 and 1890 respectively. During this era, the first collegiate football team was formed at Pitt in 1889. In 1892, the Western Pennsylvania Medical College was amalgamated into the University. By 1893, the University had graduated its first African-American, William Dammond. ( SONY PCG-7133L battery) In 1895, WUP established its School of Law and Andrew Carnegie and George Westinghouse were elected to the Board of Trustees, where they joined Andrew Mellon who was elected in 1894. The Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy and Pittsburgh Dental School also joined the University in 1896. In 1898, the first women, sisters Margaret and Stella Stein, graduated from the University( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery). During this period, University engineering professor Reginald Fessenden was conducting pioneering work in radio broadcasting. By 1904, playing at Exposition Park, the University had its first undefeated football team. A new name and home Thaw Hall, c. 1910 Citing a need to avoid confusion, distinguish itself from the University of Pennsylvania, and return to its roots by identifying itself with the city( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery), the Western University of Pennsylvania, by act of the state legislature, was renamed the University of Pittsburgh in the summer of 1908. During this time, the University had also outgrown its accommodations on what is now the North Side of Pittsburgh and its departments had been scattered throughout the city for years. To consolidate all of its components on one campus, WUP bought 43 acres (170,000 m2) ( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery) of land in December 1907 in what is now the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh and began relocating departments there by 1909. The initial campus plan for the University centered on the winning submission from a national architectural contest that incorporated a Greek Acropolis design by Henry Hornbostel for 30 buildings. However, due to financial and other constraints( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery), only four of the buildings were constructed in this style, of which only Thaw Hall remains today. It was also during this period that the university, led by Chancellor Samuel McCormick, would again fend off pressures to abandon the school's commitment to liberal education in favor of more technical-based training. During his administration( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), McCormick would also lead the university into a new level of national recognition, expansion, and growth, as well as began institutional support of athletics. A national landmark The Cathedral of Learning c. 1935 In the 1920s, new university chancellor John Gabbert Bowman declared that he had a vision for a centerpiece "tall building" for the university. The 14 acres (5.7 ha) Frick Acres property in Oakland was soon purchased and plans for the campus shifted focus from the hillside to a neo-Gothic Revival plan that today comprises the Cathedral of Learning( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery), Heinz Memorial Chapel, Stephen Foster Memorial, and Clapp Hall buildings. By 1925, Bowman had settled on a design by Charles Klauder for the "tall building": an attention-getting 535-foot (163 m) tower whose great height, with open spaces all around, would suggest the "character that ought to be in an educated man." The building's "parallel lines going up and up( SONY PCG-7112L battery)...would express courage [and] fearlessness" and it would "unify Pittsburgh into a community conscious of its character." The Cathedral is "cut off" flat at the top to suggest that its lines, like education, have no ending. The building was financed by donors as well as a campaign to collect dimes from local school children. Bowman was a persuasive leader and although the Great Depression intervened( SONY PCG-5K1L battery), the Cathedral of Learning, on which construction was begun in 1926, started hosting classes in 1931 and was formally dedicated in 1937. Today, it remains the second tallest university building in the world and contains an equally-impressive interior highlighted by a half-acre (2,000 m²) Gothic hall Commons Room with 52-foot (16 m) tall arches currently surrounded by 29 Nationality Rooms, however seven more Nationality Rooms are in the making( SONY VGP-BPL2 battery). Development of the polio vaccine Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine at the University of Pittsburgh. In the early 20th century, epidemics of polio began to hit the United States and other industrialized countries. As hospital wards filled with patients in iron lungs, and tens of thousands were left disabled, fear of contracting polio grew rampant and led to the closing of many public facilities. Meanwhile, Dr. Jonas Salk had set up the University of Pittsburgh's Virus Research Lab in the basement of what is now Salk Hall( SONY VGP-BPL4 battery). By 1951, Salk and his team had begun immunization experiments in monkeys using dead polio virus. Soon, however, Salk began to test inoculations in paralyzed polio patients and by 1953 human trials among the general population were initiated. By the spring of the following year, the largest controlled field trials in medical history were underway, and by 1955 the vaccine developed by Jonas Salk and his team of Pitt researchers was declared effective( SONY VGP-BPL5A battery). By 1962, Salk's vaccine had reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by 95 percent. The breakthroughs in immunology and vaccine development at Pitt by Salk and his team are considered one of the most significant scientific and medical achievements in history. State relations In 1966, Pitt was designated by Pennsylvania as a state-related university. As such, Pitt receives public funds ($185.4 million in fiscal year 2011) ( SONY VGP-BPS2 battery) covering about 9% of its operating budget and offers reduced tuition to Pennsylvania residents. Pitt remains under independent control, but is typically categorized as a public university. Upon affiliation with the state, subsidized tuition led to a massive influx of new students and rapid expansion of Pitt's size and scope( SONY VGP-BPS3 battery). In the 1970s, Pitt's football team returned to greatness with a national championship season in 1976 led by Hall of Fame running back Tony Dorsett and continued success in the 1980s with players such as Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino. In the 1980s, significant medical research in the field of organ transplantation was conducted by Thomas Starzl( SONY VGP-BPS4 battery), establishing Pitt as the world leader in the field of organ transplantation. In 1991, long-time chancellor Wesley Posvar retired after 24 years in office. His administration is best known for elimination of the university's debt from its 1960s financial crisis and for increasing the school's prestige and endowment. Under Posvar, Pitt's operating budget grew sevenfold to $630 million and its endowment tripled to $257 million. ( SONY VGP-BPS5 battery) Present day Mark Nordenberg has been chancellor of the University since 1995 and is leading Pitt through a period of substantial progress, including a $2-billion capital-raising campaign that is over three quarters of the way toward achieving its goal[44] and a $1-billion 12-year facilities plan.[45] Major initiatives and events that have occurred during his tenure include the construction of the Petersen Events Center( SONY VGP-BPS5A battery), a major expansion of on-campus housing, the growth of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the restructuring of its relationship with the university, a series of disruptive bomb threats that occurred in 2012, and the growth of Pitt's endowment to its current value of $2.545 billion. Location and campus Heinz Memorial Chapel The University of Pittsburgh's main campus comprises approximately 132 urban acres (0.53 km2) located in Pittsburgh's historic Oakland neighborhood( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery). Much of the campus, including its centerpiece 42-story Cathedral of Learning, falls within the Oakland Civic Center/Schenley Farms National Historic District. The campus contains an eclectic mix of architecture that includes Greek revival, Neogothic, Italian Renaissance, and modern. It has been termed "a theme park of replica buildings, representing the architecture of the past speaking to the present." ( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery) The campus has won multiple Green Star Awards from the Professional Grounds Management Society. The University of Pittsburgh's main campus can be thought to be made up of four contiguous sections: upper (sports complexes, residence halls); mid (Benedum, Chevron, Allen and Thaw Halls); lower (Cathedral of Learning, Union, Posvar Hall); and on the west end of campus, the medical center complex( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). The campus is generally bordered by Darragh Street/McKee Place to the west and Bellefield Avenue/Dithridge Street to the east; Forbes and Fifth avenues traverse the campus from west to east. Although generally within walking distance, the university also runs a bus and shuttle service between various campus locations and bordering neighborhoods( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). The main campus abuts or is within a short walking distance of many recreational, cultural, and educational institutions that also populate the Oakland neighborhood. The campus is directly adjacent to Schenley Plaza, the main branch of the Carnegie Public Library, the Carnegie Museums of Natural History and Art, and the Carnegie Music Hall( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). Carlow University is just west of campus, adjacent to the University's medical center complexes. Carnegie Mellon University, Central Catholic High School and historic Schenley Park, site of the Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, lie across Junction Hollow on the east end. Some Pitt professors also hold adjunct professorships at Carnegie Mellon and vice-versa( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). Historic buildings Stephen Foster Memorial There are two University buildings listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places: Allegheny Observatory (in Pittsburgh's Riverview Park on the Northside) and the Cathedral of Learning. Twenty-one of Pitt's buildings (including the 5 residence halls that make up Schenley Quadrangle, see below) ( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery) are contributing properties to the Schenley Farms-Oakland Civic Center Historic District that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district. Due to the historical nature of various sites in or around Pitt's buildings, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has placed historical markers outside the Allegheny Observatory, Posvar Hall, Salk Hall, Stephen Foster Memorial, and the William Pitt Union( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). In addition, a Pennsylvania Historical Marker has been placed on campus near the Cathedral of Learning to mark the significance of the University of Pittsburgh itself. Another state historical marker has been placed to highlight the significance of Pitt's involvement in the archaeological excavation at the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Avella, Pennsylvania( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery), Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union. Other Pitt buildings not designated individually as landmarks, but listed among the 16 Pitt-owned contributing properties to the Schenley Farms Historic District, include Clapp Hall, O'Hara Student Center, Ruskin Hall, Thackeray Hall, Frick Fine Arts Building, Music Building, and the University Club. ( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery) Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery), Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall, and the Stephen Foster sculpture. Many of these buildings and their facilities are integrated into the events and activities of the university. Other buildings Main article: List of University of Pittsburgh buildings Frick Fine Arts Building The majority of Pitt-owned facilities are clustered in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh which includes the Schenley Farms Historic District, however a few prominent facilities are scattered elsewhere throughout the city( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery), including the adjacent Shadyside neighborhood. Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville, as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox, the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville. The university also has a major archeological research site( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery), the Allen L. Cook Spring Creek Preserve, in Spring Creek, Wyoming. Athletic facilities of the University of Pittsburgh Panthers that are located in Oakland in the upper campus and include the Charles L Cost Sports Center, Fitzgerald Field House, the Petersen Events Center, Trees Hall and Trees Field. An approximately $30 million upgrade of on-campus sports facilities, termed the Petersen Sports Complex, is under construction and will include new soccer( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), baseball, softball facilities, as well as clear space for the future construction of a new track and field and band complex following its completion.[66] Athletic facilities in Pittsburgh that are located outside of the Oakland neighborhood include Heinz Field and the UPMC Sports Performance Complex( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Major on-campus residence halls include the Litchfield Towers, Schenley Quadrangle, Bouquet Gardens and Ruskin Hall located on the lower campus, Lothrop Hall and Forbes Hall on the medical campus, and Pennsylvania, Panther, and Sutherland halls located on the upper campus( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Main article: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center See also: List of UPMC buildings in Pittsburgh William Pitt Union and the Millennium Panther The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), which is consistently ranked in U.S. News & World Report's "Honor Roll" of America's top hospitals,[67] consists of the following hospitals and facilities in the Oakland area, many of which have shared use with various university departments: UPMC Presbyterian Hospital, UPMC Montefiore Hospital( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery), Magee-Women's Hospital of UPMC, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Thomas Detre Hall, Eye and Ear Institute, Forbes Tower (home to the School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences), Iroquois Building, Kaufman Medical Building, Medical Arts Building, 230 McKee Place, and UPMC University Center. UPMC academic hospitals and facilities that are scattered elsewhere( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery) throughout the city include the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC campus in the Lawrencevville neighborhood, the UPMC Sports Performance Complex on the South Side, and UPMC Shadyside and the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute in the Hillman Cancer Center both located in the Shadyside neighborhood adjacent to Oakland( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). Panthers Main article: Panthers of Pittsburgh In the fall of 1909, the University of Pittsburgh was the first college or university to adopt the panther (Puma concolor) as its mascot.[68] Popular as photo sites, there are ten representations of Panthers in and about Pitt's campus, and ten more painted fiberglass panthers placed around the campus by the Pitt Student Government( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). These fiberglass panther structures are given to a campus group for a year and painted by the group to reflect their interests. The oldest representations are four panthers that guard each corner of the Panther Hollow bridge. Other Oakland locations include both inside and in front of the William Pitt Union, outside the Petersen Events Center, "Pitt the Panther" on the carousel in Schenley Plaza( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery), the Panther head fountain on the front of the Cathedral of Learning, and the Pitt Panther statue outside Heinz Field on Pittsburgh's North Side. Education Commons Room in the Cathedral of Learning Throughout its history, Pitt has been committed to a liberal arts education with a well-rounded curriculum in the arts, sciences, and humanities.[33] Pitt has an increasing emphasis on undergraduate research experience and for providing real-world opportunities such as co-ops and internships. ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery) Undergraduate degrees can be earned as Bachelor's of Arts, Bachelor's of Science, and Bachelor's of Philosophy. Along with providing certificate programs, graduate level masters, professional, and doctoral degrees are also awarded. Pitt has also initiated a University-wide Outside the Classroom Curriculum (OCC) that includes a structured series of extracurricular programs and experiences designed to complement students( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery)' academic studies and help develop personal attributes and professional skills. Students who complete the OCC requirements receive an OCC "transcript" and a green cord of distinction to wear at commencement. International studies The Indian Classroom, one of 29 Nationality Rooms in the Cathedral of Learning Pitt’s history of commitment to international education is illustrated by its unique collection of 29 Nationality Rooms on the first and third floors of the Cathedral of Learning( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). As a further demonstration of this commitment, Pitt is one of the country’s leading producers of both Fulbright scholars and Peace Corps volunteers and one of less than 20 American universities to claim five or more area studies programs that have been competitively designated as National Resource Centers by the U.S. Department of Education( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery). Pitt's National Resource Centers include Asian, European, Latin American, Russian and East European, and Global studies, as well as Pitt's International Business Center. In addition, Pitt's Asian Studies Center has been awarded status as a Confucius Institute by the Chinese Ministry of Education( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). Further, Pitt is home to one of just ten European Union Centers of Excellence in the U.S., funded by the European Commission. The University Center for International Studies (UCIS) coordinates international education curricula, centers on topical specializations in international studies, and the centers for area studies, including the National Resource Centers, among existing faculty and departments throughout the university( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). It does not itself give degrees but awards certificates of attainment to degree candidates in the University's schools and also operates certificate programs in African Studies (undergraduate) and in Global Studies (undergraduate & graduate). UCIS also operates the Study Abroad Office, Nationality Rooms and Intercultural Exchange Programs( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). Pitt's study abroad program, under the auspices of UCIS, helps to facilitate student study in over a hundred different countries, and oversees a variety of programs including the Panther Programs, which are course taught abroad that have been developed and are accompanied by faculty of the university; two-way exchange agreements with foreign institutions( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery); and Pitt-recognized, third-party exchange programs. The university also offers several study abroad scholarships, including those through the Nationality Rooms program. In addition, following the decision to end a 24-year sponsorship of the Semester at Sea program due to academic, administrative and safety concerns, Pitt has created a Multi-region Academic Program (PittMAP) ( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery) that involves international travel, accompanied by university faculty, to three different continents for the comparative study of one of six rotating global study themes. Rankings The Center for Measuring University Performance has ranked Pitt, along with only six other schools, in the top tier of U.S. public research universities and in the 6th tier (or top 25) among all universities according to its 2009 annual report( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery). In 2011, U.S. News & World Report ranked Pitt 19th in comparison to other public universities in the United States and 58th among all national universities. In addition, U.S. News ranked Pitt 45th on the dimension of "best value" among all national universities, Princeton Review placed Pitt among its "Best Value Public Colleges", while Kiplinger rated Pitt the best value in Pennsylvania ( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery)and eighth best nationally for out-of-state students among public universities in their 2011 rankings. In worldwide evaluations of universities, Newsweek ranked Pitt 37th in its "The Top 100 Global Universities." Pitt ranked 50th worldwide (and 37th in the U.S.) in the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). Pitt ranked 116th in the 2011 QS World University Rankings, coming 39th in the United States, and attaining 99th for Arts & Humanities. Pitt ranks 24th of all universities in the world for the impact and performance of its scientific public publications according to the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities produced by the Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan (HEEACT) ( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). Pitt ranks as the 26th best higher education research institution worldwide according to SCImago Institutions Rankings' 2009 World Report.[92] Other world rankings include 29th in the world in the latest ranking by the Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation at Wuhan University,[116] 37th in the world in the latest Webometrics rankings, and 42nd in the world according to both the 2006 G-Factor International University Ranking as well as the Russian-based 2009 Global University Ranking( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). In addition to its academic rankings, Pitt has also been recognized for its positive campus atmosphere, with The Princeton Review rating Pitt as having the 8th happiest student body and the 11th best quality of life in the nation in 2010. Many of university's individual schools, departments, and programs are highly regarded in their particular field as evidenced by the number of Pitt programs that were ranked in the latest National Research Council rankings. ( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery) Particularly well regarded programs include Pitt's Department of Philosophy, which has long been renowned in the U.S. and worldwide, and is especially strong in the areas of mathematical and philosophical logic, metaphysics, history and philosophy of science, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind and psychology, and semantics( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery). The University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences, including Medicine, Dental, Nursing, Pharmacy, Public Health, and Rehabilition are also all highly ranked and regarded in their respective fields. In addition, the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, is consistently honored as one of America's top hospitals( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). The university's Joseph M. Katz School of Business MBA program is ranked first in the U.S. in "Value for Money," 51st overall in the nation, and its faculty research is ranked 47th in the world by the 2007 Financial Times ranking. The Joseph Katz Graduate School consistently ranks among the top ten public business schools in the U.S. according to The Wall Street Journal( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Pitt's law school faculty has been ranked 21st in the nation based upon standard objective measures of scholarly impact. Overall Pitt's Law School is ranked 63rd by The Law School 100, is listed among the nation's top law schools by The Princeton Review, and was ranked 71st by U.S. News & World Report in 2011, down from a peak ranking of 48th in 2004( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery). Pitt is home to the Gertrude E. and John M. Petersen Institute of NanoScience and Engineering, which was ranked second in the nation in 2006 for microscale and nanoscale research by the leading global trade publication, Small Times. Pitt also has a recognized program in Radio-frequency identification device (RFID) technology, with its research program rated among the top three in the world along with MIT and the University of Cambridge in England( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery). Scholars A class meets outside on the steps of Heinz Chapel Pitt students have regularly won national and international scholarships and fellowship awards, including four Rhodes Scholarships since 2006. In 2007, in addition to the three national military academies, Pitt was one of only nine universities, and the only public university, to claim both Rhodes and Marshall Scholars( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery). Since 1995, Pitt undergraduates have also won six Marshall Scholarships, five Truman Scholarships, five Udall Scholarships, a Churchill Scholarship, a Gates Cambridge Scholarship, 35 Goldwater Scholarships, 23 Boren Scholarships, and three Mellon Humanities Fellowships. Pitt is also a leading producer of Fulbright scholars, placing in the top 20 of all universities in the number of student scholars( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E battery). Pitt alumni have won awards such as the Nobel Peace Prize, the Nobel Prize in medicine, the Pulitzer Prize for fiction, the Shaw Prize in medicine, the Albany Prize in medicine, the Fritz Medal in engineering, the Templeton Prize, and the Grainger Challenge Prize for sustainability( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120 battery). Research Pitt, one of 62 elected members of the Association of American Universities, had $822.5 million in research and development expenditures in 2010, ranking 11th among all universities in the United States. Of that amount, $594.7 million was received from federal sources, the fifth largest amount of federal research sponsorship among universities and the third most among public universities( SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery). Pitt ranked in the top 25 of all universities in the world for the impact and performance of its scientific public publications, including in the top ten for clinical medicine, according to the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities produced by the Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan. Pitt is also ranked 29th in the world based on Essential Science Indicators according to the Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation of Wuhan University( SONY Vaio VGN-CR116E battery). Pitt places much emphasis on undergraduate research and has integrated such research experience as a key component of its undergraduate experience. Pitt is a major center of biomedical research; in FY 2008, it ranked fifth in the nation in competitive peer-reviewed NIH funding allocations, and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center ranked 13th among hospitals nationwide by USNews in 2009( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery). Collaboration with Carnegie Mellon University Pitt neighbors the campus of Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), and in some cases, buildings of the two universities are intermingled. This helps to facilitate a myriad of academic and research collaborations between the two schools, including such projects as the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, the Pittsburgh Life Sciences Greenhouse( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery), the Immune Modeling Center, the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, as well as the National Science Foundation-supported Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center. Further, the universities also offer multiple dual and joint degree programs such as the Medical Scientist Training Program, the Molecular Biophysics and Structural Biology Graduate Program( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery), and the Law and Business Administration program. Some professors hold joint professorships between the two schools, and students at each university may take classes at the other (with appropriate approvals). Pitt students and faculty also have access to the CMU library system, as well as the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, through the Oakland Library Consortium( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). The two universities also co-host academic conferences, such as the 2012 Second Language Research Forum. Eberly Hall Pitt was ranked second overall, and the top public university in the nation, as a "Best Neighbor" for positive impact on its urban community, including both commercial and residential activities such as revitalization, cultural renewal, economics, and community service and development according to the 2009 "Saviors of Our Cities" ranking( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). Pitt was also listed as a "best neighbor" in the previous ranking released in 2006.[148] These rankings reflect the statistics that each year Pitt spends more than $1.7 billion in the community and supports nearly 33,800 jobs in Allegheny County. Pitt's research program alone imports more than $822 million into the region each year (more than $3.60 for each $1 of state appropriations) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery), and supports some 23,100 local jobs. Pitt students also spend more than $213 million on goods, services, and rental payments within the local economy. Pitt ranked sixth in the number of startups spawned by technologies developed by its researchers according to Association of University Technology Managers. Pitt and its medical school are closely affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). With over 50,000 employees and more than $7 billion in annual revenue, the Medical Center is the largest employer in Western Pennsylvania. Through the Pitt Volunteer Pool, faculty and staff members donate more than 10,000 hours annually to community service projects for agencies such as the Salvation Army, Pittsburgh AIDS Task Force, and Greater Pittsburgh Community Food Bank( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery). Pitt also is a leading producer of Peace Corps volunteers. According to the Peace Corps' 2008 ranking of colleges and universities, only 14 schools in the nation produced more Peace Corp volunteers. Pitt's graduate school also ranked 10th for most alumni Peace Corps volunteers( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery). Athletics Main article: Pittsburgh Panthers Heinz Field, home of Pitt football The University of Pittsburgh's sponsors 19 varsity sports teams, called the "Pittsburgh Panthers" or "Pitt Panthers," that participate at the highest level of competitive collegiate athletics in the United States, NCAA Division I (Division I FBS for football). The varsity teams compete as members of the Big East Conference, Eastern Wrestling League, East Atlantic Gymnastics League, and Eastern College Athletic Conference( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery). There are also approximate 30 additional athletic teams that compete at the non-varsity club sports level. Pitt’s highest-profile athletic programs, American football and men’s basketball, are consistently competitive. Pitt has been regularly ranked as having one of the best combinations of football and basketball programs by multiple sports media outlets, including CBS Sports, ESPN, and Sports Illustrated( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E battery). On September 18, 2011, it was announced that the Atlantic Coast Conference had officially extended an invitation to Pittsburgh to join the ACC after approving the university's application. The University of Pittsburgh will officially join the ACC on July 1, 2013. Scholar athletes During 2006–2007 school year, of approximately 450 Pitt student athletes, 311 had term grade point averages exceeding 3.0, 23 had a perfect average of 4.0( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160 battery), and 124 were named Big East Academic All-Stars. Football Main article: Pittsburgh Panthers football Traditionally the most popular sport at the University of Pittsburgh, football has been played at the highest levels at the University since 1890. During the more than 100 years of competitive football at Pitt, the University has helped pioneer the sport by, among other things, instituting the use of numbers on jerseys and desegregating the Sugar Bowl( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E battery). Some of college football's all-time greatest coaches and players have plied their trade at Pitt, including Pop Warner, Jock Sutherland, Marshall Goldberg, Joe Schmidt, Mike Ditka, Tony Dorsett, Hugh Green, Mark May, Dan Marino, Bill Fralic, Curtis Martin, Darrelle Revis, Russ Grimm and Larry Fitzgerald. Among the top schools in terms of all-time wins, Pitt teams have claimed nine National Championships and boast 86 players that have been chosen as first-team All-Americans( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E battery). Basketball Pitt basketball in the Petersen Events Center Main articles: Pittsburgh Panthers men's basketball and Pittsburgh Panthers women's basketball Pitt first sponsored varsity men's basketball in 1905 and became an early national power after winning two Helms Foundation National Championships in 1927–28 and 1929–30. Those teams, coached by the innovative and legendary Naismith Hall of Fame inductee "Doc" Carlson( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery), were led by National Player of the Year and Hall of Famer Charlie Hyatt. Following a Final Four appearance in 1941, Pitt appeared in a handful of NCAA tournaments throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, including an Elite Eight appearance in 1974 led by All-American Billy Knight. Pitt joined the Big East Conference in 1982, and by the end of the decade had secured a pair of Big East regular season championships led by All-Americans Charles Smith and Jerome Lane( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). In the 2000s (decade), led by coach Jamie Dixon, an era of consistent national and conference competitiveness has been achieved, including reaching the number one ranking in various national polls. Since 2002, Pitt has appeared in nine straight NCAA tournament appearances advancing to five Sweet Sixteens and an Elite Eight. During this time, Pitt and has won three Big East regular season championships, two Big East Tournament Championships( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery), and has advanced to six Big East Tournament Championship games. The Pittsburgh Panthers women's varsity basketball program started during the 1914–1915 school year and lasted until 1927 before going on hiatus until 1970. Pitt's women's team has posted several NCAA, NWIT, and EAIAW tournament appearances. Led head coach Agnus Berenato, Pitt has played in post-season tournaments each of the last five seasons( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery), including three NCAA Tournaments appearances where it advanced to the Sweet Sixteen in 2008 and 2009. Olympic sports The current Panther logo is a stylized panther head introduced in 1997 designed to suggest that it was cut by a welding torch from steel. See also: Pittsburgh Panthers baseball, Pittsburgh Panthers volleyball, and Pittsburgh Panthers wrestling( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery) Pitt has had a long history of success in other intercollegiate athletic events. In Track and Field, Pitt has produced several Olympic and NCAA champions such as 800 m Olympic gold medalist John Woodruff, two-time 110 m hurdle Olympic gold medalist Roger Kingdom, and seven-time NCAA champion and 2005 World Champion triple jumper Trecia-Kaye Smith( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery). The wrestling program has a rich history and is among the leaders in producing individual national champions with 16. Pitt's women's volleyball team, one of the winningest program in the nation,[166] has won 11 Big East championships, and appeared in 11 NCAA tournaments since the program began in 1974. Pitt's swimming and diving teams have produced several Olympians and won 19 men's and nine women's Big East Championships since joining the conference in 1983( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery). Pitt women's gymnastics is a regular qualifier for the NCAA Northeast Regional Championship.[168] Baseball, Pitt's oldest varsity sport, has produced several major league players and has become a regular participant in the Big East post-season championship.[169] Other varsity sports have also found varying degrees of success and include cross country, soccer, softball, and tennis( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery). Support groups The history-rich University of Pittsburgh Varsity Marching Band was founded in 1911 and performs at athletic and other events. The Pitt cheerleading squad has won multiple cheerleading national championships, including three straight from 1992–1994. The Pitt dance team also has been competitive in national competitions( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). People Heads of the University William Jacob Holland served as Chancellor from 1891 to 1901, and was also a world renowned entomologist. Main article: Heads of the University of Pittsburgh The University of Pittsburgh has had many individuals lead it throughout its history. During the academy days, the title of Principal was worn by the head of the school. Due to fires, early records are incomplete( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery). When Pittsburgh Academy transitioned into the Western University, the title was changed to Chancellor. This title has lasted except for a brief change during Wesley Posvar's administration when it was transiently switched to President. Samuel McCormick oversaw the name change from the Western University of Pennsylvania to the University of Pittsburgh in 1908 and is therefore listed with the chancellors of the University of Pittsburgh( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery). Acting chancellors are also included in the list below. For more information on past heads of the University, and for photos, please see Pitt History: Heads of the University. Notable alumni and faculty Main article: List of notable University of Pittsburgh people Alumni have won awards and prizes that include the Academy Award, the Super Bowl, the Nobel Prize, the Pulitzer Prize, the National Medal of Arts, the National Medal of Science, the Perkin Medal, the National Medal of Technology, and the MacArthur "Genius Award"( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery). The faculty and alumni have been pioneers in such fields as astronomy, aviation, virology, nuclear energy, psychology, genetics in addition to being given popular titles such as the Father of Radio Broadcasting, the Father of Television, the Father of CPR, the Father of the MRI, and the Father of Organ Transplantation( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery). Student life Traditions See also: Hail to Pitt, Pitt Victory Song, University of Pittsburgh Alma Mater, Pitt football traditions Annual Bonfire and Pep Rally hosted by the Pitt Program Council is held prior to or during some football games. Held on the lawn of the Cathedral of Learning, it often involves the band, cheerleaders, football team, visiting dignitaries, and giveaways( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery). A concert during Fall Fest 2008 Bigelow Bash is a spring festival held by the Pitt Program Council between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning, involving a range of activities, novelties, and bands. E-Week is a spring celebration organized by the Engineer Student Council for a week-long, fun-filled series of activities and competitions to demonstrate engineering skills and foster a spirit of camaraderie. Activities include games such as Monopoly( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery), Ingenuity, Jeopardy, Assassins, and include a talent show, relay race, mini-Olympics, and blood drive. The festivities reach climax with a parade on Friday, a soapbox derby on Saturday, and the "e-ball finale" on Saturday evening. Each year, a unique theme is chosen. Each engineering department competes against the others, while some smaller departments join forces( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). Fall Fest is an annual fall festival held by the Pitt Program Council between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning, also involving a range of activities, novelties, and bands. Football Tunnel is a tradition where student organizations, carrying standards, form a tunnel for the football players to run through as they enter the football field from the locker room( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). Originally, this long standing tradition involved only Pitt fraternities and sororities. The tradition was briefly lost following the 1999 season when Pitt's football program transitioned from playing in Pitt Stadium to Three Rivers Stadium in 2000 followed by Heinz Field in 2001. The tradition was resurrected beginning with the 2008 football season( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). Forbes Field Home Plate Slide is a tradition for good luck on midterm and finals in which students slide into or step on a former home plate from Forbes Field, where the Pittsburgh Pirates played for many seasons. The plate is on display inside Posvar Hall near its original location. Greek Week Greek Week is a year long initiative for the Greek organizations on campus to raise money for different charitable organizations through different events( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). The two biggest events each year are the Pitt Dance Marathon and Greek Sing. The Pitt Greeks have signed a contract with the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute to raise $500,000 over the next five years. Yearlong fundraising activities are also held to support other charitable organizations such as the Ronald McDonald House, Make a Wish Foundation, and the Pittsburgh Food Bank( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). Homecoming, as in other universities, revolves around one home football game each year. Pitt's homecoming involves activities hosted by the Pitt Program Council highlighted by fireworks and a laser-light display between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning.[186] This is followed by Casino Night in the union, the football game, and a homecoming cruise on a Gateway Clipper Party Liner( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery). Honors Convocation is a ceremony whose modern incarnation was begun in 1977, but whose roots date to the 1930s' Scholar's Day and Tap Day. The Honors Convocation is typically held in late winter to present awards and recognition for academic and service achievements of the students, faculty, alumni, and staff throughout the schools and departments of the university( Sony VGN-NR260E/T Battery). Interior of Heinz Memorial Chapel Lantern Night is an annual ceremony, initiated in 1921 one of the University’s longest standing traditions. It is a formal induction for freshman women to university life and unites them as they begin their education at Pitt. Traditionally held on the evening before the first day of classes, the ceremony today takes place in Heinz Chapel( Sony VGN-NR260E/W Battery). Part of the Lantern Night tradition is for a distinguished alumna to give the freshman address, while other distinguished alumnae are flame bearers who light the lanterns given to each freshman woman as a keepsake. Omicron Delta Kappa Walk is a stone walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Memorial Chapel that contains the engraved names of Pitt's Omicron Delta Kappa Senior of the Year award winners. The walk is the only one of its kind in the country( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery). Panther Sendoff is an annual free reception typically held in Alumni Hall to congratulate each year's graduating class and wish them well. Rubbing the Panther Nose is as another good luck tradition in which students rub the nose of the Millennium Panther outside the William Pitt Union prior to exams.[196] This tradition has further grown into one ( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery)that is used by the wider university community when seeking general good fortune and was featured in a national television advertisement for the 2012 Hyundai Tucson automobile. University of Pittsburgh Annual Jazz Seminar and Concert is a fall lecture and concert series founded by Dr. Nathan Davis, professor in the Music Department, and University officials in 1970( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). Renowned jazz musicians, critics, and historians lead seminar sessions for students and others in the local jazz community. These sessions are free and open to the public and deal with topics ranging from entering the music business to practice techniques, composing, arranging, and individual instrument mastery. Previous musicians who have attending include Dizzy Gillespie, Kenny Clarke, Sonny Rollins, Dexter Gordon, and Max Roach( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). Varsity Walk Varsity Walk is a walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Memorial Chapel on which is carved the names of former Pitt athletes (each year since 1950) who have promoted the University through their athletic (Panther Award) or academic (Blue-Gold Award) achievements. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery) Victory Lights is a tradition where golden flood lights illuminate the top of the Cathedral of Learning after every football victory. Pitt Arts Pitt Arts is a program founded by the University in 1997 to encourage students to explore and connect to the art and cultural opportunities of the City of Pittsburgh via three programs. Art Encounters provides trips to arts events for undergrads that include free tickets( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery), transportation, a catered reception, and encounters with international artists and thinkers. Free Visits grants undergrad and grad students free admission using their Pitt IDs to the Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Senator John Heinz History Center, Phipps Conservatory, Mattress Factory, and the Andy Warhol Museum( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). Cheap Seats is a program that everyone at Pitt can use to take advantage of deeply-discounted tickets to the most sought-after arts events in the area, including the Pittsburgh ballet, opera, symphony, theater, concerts, and other cultural district activities. Student theater Pitt's Stephen Foster Memorial contains two theaters. University of Pittsburgh Repertory Theatre, or Pitt Rep, is the production company of the Department of Theatre Arts which puts public student performances of classic masterpieces, contemporary productions, and student-directed labs( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery). It also runs the Shakespeare-in-the-Schools which tours classic theater for K-12 students throughout the Pittsburgh area. Friday Nite Improvs, Pittsburgh's longest-running theatre show, was started in 1989 by graduate theatre students. It takes place weekly inside the Cathedral of Learning's studio theatre. Kuntu Repertory Theatre, founded in 1974, is the second-oldest African American performing arts organization affiliated with a major research university. It promotes and encourages participation in theater arts centered on the African heritage and experience( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery). The Redeye Theatre Project is a festival of one-act plays cast, written, and rehearsed in 24 hours. Pitt Musical Theater Club provides undergraduates the opportunity to perform in student directed variety shows and musicals. The club was founded in 2009. The Music Building once served as home to the original studio for Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery) Pitt Men's Glee Club, founded in 1890, is the oldest extracurricular club on campus. The internationally showcased[208] club includes both undergraduate and graduate students from throughout the University. Traditionally, the Glee Club has sung for a variety of campus-wide and community functions, including graduations, receptions, alumni gatherings( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery), sporting events, and chancellor's events. The Glee Club has also participated in national Collegiate Men's Choir festivals and international music festivals aside from seasonal concerts. Heinz Chapel Choir is an accomplished and internationally-known a cappella choir consisting entirely of Pitt students that has been performing for over 70 years. University of Pittsburgh Women's Choral Ensemble, founded in 1927, is open to all women of the University including undergraduates, graduate students, and staff( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery). The ensemble leads the traditional lamplighter processional each fall and performs repertory ranging from traditional sacred and secular classics to international folk songs, popular music, and show tunes. University of Pittsburgh Orchestra performs several concerts and consists of music students, students from the University at large, faculty, staff, and members of the metropolitan community. The orchestra performs not only works of the standard art music literature( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery), but also new works of student composers. Pitt Jazz Ensemble, founded in 1969, has been recognized internationally as one of the best collegiate jazz groups. Under the direction of Dr. Davis, the ensemble has performed around the world. Pitt African Music and Dance Ensemble, founded in 1983 by a Ghanaian ethnomusicologist Dr. Willie O. Anku, specializes in music and dances from Africa. Under the direction of J. S. Kofi Gbolonyo( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery), it presents a range of African artistic expressions including music, dance, drama and visual arts. Pitt Band, founded in 1911, is the varsity marching band of the University of Pittsburgh and performs at various athletic and other University events. Pitt Pendulums, founded in 1996, is a co-ed a cappella group. The group performs at a variety of on- and off- campus events, including tours of the United States and Canada( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery). The Pendulums are annual competitors in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella and were most recently featured on WQED's OnQ. Sounds of Pleasure, founded in 1997, is an all-female a cappella group. VoKols, founded in 2006, is a co-ed a cappella group that sings a combination of American and Hebrew pop music. Carpathian Ensemble, founded within the Department of music in 2008, the ensemble performs Gypsy, Klezmer, Armenian, Moldavian, Ukrainian, and Macedonian music( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). Student media Wesley W. Posvar Hall WPTS-FM is a non-commercial radio station owned by the University of Pittsburgh, and offers a mix of student-run programming. The station operates at 92.1 MHz with an ERP of 16 watts, and is licensed to Pittsburgh. JURIST is the world's only law-school-based, comprehensive, legal news and research service staffed by a mostly-volunteer team of part-time law student reporters, editors and Web developers. It is led by law professor Bernard Hibbitts at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). The Pitt News is an independent, student-written, and student-managed newspaper for the University's Oakland (main) campus. Founded in 1908, it is now published Monday through Friday during the school year and Wednesdays during the summer. It circulates 14,000 copies for each issue published( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). UPTV (University of Pittsburgh Television) is a student-managed, student-produced, closed-circuit television station. As of June 2006, only students living in campus residence halls or university operated-housing can view programming. Three Rivers Review and Collision are two undergraduate, bi-annual, literary journals publishing both poetry and prose( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). The Pittsburgh Undergraduate Review is a multidisciplinary journal showcasing undergraduate research. Pitt Political Review is a student-created, student-written publication of the University Honors College. PPR, as it is called, provides a venue for serious discussion of politics and policy issues in a nonpartisan way( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery). The Original Magazine is a nonprofit, semiannual arts and culture publication based at, and partially funded by, the University of Pittsburgh, that aims to both bring and publicize accessible art and creative writing to Pittsburgh. Student organizations Alumni Hall There are over 350 student clubs and organizations at the University of Pittsburgh all sizes and covering all manner of interests. Some of the larger ones include the following, presented in alphabetical order( Sony VAIO VGN-FW465J battery). Black Action Society is the recognized student organization for promoting the cultural, educational, political, and social needs of black students at the university. It comprises nine committees including the publication of the student-run publication BlackLine as well as community outreach, political action, and programing. In the past the BAS has hosted lectures by such figures as Cornel West, Spike Lee, and Carol Mosley-Braun( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). Blue and Gold Society, founded in 1991, is a group of undergraduate student leaders chosen as liaisons between the student community and the Pitt Alumni Association. Graduate and Professional Student Assembly (GPSA) is the student government that represents the interests of all graduate and professional student at the University of Pittsburgh and serves as the umbrella organization for all of the graduate/professional school student governments( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). GPSA's mission is to ensure that the concerns of these students are heard and also provides services and programs such travel grants, legal and financial consulting, and social functions. Litchfield Towers and David Lawrence Hall (right) Student Government Board (SGB) is the governing body that provides undergraduate students with representation to the university administration, presenting their needs, interests, and concerns( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery). Another important aspect of the SGB is allocation of the student activities fee, which provides money to over 350 student organizations at the University of Pittsburgh. The SGB also has ten standing committees who address various aspects of campus life, including diversity, freshman involvement, and governmental relations. Oakland Zoo is the student athletic cheering section, and is an officially recognized student club by the University of Pittsburgh. At over 2,000 members( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery), it is the largest such group at the University. The group helps participate with the Athletic Department and Pitt Student Government Board in setting student ticket policy as well as organizing special student events. Pitt Pathfinders is a student-run organization that hosts campus tours, assists prospective students in making well-informed college-related decisions, and promotes Pitt pride( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery). Pitt Program Council is the all-campus programming organization at the university. Comprising eight student committees, a variety of programs and festivities are planned and sponsored including Fall Fest, Bigelow Bash, Homecoming Laser and Fireworks Show, as well as trips to New York City, Cedar Point, Spring break in Panama City Beach, FL( Sony VGN-NR110E Battery). Other activities include art gallery exhibits, films, horseback riding, sports tournaments, lectures, fitness and dance classes, and Black and White Ball. Quo Vadis is a student organization that conducts guided tours and interpretations of the Cathedral of Learning's 29 Nationality Rooms. Rainbow Alliance is a student advocacy group for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Allied students. Among other activities, Pitt Rainbow Alliance holds an Annual Drag Show to raise money for Pittsburgh AIDS Task Force( Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery). Telefact is an informational telephone service run by students that researches and answers callers' questions. The service is free to use and can be reached at 412–624-FACT. University of Pittsburgh Mock Trial is a year long extracurricular activity open to Pitt undergraduates that provides an opportunity to learn about the practice of litigation through a series of team-based mock trial competitions( Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery). Pitt Mock Trial has qualified for American Mock Trial Association post-season tournaments each of the last six years, finishing in the fifth overall place at the 2008 National Championship Tournament. William Pitt Debating Union is a co-curricular program and hub for a wide range of debating activities, including intercollegiate policy debate, public debate, and debate outreach. 1981 National Debate Tournament champions( Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery), it has qualified for the National Debate Tournament forty times[236] and is one of the oldest organizations of its kind in the nation, growing from the University’s Division of Public Speaking in 1912. [edit]Greek life As of 2008, the University of Pittsburgh Greek system raised $285,000 for the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute. The effort is part of the Pittsburgh Greek system's five-year pledge to raise $500,000 for the cancer center( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery).
The University of Virginia (often abbreviated as UVA or Virginia) is a public research university in Charlottesville, Virginia, United States. It was conceived and designed by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson and established in 1819. UVA's initial Board of Visitors included former Presidents of the United States Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe Sony PCG-71313M battery. The initial site of the University was farmland owned by Monroe, whose law office and farmhouse are now the site of Brown College at Monroe Hill, a residential college at UVA.[4] UVA is the only university in the United States to be designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO Sony PCG-71212M battery. The 2012 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranks the University of Virginia as the 2nd best public university in the United States and the overall 25th best university in the nation.[5] UVA athletes compete in 23 varsity sports within the Atlantic Coast Conference and finished third in the NACDA Directors' Cup rankings in 2010 Sony PCG-71311M battery. History [edit]1800s On January 18, 1800, Thomas Jefferson, the Vice President of the United States, alluded to plans for a new college in a letter written to British scientist Joseph Priestley: "We wish to establish in the upper country of Virginia, and more centrally for the State, a University on a plan so broad and liberal and modern, as to be worth patronizing with the public support Sony PCG-71213M battery, and be a temptation to the youth of other States to come and drink of the cup of knowledge and fraternize with us."[7] In 1802, then serving as President of the United States, Jefferson wrote to artist Charles Willson Peale that his concept of the new university would be "on the most extensive and liberal scale that our circumstances would call for and our faculties meet." Sony PCG-61211M battery Virginia was already home to The College of William & Mary, but Jefferson lost confidence in his alma mater, partly because of its religious stances and lack of courses in the sciences.[9] Although Jefferson flourished under the tutelage of College of William & Mary professors William Small and George Wythe, his concerns with the College became great enough by 1800 that he wrote Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery: "We have in that State, a college just well enough endowed to draw out the miserable existence to which a miserable constitution has doomed it."[10] Thus, he began planning a university more aligned with his educational ideals.[11] The University of Virginia stands on land once owned by President James Monroe, who sold the land when he moved into the White House Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. The University of Virginia stands on land purchased in 1788 by an American Revolutionary War veteran (and eventual fifth President of the United States), James Monroe. The farmland just outside Charlottesville was purchased from Monroe by the Board of Visitors as Central College in 1817; Monroe was beginning the first of his own two terms in the White House Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. Guided by Jefferson, the school laid its first building's cornerstone later in 1817 and the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered the new university on January 25, 1819. In the presence of James Madison, the Marquis de Lafayette toasted Jefferson as "father" of the University of Virginia at the school's inaugural banquet in 1824. The University's first classes met in March 1825 Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Other universities of the day allowed only three choices of specialization: Medicine, Law, and Religion. Under Jefferson's guidance, the University of Virginia became the first in the United States to allow specializations in such diverse fields as Astronomy, Architecture, Botany, Philosophy, and Political Science. Jefferson explained, "This institution will be based on the illimitable freedom of the human mind Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. For here we are not afraid to follow truth wherever it may lead, nor to tolerate any error so long as reason is left free to combat it."[12] The non-denominational chapel near the Rotunda of the university was established in 1890, beyond the original scope of Jefferson's plans. Inside the UVA Chapel An even more controversial direction was taken for the new university based on a daring vision that higher education should be completely separated from religious doctrine Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery. One of the largest construction projects in North America up to that time, the new Grounds were centered upon a library (then housed in the Rotunda) rather than a church – further distinguishing it from peer universities of the United States, most of which were still primarily functioning as seminaries for one particular religion or another. Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B batteryJefferson even went so far as to ban the teaching of Theology altogether. In a letter to Thomas Cooper in October 1814, Jefferson stated, "a professorship of theology should have no place in our institution" and, true to form, the University has never had a Divinity school or department; it was established independent of any religious sect. Replacing the then-standard specialization in Religion Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery, the University undertook groundbreaking specializations in scientific subjects such as Astronomy and Botany. (However, today UVA does maintain a strong Religious Studies department and a non-denominational chapel, notably absent from Jefferson's original plans, was constructed in 1890 near the Rotunda.) Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H batteryJefferson was intimately involved in the University, hosting Sunday dinners at his Monticello home for faculty and students until his death. So taken with the import of what he viewed the University's foundations and potential to be, and counting it amongst his greatest accomplishments, Jefferson insisted his grave mention only his status as author of the Declaration of Independence and Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery, and father of the University of Virginia. Thus, he eschewed mention of his Presidency and national accomplishments in favor of being remembered for the newly established university. The Lawn during winter, with tracks through the snow. At center is the Rotunda, which was the original library building at the head of Jefferson's Academical Village. In 1826, the nation's fourth President James Madison became Rector of the University of Virginia, at the same time America's fifth President James Monroe made his home on the Grounds Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery (at Monroe Hill) and was a member of the Board of Visitors. Both former Presidents stayed at the University until their deaths in the 1830s. The School of Engineering and Applied Science opened in 1836, making it the first engineering school in the United States to be attached to a comprehensive university. At the onset of the American Civil War, the University of Virginia was the largest in the Southern United States and second nationwide only to Harvard University in its scope. Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery Unlike many other colleges in the South, the University was kept open throughout the conflict, an especially remarkable feat with its state being the site of more battles than any other. In March 1865, Union General George Armstrong Custer marched troops into Charlottesville, whereupon faculty and community leaders convinced him to spare the University Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Though Union troops camped on the Lawn and damaged many of the Pavilions, Custer's men left four days later without bloodshed and the University was able to return to its educational routines. Jefferson, ever the skeptic of central authority and bureaucracy, had originally decided that the University of Virginia would have no President. Rather, this power was to be shared by a Rector and a Board of Visitors Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. As the 19th century waned, it became obvious this cumbersome arrangement was incapable of adequately handling the many administrative and fundraising tasks that had become necessary to support the growing University.[15] Father of the University of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson was the first and only President of the United States to found an institution of higher learning Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery. In 1904, Edwin Alderman resigned as President of Tulane University to take the same position at the University of Virginia. As the University's first President, he embarked on a number of reforms for both the University and the state of Virginia's public educational systems in general. A reform specific to the University of Virginia was one of the first school-sponsored financial aid programs in all of higher learning and, though primitive by today's standards Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery, it included a loan provision for needy men who were unable to pay. Initially controversial and opposed by many at what had become a very traditional school, Alderman's progressive ideas stood the test of time. He remains the longest-tenured President in the University's history, having served for twenty-six years until his death in 1931 Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. Alderman Library, among many popular landmarks at UVA, is his namesake. During World War II, Virginia was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.[16] In 1944 Mary Washington College in Fredericksburg, Virginia became the Women's Undergraduate Arts and Sciences Division of the University of Virginia Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery. Until that time, the University of Virginia had not admitted women as undergraduates, except in the education and nursing schools. In 1970 the Charlottesville campus became fully co-educational, and in 1972 Mary Washington became an independent state university.[17] Women were officially allowed to matriculate in 1970 after a court suit prompted the Board of Visitors to adopt full coeducation over a two year period Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. Coeducation has been marked as enormously successful and women student leaders abound. In 1970, the first class of 450 undergraduate women entered UVA (39 percent), while the number of men admitted remained constant. By 2003 women comprised 55 percent of the undergraduate student body. All-white until 1950 Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery, with its first African-American undergraduate admitted only in 1961 and legislative and administrative resistance to integration continuing into the late 1960s, the University of Virginia is now exemplary in its diversity. Pulitzer and Nobel Prize winner William Faulkner became a writer-in-residence at the University in 1957, keeping open office hours until his death in 1962 Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery. He was also a lecturer at the school, and took the title of "Consultant on American Literature to the Alderman Library". Faulkner donated a large collection of his manuscripts and typesets (a request reaffirmed by his wife and daughter) to the library upon his death. In 2004, resulting from a stark decrease in state support, the University of Virginia became the first public university in the United States to receive more of its funding from private sources than from the state with which it is associated Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery. Thanks to a Charter initiative that passed the Virginia General Assembly and was signed into law by then-Governor Mark Warner in 2005,[18] the University – and any other public universities in the state that choose to do so (currently Virginia Tech and William & Mary) – will have greater autonomy over its own affairs. Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E batteryPresident James Madison served as the second Rector of the University of Virginia until his death in 1836. Also in 2004, at the 100th anniversary of Alderman becoming President, UVA announced the AccessUVa financial aid program. This program guarantees the University will meet 100% of a U.S. student's demonstrated need. It also provides low-income students Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery (up to 200% of the poverty line – as of 2009, about $44,000 for a family of four) with full grants to cover all of their educational needs, and it caps the level of need-based loans for all other students. This program was the first to guarantee full grants to students of low-income families at any public university in the United States. Today, minority students are particularly successful at the University of Virginia Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. According to the Fall 2005 issue of Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, UVA "has the highest black student graduation rate of the Public Ivies at 86 percent." The journal goes on to state that "by far the most impressive is the University of Virginia with its high black student graduation rate and its small racial difference in graduation rates Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery." The University of Virginia, together with Harvard University and Princeton University, ended its Early Decision and Early Action programs in September 2006, stating that such policies limit poor and middle class students from competing on an equal footing with wealthier applicants. For its part, U.Va. noted that of 947 Early Decision acceptances for the Class of 2010, fewer than 20 of those students had applied for financial aid. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery Non-binding early action was instated for the first time for the class of 2016 as “early action did not have the same impact on students of lower socioeconomic means because it is not binding.” [24] On June 10, 2012, president Teresa A. Sullivan announced that she would resign from the presidency effective August 15, 2012, due to a "philosophical difference of opinion" with the Board of Visitors. Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery The resignation was requested by the Board of Visitors and elicited strong protests from faculty and students, including a faculty senate demand for the removal of the Board of Visitors leaders – Rector Helen Dragas and Vice Rector Mark J. Kington[26] – and demands from the student government for an explanation for Sullivan's ouster. In the face of this pressure Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery, including a mandate from Virginia Governor Robert McDonnell that he would remove the entire board if they failed to resolve the issue at their June 26 meeting, the board unanimously voted to reinstate Sullivan as president. The Grounds (Campus) See also: The Lawn, The Rotunda (University of Virginia), and The Range The Rotunda today Throughout its history, the University of Virginia has won praise for its unique Jeffersonian architecture. In January 1895, less than a year before the Great Rotunda Fire Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery, The New York Times said that the design of the University of Virginia "was incomparably the most ambitious and monumental architectural project that had or has yet been conceived in this century".[30] In the United States Bicentennial issue of their AIA Journal, the American Institute of Architects called it "the proudest achievement of American architecture in the past 200 years". Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery Today, the University of Virginia remains an architectural landmark and popular tourist destination. Elevation of The Rotunda drawn by Thomas Jefferson in 1819 Jefferson's original architectural design revolves around the "Academical Village", and that name remains in use today to describe both the specific area of The Lawn, a grand, terraced green space surrounded by residential and academic buildings Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery, the gardens, The Range, and the larger University surrounding it. The principal building of the design, The Rotunda (RotundaCam), stands at the north end of the Lawn, and is the most recognizable symbol of the University. It is half the height and width of the Pantheon in Rome, which was the primary inspiration for the building Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. The Lawn and the Rotunda were the model for many similar designs of "centralized green areas" at universities across the country. Most notably designed by inspiration of the Rotunda and Lawn are the expansive green spaces headed by Rotunda-like buildings built at Duke University in 1892, Johns Hopkins University in 1902, Rice University in 1910 Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, Dallas Hall, the central building at Southern Methodist University (1912), Peabody College of Vanderbilt University in 1915, the Green at the University of Delaware in 1916, Killian Court at MIT in 1916 (which was coincidentally founded by William Barton Rogers, who immediately prior to founding MIT was a Natural Philosophy professor at the University of Virginia for 19 years) Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery, the "Grand Auditorium" of Tsinghua University in Beijing built in 1917, the campus of Yale Divinity School (the Sterling Quad, 1932), and, indeed, the new grounds of the University's own Darden School of Business (designed by Robert A.M. Stern). An example of the serpentine wall design Flanking both sides of the Rotunda and extending down the length of the Lawn are ten Pavilions interspersed with student rooms Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. Each has its own classical architectural style, as well as its own walled garden separated by Jeffersonian Serpentine walls. These walls are called "serpentine" because they run a sinusoidal course, one that lends strength to the wall and allows for the wall to be only one brick thick, one of many innovations by which Jefferson attempted to combine aesthetics with utility SONY VAIO PCG-21214V battery. Frank E. Grizzard, Jr., a former scholar at the University, has written the definitive book on the original academic buildings at the University. Jefferson financed the building of the University through personal loans from James Monroe and General John Hartwell Cocke, II. Monroe, Cocke, and Jefferson each put up 1/3 of the money to procure the land and build the initial buildings. Gen. Cocke was a General in the War of 1812 SONY VAIO PCG-21213V battery, a local plantation owner, and friend of Thomas Jefferson. He owned Bremo Plantation, located southwest of Charlottesville near where Bremo Bluff, VA is today. These loans were never repaid by Jefferson. The Great Rotunda Fire, 1895 On October 27, 1895, the Rotunda burned to a shell because of an electrical fire that started in the Rotunda Annex, a long multi-story structure built in 1853 to house additional classrooms SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The electrical fire was no doubt assisted by the unfortunate help of overzealous faculty member William "Reddy" Echols, who attempted to save it by throwing roughly 100 pounds (45 kg) of dynamite into the main fire in the hopes that the blast would separate the burning Annex from Mr. Jefferson's own Rotunda. His last-ditch effort ultimately failed. (Perhaps ironically, one of the University's main honors student programs is named for him.) SONY VAIO PCG-21211M batteryUniversity officials swiftly approached celebrity architect Stanford White to rebuild the Rotunda. White took the charge further, disregarding Mr. Jefferson's design and redesigning the Rotunda interior – making it two floors instead of three, adding three buildings to the foot of the Lawn, and designing a President's House. He did omit rebuilding the Rotunda Annex SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, the remnants of which were used as fill and to create part of the modern-day Rotunda's northern-facing plaza. The classes formerly occupying the Annex were now moved to the South Lawn in White's new buildings. Although undoubtedly useful to the University in providing additional classroom space, and not unattractive, if pedestrian in comparison to the Jeffersonian Pavilions SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery, the White buildings have the effect of closing off the sweeping perspective, as originally conceived by Jefferson, down the Lawn across open countryside toward the distant mountains. The White buildings at the foot of the Lawn effectively create a huge "quadrangle", albeit one far grander than any traditional college quadrangle at the University of Cambridge or University of Oxford SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. In concert with the United States Bicentennial in 1976, Stanford White's changes to the Rotunda were removed and the building was returned to Jefferson's original design. Renovated according to original sketches and historical photographs, a three-story Rotunda opened on Jefferson's birthday, April 13, 1976 SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery. Inside the Dome Room of the Rotunda Though student enrollment has grown well beyond the original Lawn facilities, the University further distinguishes itself by extending the original Academical Village ideal with two exclusively First-Year (freshman) living areas: The Old Dorms (Bonnycastle, Dabney, Echols, Emmet, Hancock, Humphreys, Kent, Lefevre, Metcalf, Page), located on McCormick Road SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery, and The New Dorms (Cauthen, Courtenay, Dunglison, Dunnington, Fitzhugh, Kellogg, Balz-Doby, Watson-Webb, Woody), adjacent to Scott Stadium, both situated wholly on Grounds and considered integral to establishing peer discourse. The common bonding experience proves such a fixture to the University experience, students often identify themselves by individual "Old" or "New" dormitory Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. First-Year living areas also include Hereford College, International Residential College, and Brown College at Monroe Hill. In 2001, John Kluge donated 7,378 acres (29.86 km2) of additional lands to the University. Kluge desired the core of the land to be developed by the University, and the surrounding land to be sold to fund an endowment supporting the core SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. A large part of the gift was soon sold to musician Dave Matthews, of the Dave Matthews Band, to be utilized in an organic farming project. It is unknown what the University will do with its "core" portion of the land. The Virginia Department of Transportation maintains the roads through the University grounds as State Route 302. SONY VAIO PCG-7196M batteryThe University, together with Jefferson's home at Monticello, is a World Heritage Site, one of only three modern sites so listed in the 50 states, the others being the Statue of Liberty and Independence Hall. It was the first collegiate campus worldwide to be awarded the designation. Modern luminary gatherings and events SONY VAIO PCG-7195M batteryThe Kennedy brothers appeared at U.Va. in 1958 while John was preparing to run for President. Ted and Robert F. Kennedy were both educated by the School of Law after attending Harvard College as undergrads. On June 10, 1940, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to the University's Memorial Gymnasium to watch his son Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr. graduate, and to give the commencement address SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. Instead, "in this university founded by the first great American teacher of democracy" he made his impromptu "Stab in the Back" speech denouncing the act of Italy joining beside Nazi Germany to invade France on that day. (Graduation ceremonies are traditionally held on the Lawn, but rain had forced a move to "Mem Gym" for the Class of 1940.) SONY VAIO PCG-7192M batteryNearly two decades later, in 1958, Senator John F. Kennedy visited and spoke in the same space with brothers Robert Kennedy and Ted Kennedy, the latter of whom was managing JFK's 1958 Senatorial re-election campaign from his dormitory at the University of Virginia. In the early 1960s, civil rights leaders Martin Luther King, Jr., James Farmer, Aaron Henry, Bayard Rustin SONY PCG-8113M battery, and others spoke at the University under the sponsorship of the Virginia Council on Human Relations, a student organization which presented speakers on Grounds who opposed the state's prevailing policy of racial segregation. John Lewis, Chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee spoke in 1965 while his head was still bandaged from a police beating he received leading the first march from Selma SONY PCG-8112M battery. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s speech at Old Cabell Hall in 1963 met with no resistance of any kind among the student body or administration. He called for a doubling of black registrations at universities in the South. African-American enrollment has since been increased tenfold at the University. Five years later in 1968, when King was shot SONY PCG-7134M battery, the Rotunda flag was flown at half-mast and then-President of the University Edgar Shannon, Jr. led a U.Va. memorial service in Cabell Hall. All classes at U.Va. were made optional during the service. To commemorate the United States Bicentennial in 1976, Britain's Queen Elizabeth II strolled the Lawn and lunched in the Dome Room of the Rotunda, one of five American sites she publicly visited SONY PCG-7131M battery. The Dalai Lama, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and several other Nobel Peace laureates stayed on Grounds for one week in 1998 while attending the University's historic Nobel Laureates Conference. Student housing The housing units that permit families are Copeley Hill Apartments and University Gardens. Copeley Hill is within the Albemarle County Public Schools. Residents of Copeley Hill are zoned to Greer Elementary School, Jouett Middle School, and Albemarle High School SONY PCG-7122M battery . University Gardens is within the Charlottesville City Schools. University Gardens is zoned to Venable Elementary School, Walker Upper Elementary School, Buford Middle School, and Charlottesville High School. Admissions High preference among high achievers Alderman Library includes one of the largest Tibetan collections in the world,[49] one of many special collections housed beneath its "stacks" SONY PCG-7121M battery . Admission to the University of Virginia is competitive, with 90.2% of admitted applicants ranking in the top 10% of their high school classes.[50] A December 2005 National Bureau of Economic Research study of "high-achieving" undergraduate applicants found U.Va., at twentieth overall, to be the most preferred college located in the state of Virginia, and the second-most preferred in the American South, behind Duke University SONY PCG-7113M battery. The study also revealed the University to be the most preferred public university in the entire United States. The stated purpose of the NBER study was to produce a ranking system that "would be difficult for a college to manipulate" by basing it on the actual demonstrated preferences of highly meritorious students SONY PCG-7112M battery. Admissions statistics The mark of one out of many secret societies active on Grounds at the University For the Class of 2011, the University of Virginia received a record 18,013 applications.[52] The University saw increased interest from various groups of students, as applications rose by 13 percent for African American applicants, 20 percent for Asian Americans, 16 percent for Hispanic Americans, and 26 percent for international students SONY PCG-8Z3M battery . The University enrolled 70 more first-years than it did the previous year, as it continued to expand the scope of the School of Engineering and Applied Science. Another record was established for the Class of 2012, with 18,776 applications for 3,170 spots. Applications rose for each of the four undergraduate schools that accept first-year students into their programs: Architecture, Arts & Sciences, Engineering, and Nursing SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. The Class of 2013 saw a tremendous increase to yet another new record high of 21,511 applications. 37% of applicants were accepted. The University continued to see interest from an increasingly diverse pool, as applications increased by another 22 percent for African American students, 56 percent for Hispanic students, 50 percent for international students, and 100 percent for Native Americans SONY PCG-8Z1M battery. The record-setting trend of the previous years was continued for the Class of 2014. Application numbers rose to 22,516, of which 32% were offered admission. Average SAT scores (math, critical reading, writing) rose 10 points from the previous year to 1,993 points. 30% of the Class of 2014, or 983 students, identified themselves as members of one or more minority group SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. The surge in applications continued for the Class of 2016, which was the first time UVA allowed high school students to apply early action. 11,753 students applied early action and 3,187 were offered admission.[56] Overall applications for both early action and regular decision grew by 17.64% to 28,200, an increase of 4,229 from the year before. SONY PCG-8Y2M battery The average SAT score for admitted students were 1,413 on a 1,600-point scale, and 2,119 on a 2,400-point scale. Plus, 98% of the admitted students were in the Top 10% of their high school class. Academics Madison Hall, located across from the Rotunda, has housed General Studies since 1960. Degrees from the University of Virginia must be earned academically – there has never been an honorary degree offered.[58] The policy was instituted by Thomas Jefferson SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. When the Virginia Legislature's Committee of Schools and Colleges was reconsidering it in 1845, then-U.Va. professor and future Massachusetts Institute of Technology founder William Barton Rogers wrote, "[T]he legislators of the University have, we think, wisely made their highest academic honor – that of Master of Arts of the University of Virginia SONY PCG-6W2M battery – the genuine test of diligent and successful literary training, and, disdaining such literary almsgiving, have firmly barred the door against the demands of spurious merit and noisy popularity." When MIT was chartered in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1861, Rogers carried the U.Va. policy through to the new institute SONY PCG-5J5M battery. The University of Virginia places #1 among state-supported universities in the United States in the production of Rhodes Scholars.[61] The University's 47th Rhodes Scholar was named in 2010. Tuition is lower for both in-state and out-of-state students than at most other top universities. The student composition of the University is such that it was described in a feature article in the 2006 America's Best Colleges edition of U.S. News and World Report as being SONY PCG-5K2M battery "chock full of academic stars who turn down private schools like Duke, Princeton, and Cornell for, they say, a better value."[62] Indeed, in 2008 the Center for College Affordability and Productivity named the University the top value among all national public colleges and universities;[63] and in 2009, the University was again named the "#1 Best Value" among public universities in the United States in a separate ranking by USA TODAY and the Princeton Review SONY PCG-5K1M battery . Rankings and recognition In 1985 and 2000 the University of Virginia was described as a "Public Ivy" by authors Richard Moll, Howard Greene, and Matthew Greene, in reference to a group of public universities offering an education comparable to Ivy League universities. In 2009 and 2010, U.S. News & World Report ranked the University of Virginia as the number two public university among "National Universities" in the United States and SONY PCG-5J4M battery #130 among the world's best universities. In the 2011 edition, the undergraduate program at U.Va. ranked #2 out of roughly 200 public universities in the United States, tied with UCLA,[74] and #25 overall (including private schools), tied with UCLA, the University of Southern California, and Wake Forest University. SONY PCG-5J1M battery In the 26-year history of the rankings, U.Va. has never dropped out of the Top 25 listing and has always ranked either #1 or #2 among public schools. In every published edition of the report going back to 1983, the undergraduate program at the University has also retained its position as the highest ranked school, public or private, in its home state of Virginia SONY PCG-5G2M battery. Forbes Magazine ranked the University #44 in its 2010 ranking of U.S. universities, the highest ranking for a public university on the list. Internationally, in 2010 U.Va. ranked 72nd in the world according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. The 2011 QS World University Rankings placed Virginia at 126th overall, four places up from 2011, and 96th in Arts & Humanities. Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery GQ magazine recognized the University of Virginia noting classroom attendance of scholarship athletes as well as student traditions such as referring to the institution as "the University", ranking it 25th. U.Va. has been recognized numerous times as having the highest African American graduation rate among public universities, and by a wide margin. Among the Top Four public universities that consistently rank highest in the ubiquitous U.S. News rankings Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, the University of Virginia has an 87% black student graduation rate, some 15 to 20 percentage points higher than the 70% at the University of California, Berkeley, 68% at the University of Michigan, and 73% at UCLA. In addition, due in part to California Proposition 209 and the Michigan Proposal 2, the University also has much higher African American populations than these peer universities Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. The University of Virginia has an undergraduate student body that is 8.7% African American, while the University of California undergraduate student bodies at Berkeley and UCLA are just 3.2% and 3.7% African American, respectively. Only 5.2% of University of Michigan undergraduates are African American. Thus, relative to its closest peers Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, the University of Virginia has twice to three times the proportion of African American undergraduate students, and they go on to graduate at significantly higher rates. The University of Virginia has many highly regarded graduate programs. Programs ranked in their respective fields' top 10 by U.S. News & World Report include Law, Tax Law, International Law, architecture,[89] 18th through 20th Century British Literature, African-American Literature Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery, American Literature, American Literature Before 1865, Creative Writing,[90] U.S. Colonial History, Political Theory, Developmental Psychology, Adult/Medical-Surgical Nursing, Psychiatric/Mental Health Nursing, Management, Elementary Teacher Education, Secondary Teacher Education, and Special Education Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. Edgar Allan Poe attended the University during its second session in 1826, taking classes in French and German while columns were still being constructed on the original Rotunda.[92] The Jefferson Scholars Foundation offers four year full-tuition scholarships based on regional, international, and at-large competitions Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. Students are nominated by their high schools, interviewed, then invited to weekend-long series of tests of character, aptitude, and general suitability. Approximately 3% of those nominated successfully earn the scholarship. Echols Scholars (College of Arts and Sciences) and Rodman Scholars (School of Engineering and Applied Sciences), which include 6-7% of undergraduate students, receive no financial benefits, but are entitled to special advisors Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery, priority course registration, residence in designated dorms and fewer curricular constraints than other students. The University offers 48 bachelor's degrees, 94 master's degrees, 55 doctoral degrees, 6 educational specialist degrees, and 2 first-professional degrees (Medicine and Law) to its students Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. The University of Virginia Library System holds 5 million volumes. Its Electronic Text Center, established in 1992, has put 70,000 books online as well as 350,000 images that go with them. These e-texts are open to anyone and, as of 2002, were receiving 37,000 daily visits (compared to 6,000 daily visitors to the physical libraries). Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M batteryThe University of Virginia is a member of a consortium engaged in the construction and operation of the Large Binocular Telescope in the Mount Graham International Observatory of the Pinaleno Mountains of southeastern Arizona. It is also a member of both the Astrophysical Research Consortium, which operates telescopes at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, and the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy which operates the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, the Gemini Observatory and the Space Telescope Science Institute. The University of Virginia hosts the headquarters of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, which operates the Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia and the Very Large Array radio telescope made famous in the Carl Sagan television documentary Cosmos and film Contact Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery. The North American Atacama Large Millimeter Array Science Center is also located at the Charlottesville NRAO site. UVA also hosts the Rare Book School, a non-profit organization that studies the history of books and printing. The University is one of 60 elected members of the Association of American Universities, and the only member representing the Commonwealth of Virginia Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. Along with the University of Connecticut, UVA is one of two American member universities of Universitas 21, an international consortium of research-intensive universities. On May 14, 2007, University President John Casteen was named Chairman of the Board of the organization. Graduate placement In 2003, The Wall Street Journal studied the undergraduate backgrounds of entering students at "elite" graduate programs Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. The University of Virginia with 82 placements (2.6% of class) placed 33rd overall and third among all state-supported universities in elite graduate placement. No other state university on the Atlantic Seaboard had greater than one-third the number of placements as the University of Virginia (e.g., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill had 26 placements, Georgia Institute of Technology had 20) Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Faculty Kathryn C. Thornton, Associate Dean for Graduate Programs at the School of Engineering and Applied Science The University of Virginia possesses a distinguished faculty, including a Nobel Laureate, a Pulitzer Prize winner and former U.S. poet laureate, 25 Guggenheim fellows, 26 Fulbright fellows, six National Endowment for the Humanities fellows Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery, two Presidential Young Investigator Award winners, three Sloan award winners, three Packard Foundation Award winners, and a winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The University's faculty were particularly instrumental in the evolution of Internet networking and connectivity Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. Physics professor James McCarthy was the lead academic liaison to the government in the establishment of SURANET, and the University has also participated in ARPANET, Abilene, Internet2, and Lambda Rail. On March 19, 1986 the University's domain name, Virginia.edu, became the first registration under the .edu top-level domain originating from the Commonwealth of Virginia Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. Faculty were originally housed in the Academical Village among the students, serving as both instructors and advisors, continuing on to include the McCormick Road Old Dorms, though this has been phased out in favor of undergraduate student resident advisors (RAs). Several of the faculty, however, continue the University tradition of living on Grounds Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery, either on the Lawn in the various Pavilions, or as fellows at one of three residential colleges (Brown College at Monroe Hill, Hereford College, and the International Residential College). Commonwealth professor of English and former U.S. poet laureate Rita Dove receives the 2011 National Medal of Arts from President Barack Obama Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. Some of the University of Virginia's faculty have become well-known national personalities during their time in Charlottesville. Larry Sabato has, according to The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post, become the most cited professor in the country by national and regional news organizations, both on the Internet and in print. Julian Bond, a lecturer in the Corcoran Department of History since 1990 Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery, was the Chairman of the NAACP from 1998 to 2009. Professor Bond was also chosen to be the moderator of the 1998 Nobel Laureates Conferences, which included His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and other living winners of the Nobel Peace Prize. Media Studies and Law professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, an expert in copyright law and Internet issues Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, moved from New York University to the University of Virginia in 2007. Spanish professor David Gies received the Order of Isabella the Catholic from King Juan Carlos I of Spain in 2007. 1987 Pulitzer Prize for poetry recipient Rita Dove, professor in the English department since 1989, served as United States Poet Laureate from 1993 to 1995 Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery; in 1995, together with former U.S. president Jimmy Carter, she chaired an unprecedented gathering of Nobel laureates in literature in Atlanta. In 1996 Rita Dove received the National Humanities Medal from President Bill Clinton, and President Barack Obama honored her with the 2011 National Medal of Arts, making her only the fourth person, after novelists Eudora Welty, John Updike and Philip Roth, to receive both of the highest United States honors for lifetime achievement in the arts and humanities Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Beginning in 2002, the Cavalier Daily student newspaper has posted faculty compensation online annually. The University is also endowed with several affiliated centers including the Rare Book School, Center for Chemistry of the Universe, headquarters of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, University of Virginia Center for Politics, Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery, Sorensen Institute for Political Leadership, and Miller Center of Public Affairs. The University of Virginia Art Museum is dedicated to creating an environment where both the University community and the general public can study and learn from directly experiencing works of art Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. Financial strength Endowment Managed by the University of Virginia Investment Management Company, and with $5.24 billion as of August 4, 2011[1] the University of Virginia has a per capita endowment of $255,000 per student; this is the largest per capita endowment of any public university in the United States. Considering public university endowments across the country Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery, the University of Michigan ($122,000) is second to U.Va. among national publics in per capita endowment funds. Both are in the top 5 for recent growth rates nationwide. When compared to other public universities in its home state, the per-student endowment at the University of Virginia is several times larger than its nearest competitors, The College of William & Mary ($80,000 per student) and Virginia Tech ($16,000) Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. It is also several times larger than the highest among flagship institutions of nearby states, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ($55,000) and University of Maryland, College Park ($8,600). Triple-A credit rating The University of Virginia is one of only two public universities in the U.S. that has a Triple-A credit rating from all three major credit rating agencies, along with the University of Texas at Austin Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery. This allows it to borrow money and fund projects with the best possible conditions and terms. Chris Long, #2 overall pick of the 2008 NFL Draft The University of Virginia's athletics program competes in Division I (and the Football Bowl Subdivision for football), and has been a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference since 1953. The current Athletic Director at Virginia is Craig Littlepage Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. The Virginia Cavaliers, also called "Wahoos" or "Hoos", have won 21 recognized national championships, 16 of them since 1980. Virginia has won multiple national titles in five different sports, including three men's sports (lacrosse, 7; soccer, 6; and boxing, 2) and two women's sports (lacrosse, 3; and cross country, 2). It also holds a national championship in track and field Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. The men's college basketball team has won either the ACC regular season (1981, 1982, 1983, 1995, 2007) or ACC Tournament (1976) titles six times and has been to the Final Four twice, while the women's squad has been three times. The football team won a share of the ACC Championship in both 1989 and 1995 (both before the conference had a championship game). After never reaching a bowl before 1984 Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery, the team has played in 17 bowl games since. The program is also notable for its recent high draft picks in the National Football League, including the #4 overall pick of 2006, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, and the #2 overall pick of 2008, Chris Long. The program is a party to three major rivalry games in the conference: the longest series in the ACC, the South's Oldest Rivalry with North Carolina Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery; the Commonwealth Cup with Virginia Tech (part of the greater Virginia-Virginia Tech rivalry); and the Beltway Brawl with Maryland. While the Cavaliers have played UNC more times (114) than any other rival, all of these opponents – North Carolina, Virginia Tech, and Maryland – each list Virginia as their schools' longest-standing football rivals Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. In 2006, the men's lacrosse team won its fourth NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship, and sixth including the pre-tournament era. In the title game, Virginia defeated UMass 15-7 in front of a record crowd of 47,062 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia, the first lacrosse crowd to surpass the crowd size of the men's basketball Final Four and the largest crowd to witness any NCAA Championship during the year. The team finished the season a perfect 17–0 Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery, the best record in NCAA lacrosse history. Five years later the Cavaliers won the 2011 championship behind eventual Tewaaraton Trophy winner Steele Stanwick, bringing their tournament era championship total to 5, which puts them fourth amongst NCAA Division I teams and first amongst ACC Teams Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Claudio Reyna won 3 national championships at Virginia and was later captain of the USA team for the 2002 and 2006 World Cups. Dubbed "Captain America" by his British fans, he was named Player of the Century by Soccer America. The new John Paul Jones Arena opened in the fall of 2006 for men's and women's basketball. It seats 14,593 fans, making it the third largest on-campus basketball facility in the ACC and the largest arena not located in a major metropolitan area Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. The arena's inaugural year witnessed the Virginia men's basketball team's first place finish in the ACC. Davenport Field, where the UVa baseball team plays, is also new, opening in 2002. In Brian O'Connor's first 4 seasons at the helm after being made the head baseball coach in July 2003, the team has averaged 44 wins per year and become a nationally-ranked power Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. The team has led the ACC in team ERA for 4 consecutive years. In 2009, the baseball team won a place in the College World Series for the first time. The soccer teams are also national powers, with men's soccer having won 6 national championships to date including its most recent in December 2009. The women's team is regularly ranked in the top 10 nationally Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. The teams play their home matches at Klöckner Stadium, the largest soccer stadium in the ACC. The men's team has been invited to the NCAA Tournament for 26 consecutive years and made the College Cup many times. Former Coach Bruce Arena has coached the US national team and currently coaches the Los Angeles Galaxy in Major League Soccer Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. The Aquatics and Fitness Center (webcam) has been popular among University students for working out and swimming since its opening in Fall 1996, and it is also where the Swimming & Diving teams compete in home meets. The men's swimming and diving team won 8 consecutive ACC Championships between 1999 and 2006. The women's swimming team won its fourth consecutive ACC Championship on February 19, 2011 Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. Also winning consecutive ACC titles has been the men's tennis team, which has won 4 consecutive regular season ACC Championships. Playing their home matches at the Sheridan Snyder Tennis Center, the men's tennis team had their best season ever in 2007, finishing with a 30-4 record and a #2 national ranking. Somdev Devvarman became the first ACC player in conference history to win the NCAA Singles Championship Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery, which he won in two consecutive years. In addition, the tennis team beat Ohio State for the 2008 National Indoor Tennis Championships, 4-1. Now that Virginia Tech has joined the ACC, the Virginia-Virginia Tech rivalry has been strengthened across a number of sports. This rivalry between the University and its larger neighbor to the southwest is followed statewide. UVA's athletic teams have bested the Hokies through the years in many of the major sports Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. The two universities also faced off in the Commonwealth Challenge between 2005 and 2007, with the Cavaliers routing the Hokies in each Challenge: 14.5 to 7.5 in 2005-2006 and 14 to 8 in 2006-2007. The competition was then dropped out of sensitivity following the Virginia Tech massacre Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Fight song The Cavalier Song is the official fight song of the University of Virginia. The song was a result of a contest held in 1923 by the University. The Cavalier Song, with lyrics by Lawrence Haywood Lee, Jr. and music by Fulton Lewis, Jr., was selected as the winner. Generally the second half of the song is played during sporting events. Until the 2008 football season Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery, the entire fight song could be heard during the Cavalier Marching Band's entrance at home football games. Student life Student life at the University of Virginia is marked by a number of unique traditions. The campus of the University is referred to as "the Grounds." Freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors are instead called first-, second-, third- Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery, and fourth-years in order to reflect Jefferson's belief that learning is a never-ending process, rather than one to be completed within four years. Also, students do not "graduate" from the University; instead, they "take" their degrees. Professors are traditionally addressed as "Mr." or "Ms." instead of "Doctor" (although medical doctors are the exception and are called "Doctor") in deference to Thomas Jefferson's desire to have an equality of ideas, discriminated by merit and unburdened by title Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. In 2005, the University was named "Hottest for Fitness" by Newsweek magazine, due in part to 94% of its students using one of the four indoor athletics facilities. Particularly popular is the Aquatics and Fitness Center, situated across the street from the Alderman Dorms. The University of Virginia sent more workers to the Peace Corps in 2006 and 2008 than any other "medium-sized" university in the United States Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Volunteerism at the University is centered in Madison House, which offers numerous opportunities to serve others. Among the numerous programs offered are tutoring, housing improvement, and an organization called Hoos Against Hunger, which gives leftover food from restaurants to the homeless of Charlottesville, rather than allowing it to be discarded Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. The University Amphitheater A number of secret societies at the University, most notably the Seven Society, Z Society, and IMP Society, have operated for decades, leaving their painted marks on University buildings. Other significant secret societies include Eli Banana, T.I.L.K.A., the Purple Shadows (who commemorate Jefferson's birthday shortly after dawn on the Lawn each April 13) Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery, The Sons of Liberty, and the 21 Society. Not all the secret societies keep their membership unknown, but even those who don't hide their identities generally keep most of their good works and activities far from the public eye. The student life building on the University of Virginia is called Newcomb Hall. It is home to the Student Activities Center (SAC) and the Media Activities Center (MAC), where student groups can get leadership consulting and use computing and copying resources Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, as well as several meeting rooms for student groups. Student Council, the student self-governing body, holds meetings Tuesdays at 6PM in the Newcomb South Meeting Room. Student Council, or "StudCo," also holds office hours and regular committee meetings in the newly renovated Newcomb Programs and Council (PAC) Room. The PAC also houses the University Programs Council and Class Councils Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. Newcomb basement is home to both the office of the independent student newspaper The Declaration, The Cavalier Daily, and the Consortium of University Publications. Boyd Tinsley's "jam sessions" would last for entire nights while he was a student at the University, attracting not only college musicians, but professional musicians as well; such as Jorma Kaukonen of Jefferson Airplane Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery. Student Societies have existed on grounds since the early 19th Century. The Jefferson Literary and Debating Society, founded in 1825, is the second oldest Greek-Lettered organization in the nation (the oldest being the Phi Beta Kappa honor fraternity). It continues to meet every Friday at 7:29 PM in Jefferson Hall. The Washington Literary Society and Debating Union also meets every week, and the two organizations often engage in a friendly rivalry Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. In the days before social fraternities existed and intercollegiate athletics became popular, these Societies were often the focal point of social activity on grounds. Several fraternities were later founded at the University of Virginia including Pi Kappa Alpha (March 1, 1868) and Kappa Sigma (December 10, 1869). Many of these fraternities are located on Rugby Road Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. A national publication's survey recently revealed that U.Va.'s students give their library system higher marks than students at any other school in the United States. The best-known library is Alderman Library for the humanities and social sciences, which contains 10 floors of stacks with many useful study nooks hidden among them. U.Va.'s renowned Albert Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery and Shirley Small Special Collections Library features one of the premier collections of American Literature in the country as well as two copies of the original printing of the Declaration of Independence. It was in this library in 2006 that Robert Stilling, an English Graduate Student, discovered an unpublished Robert Frost poem from 1918. Clemons Library, next to Alderman, is a popular study spot Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. Hundreds of students can be found gathered on its various quiet floors on any given night. Clark Hall, home of the Science & Engineering Library, also scores high marks. One of the notable features of Clark Hall is the Mural Room, decorated by two three-panel murals by Allyn Cox, depicting the Moral Law and the Civil Law. The murals were finished and set in place in 1934 Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. As of 2006, the University and Google were working on the digitization of selected collections from the library system. As at many universities, alcohol use is a part of the social life of many undergraduate students at the University. Concerns particularly arose about a past trend of Fourth-Year students consuming excessive alcohol during the day of the last home football game. This trend has been short lived, as the vast majority of undergraduates approach drinking in a responsible manner. Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery, President Casteen announced a $2.5 million donation from Anheuser-Busch to fund a new UVA-based Social Norms Institute in September 2006. A spokesman said: "the goal is to get students to emulate the positive behavior of the vast majority of students." Student safety While Charlottesville, which typically registers zero to three murders per year, is generally considered a safe city, students have been involved on both sides of homicides in recent history Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. On March 22, 1986, physiology graduate student Pat Collins disappeared after using an ATM in downtown Charlottesville. He was never found. On November 8, 2003, student Andrew Alston stabbed an Albemarle County firefighter to death during a fight on 14th Street. His manslaughter sentence resulted in a jail term of three years, prompting allegations of special treatment for students Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. On May 3, 2010 in what has become known as the UVA Lacrosse Killing, 22-year-old UVA women's lacrosse player Yeardley Love was found unresponsive in her 14th Street apartment. Later that day, former romantic partner and then-current lacrosse player George Huguely was charged with her murder Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. Student events One of the largest events at the University of Virginia is called Springfest. It takes place every year in the spring, and features a large free concert and various inflatables and games. Another popular event is Foxfield, a steeplechase and social gathering that takes place nearby in Albemarle County in April, and which is annually attended by thousands of students from the University of Virginia and neighboring colleges Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Honor system HONOR PLEDGE On my honor as a student, I have neither given nor received aid on this assignment/examination. The University of Virginia has an honor code, formally known as the Honor System. The Honor System is entirely student-run and was founded by Virginia students in 1842 after John A. G. Davis, chairman of the faculty and professor of law Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery, who was attempting to resolve a conflict between students, was shot to death. Originally, the student was expected to hold himself to a gentleman's code of conduct. In the wake of the shooting, law professor Henry St. George Tucker, Sr. proposed a basic honor pledge as a gesture of confidence in the honor of Virginia students. In modern times however, the Honor System is composed of only three tenets: a student will not lie, cheat, or steal Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. It extends to all matters academic and personal, and the sole sanction for a confirmed Honor System violation is dismissal from the University. This is called the "single sanction". A plaque regarding 150 years of the Honor System, placed on the Lawn in 1992 The system is not without its detractors – it has been criticized because the required severe penalty may prevent more moderate violations from being reported or acted upon. Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery As the system is entirely student run, a change to the Honor Committee constitution could have the effect of ending the single sanction system of punishment. Although students have voted on numerous proposals to weaken or eliminate the single sanction over the past few decades, none has ever succeeded. Support for the honor system has waned in recent years, and in the Spring of 2007 a referendum to limit single sanction failed to pass by the necessary 60% margin after earning only 49.5% of the votes cast Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. In theory, the Honor System allows the faculty to do such things as assign timed take-home examinations, and research or studies to be done in a particular way, with the assurance that the strictures placed on the student will be observed. However, no professor is required to extend such courtesies Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. The student is often required to sign all examinations or assignments with the following pledge: "On my honor as a student, I have neither given nor received aid on this assignment/examination." The Honor System allows the student to purchase books and supplies on-Grounds upon giving his or her word to pay, and some members of the Charlottesville community accept the word of the student regarding off-Grounds business transactions Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. While cheating convictions are relatively rare (24 students were dismissed during the 2003 academic year, and 21 more were dismissed in 2004), one large cheating scandal occurred in 2001. Physics professor and Hereford College Dean Louis Bloomfield, based on a student's complaint, had suspicions that some of his students had copied portions of their term papers from fraternity archives in his Introduction to Physics class Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery. After devising a computer program to detect copied phrases of at least six sequential words, over 150 students were accused of plagiarizing or allowing others to plagiarize their work over the previous five semesters. Although over 100 of these students were eventually exonerated, 48 students either admitted guilt or were convicted, and were therefore dismissed from the University Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Three of these students had already graduated, and their degrees were subsequently revoked. Notable alumni Main article: List of University of Virginia people Alumni Hall Among the individuals who have attended or graduated from the University of Virginia are author Edgar Allan Poe, medical researcher Walter Reed, painter Georgia O'Keeffe, polar explorer Richard Byrd, computer scientist John Backus, pioneer kidney transplant surgeon J. Hartwell Harrison, five NASA astronauts (Patrick G. Forrester, Karl Gordon Henize Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, Bill Nelson, Thomas Marshburn, and Kathryn C. Thornton), deep sea vent researcher Richard Lutz, NASA Launch Director Michael D. Leinbach, Pulitzer Prize-winning poets Karl Shapiro and Henry S. Taylor, short story writer Breece D'J Pancake, Director of the National Institutes of Health Francis Collins, Dale Elizabeth Wright, journalist Katie Couric Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery, journalist Margaret Brennan, author David Nolan, comedian Tina Fey, film director Tom Shadyac, author Barbara A. Perry, musician Boyd Tinsley,[139] Jens Söring, Elizabeth Haysom, billionaire commodity trader Paul Tudor Jones, noted philanthropist and founder of Landmark Communications Frank Batten, influential indie rock artist Stephen Malkmus, hip-hop artist and Peabody Award winner Asheru, and TV personality Vern Yip Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. Notable athletes who have attended or graduated from the University of Virginia include 3-time NCAA Player of the Year for men's basketball Ralph Sampson, pro wrestler Virgil, 3-time Olympic Gold Medalist for women's basketball Dawn Staley, New England Patriots Long Snapper Danny Aiken, NFL Pro Bowlers Ronde Barber, Tiki Barber, and James Farrior Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery; NFL Super Bowl appearances Thomas Jones, Antwan Harris, and Terrence Wilkins, and professional baseball players Mark Reynolds and Ryan Zimmerman, Olympic medalist Wyatt Allen, Indian tennis player Somdev Devvarman, The University of Virginia has been home to several top soccer players throughout the years – several former U.Va. players have gone on to play for the United States men's national soccer team Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery, including Tony Meola, Jeff Agoos, and former USA team captains Claudio Reyna[150] and John Harkes. Numerous political leaders have also attended the University of Virginia, including the 28th President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, the 18th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter, U.S. Senator and 1968 Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy[135] (Law School), and his brother, Senator Ted Kennedy Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. Many of Virginia's governors studied at the University, including Colgate Darden, George Allen, Albertis S. Harrison, Jr., Frederick W. M. Holliday, Claude A. Swanson, Elbert Lee Trinkle, John S. Battle, James Lindsay Almond, Jr., John N. Dalton, Gerald L. Baliles, and Jim Gilmore. The Université de Montréal (English translation: University of Montréal) (UdeM) is a public research university in Montreal Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery, Quebec, Canada. The francophone institution comprises thirteen faculties, more than sixty departments and two[4] affiliated schools: the École Polytechnique (School of Engineering) and HEC Montréal (School of Business). It offers more than 650 undergraduate programmes and graduate programmes, including 71 doctoral programmes Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. The university has Quebec's largest sponsored research income and the fourth largest in Canada, allocating close to $447.2 million to research conducted in more than 150 research centres as of 2007. It is also part of the U15 universities. More than 55,000 students are enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs, making it the second largest university in Canada in terms of student enrolment Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Early years As an institution, the university was first founded when the Université Laval in Quebec City founded a new branch in Montréal in 1878, which became known as the Université de Laval à Montréal.[7] This initially went against the wishes of Montréal's prelate, who advocated an independent university in his city.[8] Certain parts of the institution's educational facilities Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery, such as those of the Séminaire de Québec, had already been established in Montréal as early as 1876.[9] The Vatican granted the university some administrative autonomy in 1889, thus allowing it to choose its own professors and license its own diplomas. However, it was not until May 8, 1919 that a papal charter from Pope Benedict XV granted full autonomy to the university. Sony VAIO PCG-7151L batteryIt thus became an independent Catholic university and adopted Université de Montréal as its name. Laval composed by Wilfrid Beaudry was dedicated to the students at Laval University and the Université de Montréal. The music for piano was published in Québec by J. Beaudry, circa 1906. At the time of its creation, less than a hundred students were admitted to the university's three faculties, which at that time were located in Old Montreal Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. These were the faculty of theology (located at the Grand séminaire de Montréal), the faculty of law (hosted by the Society of Saint-Sulpice) and the faculty of medicine (at the Château Ramezay). Graduate training based on German-inspired American models of specialized course work and completion of a research thesis was introduced and adopted Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Most of Québec's secondary education establishments employed classic course methods of varying quality. This forced the university to open a preparatory school in 1887 to harmonize the education level of its students. Named the "Faculty of Arts", this school would remain in use until 1972 and was the predecessor of Québec's current CEGEP system Sony VPCW21C7E battery. Founding by provincial charter Although a branch of Laval University was planned as Montreal's first French-language university, it was not until February 14, 1920, that the first provincial charter founding the university was passed. The second provincial charter was passed in 1950. The policy of university education initiated in the 1960s (following the Quiet Revolution) Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery was a response to popular pressure and the belief that higher education was a key to social justice and economic productivity for individuals as well as society. The third provincial charter, which was passed in 1967, defined the Université de Montréal as a public institution, dedicated to higher learning and research, in the administration of which students and teachers would have the right to participate Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. Campus relocation Former campus on Rue Saint-Denis in 1903. From 1876 to 1895, most university classes took place in the Grand séminaire de Montréal. From 1895 to 1942, it was housed in a building at the intersection of Saint-Denis and Sainte-Catherine streets in Montreal's eastern downtown Quartier Latin. Unlike English language universities in Montréal, such as McGill University, the university suffered a lack of funding for two major reasons Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery: the relative poverty of the French Canadian population and the complications ensuing from its remote management from Quebec City. The downtown campus was hit by three different fires between 1919 and 1921, further complicating the university's already precarious finances and forcing it to spend much of its resources on repairing its own infrastructure Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. By 1930, enough funds had been accumulated to start the construction of a new campus on the north west slope of Mount Royal, adopting new plans designed by Ernest Cormier. However, the financial crisis of the 1930s virtually suspended all ongoing construction.[17] Many speculated that the university would have to sell off its unfinished building projects in order to ensure its own survival Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. Not before 1939 did the provincial government directly intervene by injecting public funds. Campus construction subsequently resumed and the mountain campus was officially inaugurated on June 3, 1943. The Cote-des-Neiges site includes property expropriated from a residential development along Decelles Avenue, known as Northmount Heights Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. The university's former downtown facilities would later serve Montreal's second francophone university, the Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM). Nuclear research Main article: Montréal Laboratory In 1943, the university assisted the Western Allies by providing laboratory accommodations on its campus. Scientists there worked to develop a nuclear reactor, notably by conducting various heavy water experiments. The research was part of the larger Manhattan Project, which aimed to develop the first atomic bomb Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery. Scientists here managed to produce the first atomic battery to work outside of the United States. One of the participating Québécois scientists, Pierre Demers, also discovered a series of radioactive elements issued from Neptunium. Growth and expansion Two distinct schools eventually became affiliated to the university. The first was the École Polytechnique, a school of engineering, which was founded in 1873 and became affiliated in 1887. The second was the École des Hautes Études Commerciales Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery, or HEC, which was founded in 1907 and became part of the university in 1915. The first francophone school of architecture in Canada opened in 1907 at the École Polytechnique. Between 1920 and 1925, seven new faculties were added to the initial three: Philosophy, Literature, Sciences, Veterinary medicine, Dental surgery, Pharmacy and Social sciences. Notably, the Faculty of Social sciences was founded in 1920 by Édouard Montpetit Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery, the first laic to lead a faculty. He thereafter fulfilled the role of secretary-general until 1950. In 1965, the appointment of the university's first secular rector, Roger Gaudry, paved the way for modernization. The university established the first adult education degree program offered by a French Canadian university in 1968. An important event that marked the university's history was the École Polytechnique massacre Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. On December 6, 1989, a gunman armed with an automatic rifle entered the École Polytechnique building, killing 14 people, all of whom were women, before taking his own life. Since 2002, the university has embarked on its largest construction projects since the late 1960s, with five new modern buildings planned for advanced research in pharmacology, engineering, aerospace, cancer studies and biotechnology Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery. Map of the university's Mont-Royal campus. The university's main campus is located on the northern slope of Mont-Royal in the Outremont and Côte-des-Neiges boroughs. Its landmark Pavilion Roger-Gaudry, designed by noted architect Ernest Cormier, and named for former rector Roger Gaudry, can be seen from around the campus and is known for its imposing tower. It is built mainly in the Art Deco style, with some elements of International style Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery. The campus is served by the Côte-des-Neiges, Université-de-Montreal, and Édouard-Montpetit metro stations. Apart from its main Mont-Royal campus, the university also maintains four regional facilities in Lanaudière, Laval, Longueuil, Québec and Mauricie.[24] The campus in Laval, just north of Montréal, was opened in 2006. It is Laval's first university campus Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery, and is located in the area near the Montmorency metro station. In October 2009, the university announced an expansion to its Laval satellite campus with the commissioning of its six-storey Cité du Savoir complex.[25] In order to solve the problem of lack of space on its main campus, the university is also planning to open a new campus in Outremont Sony VPCY11S1E battery. The Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM) and the Centre hospitalier universitaire Sainte-Justine are the two teaching hospital networks of the Université de Montréal's Faculty of Medicine, although the latter is also affiliated with other medical institutions such as the Institut universitaire de gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal Heart Institute, Hôpital Sacré-Coeur and Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Academics Université de Montréal is a publicly funded research university, and a member of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Undergraduate students make the majority of the university community, accounting for 74 percent of the university student body, followed by mater students at 19 percent, and doctoral students at 7 percent. Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery The full-time undergraduate programs comprise the majority of the school's enrolment, made up of 42,684 undergraduate students. From the 1 June 2010 to the 31 May 2011, the university conferred 7,012 bachelor degrees, 461 doctoral degrees, and 3,893 master degrees. Depending on a student's citizenship, they may be eligible for financial assistance from the Student Financial Assistance program Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery, administered by the provincial Ministry of Education, Recreation and Sports, and/or the Canada Student Loans and Grants through the federal and provincial governments. The university's Office of Financial Aid acts as intermediaries between the students and the Quebec government for all matters relating to financial assistance programs. The financial aid provided may come in the form of loans, grants, bursaries, scholarships fellowships and work programs Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery. Reputation Université de Montréal has consistently been ranked one of Canada's top universities. The 2011-2012 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed the university 104th in the world, and sixth in Canada. The 2011 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 137th in the world, and fifth in Canada. The 2012 Academic Ranking of World Universities Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery (ARWU) rankings, the university ranked 101-150th in the world. In terms of national rankings, Maclean's ranked the university 12th in their 2011 Medical Doctoral university rankings. The university was ranked in spite of having opted out—along with several other universities in Canada—of participating in Maclean's graduate survey since 2006 Sony VPCZ138GA battery. The university was ranked 76-100th in the 2012 ARWU rankings within the field of social sciences, and 5-8th in the country. The 2011-2012 Times Higher Education rankings for clinical, pre-clinical, and health universities, the university's health science programs ranked 47th in the world and fourth in Canada. The Université de Montréal Faculty of Law was ranked second Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery, out of the six civil law schools in Canada in Maclean's 2011 law school rankings. HEC Montréal, an affiliated business school with the university has also received significant recognition. The business school had ranked 12th on the 2011 Forbes ranking of the best international one-year MBA programs, placing higher than any Canadian business school. The 2011 Financial Times ranking for master's Sony VPCZ13M9E/X batteryin management programs placed HEC Montréal 39th in the world, and first in the country.[42] In CNN Expansion's 2011 ranking of the world's best MBA program, HEC Montréal was ranked 62nd in the world, and second nationally. In The Economist's 2011 ranking of the best MBA program in North America, HEC Montréal was 56th on the continent, and fifth nationally. Sony VPCZ13V9E battery The 2010 Bloomberg Businessweek biannual business school rankings had also ranked HEC Montréal as the 15th best business school outside the United States, and the sixth best business school in Canada. The QS ranking of North American MBA programs placed HEC Montréal 30th in North America, and 7th in Canada. Sony VPCZ13V9E/X battery In a employability survey published by the New York Times in October 2011, when CEOs and chairmans were asked to select the top universities which they recruited from, HEC Montréal placed 46th in the world, and second in Canada. Research In Research Infosource's 2011 ranking of Canada's 50 top research universities, the university was ranked third, with a sponsored research income of $524,133 million Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery, the third largest in the country. The university has an average of $278,200 per faculty member, making it the fifth most research-intensive full-service university. In terms of research performance, High Impact Universities 2010 ranked the university 108th out of 500 universities, and sixth in the country.[49] In the field of medicine, dentistry, pharmacology, and health sciences Sony VPCZ21M9E battery, the 2010 High Impact Universities ranking placed Université de Montréal in 68th in the world, and fifth nationally. In the field of life, agricultural and biological sciences, the 2010 High Impact Universities ranking placed the university 99th in the world, and fourth in Canada. The Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan (HEEACT), an organization which also evaluates universities based on their scientific paper's performances, ranked the university 101st in the world, and sixth in Canada Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery. In HEEACT's 2011 rankings which focused on life sciences, the university was ranked 81st in the world, and fourth in Canada. In HEEACT's rankings focusing on clinical medicines, the university was also ranked 81st in the world, and sixth in the country. The HEEACT rankings focusing on social sciences placed the university 83rd in the world and seventh in Canada Sony VPCZ21V9E battery. Student life Montréal Carabin's women's ice hockey team, which was first formed in 2009.[56] The two main student unions on administrative and policy issues is the Fédération des associations étudiantes du campus de l'Université de Montréal (FAÉCUM), which represent the interests of all full-time undergraduate and graduate students, and the Association Étudiante de la Maîtrise et du Doctorat de HEC Montréal (AEMD) Sony VPCEH3T9E battery, which represents the interests of those enrolled in HEC Montréal. FAÉCUM traces its linage back to 1989, when the Fédération étudiante universitaire du Québec (FEUQ) was founded, and is currently the largest student organization in Quebec. The organizations and clubs accredited at the university cover a wide range of interests including academics, culture, religion, social issues Sony VPCEH3N6E battery, and recreation. FAÉCUM is currently associated with 82 student organizations and clubs. Three fraternities and sororities are recognized by the university's student union, Sigma Thêta Pi, Nu Delta Mu and Zeta Zeta Lambda. Media The university's student population operates a number of media outlets throughout the campus environment. The Quartier Libre, is university's main student newspaper.[62] CISM-FM is an independently owned radio station Sony VPCEH3N1E battery, owned by the students of the Université de Montréal, and operated by the student union. The radio started in 1970, and received a permit from the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) on the 10 July 1990 to transmit on an FM band. On the 14 March 1991, CISM's broadcasting antenna was boosted to 10 000 watts Sony VPCEH3D0E battery. With a broadcasting radius of 70 km, CISM is now the world's largest French-language university radio station.[64] The CFTU-DT television station also receives its technical and administrative support from the student body.[65] Main article: Montreal Carabins Sport teams at Université de Montréal are known as the Carabins. The Carabins sports teams participate in the Canadian Interuniversity Sport's (CIS) Réseau du sport étudiant du Québec (RSEQ) conference for most varsity sports Sony VPCEH3B1E battery. Varsity teams include badminton, Canadian football, cheerleading, golf, hockey, swimming, alpine skiing, soccer, tennis and volleyball. The athletics program at the university dates back to 1922. The university's athletic facilities is open to both their varsity teams as well as to their students. The major sports facility at the university is the Centre d'éducation physique Sony VPCEH2Z1E batteryet des sports de l'Université de Montréal (CEPSUM), which is also home to all of the Carabin's varsity teams. The building itself was built in 1976, in preparation for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal. The outdoor stadium of CEPSUM, which hosts the university's football team, can seat around 5,100 people Sony VPCEH2S9E battery. Notable alumni and faculty Pierre Trudeau, former Prime Minister of Canada also graduated from Université de Montréal Main article: List of Université de Montréal people The university has an extensive alumni network, with more than 300,000 members registered with the university's alumni network. Throughout the university's history, faculty, alumni, and former students have played prominent roles in a number of fields Sony VPCEH2Q1E battery. Many former students have gained local and national prominence for serving in government. Michaëlle Jean served as Governor General of Canada, and Pierre Trudeau served as the 15th Prime Minister of Canada. Ten Premiers of Quebec have also graduated from the university, including Jean-Jacques Bertrand, Robert Bourassa, Maurice Duplessis Sony VPCEH2P0E battery, Lomer Gouin, Daniel Johnson, Jr., Daniel Johnson Sr., Pierre-Marc Johnson, Bernard Landry, Jacques Parizeau, and Paul Sauvé. A number of students have also gained prominence for their research and work in a number of scientific fields. Roger Guillemin, a graduate of the university, would later be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work with neurohormones. Sony VPCEH2N1E batteryAlumnus Ishfaq Ahmad, would also gain prominence for his work with Pakistan's nuclear weapon's program, and their nuclear power program.[81] Jocelyn Faubert, known for his work in the fields of visual perception, is currently a faculty member of the university. Gilles Brassard, best known for his fundamental work in quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation, quantum entanglementdistillation Sony VPCEH2M9E battery, quantum pseudo-telepathy, and the classical simulation of quantum entanglement. Several prominent business leaders have also graduated from the university. Graduates include Philippe de Gaspé Beaubien, founder and CEO of Telemedia, Louis R. Chênevert, chairman and CEO of the United Technologies Corporation, and Pierre Karl Péladeau, president and CEO of Quebecor Sony VPCEH2M1E battery.
Lund University (Swedish: Lunds universitet) is one of Europe's most prestigious universities and Scandinavia's largest institutions for education and research, consistently ranked among the world's top 100 universities. The university, located in the city of Lund in the province of Scania, Sweden, traces its roots back to 1425 Dell Latitude E5420 Battery, when a Franciscan studium generale was founded in Lund next to the Lund Cathedral, making it the oldest institution of higher education in Scandinavia followed by studium generales in Uppsala in 1477 and Copenhagen in 1479. The current university was founded in 1666 after Sweden had won Scania in the 1658 peace agreement with Denmark Dell Latitude E5520 Battery. Lund University has eight faculties, with additional campuses in the cities of Malmö and Helsingborg, with 47,000 students[18] in more than 280 different programmes and around 2,250 separate courses. The University has some 680 partner universities in over 50 countries and it belongs to the League of European Research Universities as well as the global Universitas 21 network Dell Latitude E6120 Battery. Two major facilities for materials research are currently under construction in Lund: MAX IV, which will be a world-leading synchrotron radiation laboratory and European Spallation Source (ESS), a European facility that will be home to the world’s most powerful neutron source. The university traditionally centers on the Lundagård park adjacent to the Lund Cathedral Dell Latitude E6220 Battery, with various departments spread in different locations in town, but mostly concentrated in a belt stretching north from the park connecting to the university hospital area and continuing out to the northeastern periphery of the town, where one finds the large campus of the Faculty of Engineering Dell Latitude E6320 Battery. History Medieval origins The city of Lund has a long history as a center for learning and was the ecclesiastical centre and seat of the archbishop of Denmark. A cathedral school (the Katedralskolan) for the training of clergy was established in 1085 and is today Scandinavia's oldest school. A studium generale (a medieval university education) was founded in 1425, although it was not until 1438 that education was started by the Franciscan order for a baccalaureus degree. Dell Latitude E6420 Battery 17th-19th century After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the Scanian lands came under the possession of the Swedish Crown, which quickly founded the Lund University in 1666 as a means of Swedification. It was the fifth university under the Swedish king, after Uppsala University (1477), the University of Tartu (1632, now in Estonia), the Academy of Åbo (1640, now in Finland) Dell Latitude E6520 Battery, and the University of Greifswald (founded 1456; Swedish 1648–1815, now in Germany). It is the second-oldest university on Swedish ground today. The university was named Academia Carolina after Charles X Gustav of Sweden. The name was in some formal use until the late 19th century, when Lund University became the widespread denomination Dell Latitude D420 Battery. The university was at its founding granted four faculties: law, theological, medicine and philosophy. They were the cornerstones, and for more than 200 years this system was in effect. Towards the end of the 17th century, the number of students hovered around 100. Some notable professors in the early days were Samuel Pufendorf, a juridical historian; and Canutus Hahn and Kristian Papke in philosophy Dell Latitude D430 Battery. The Scanian War in 1676 led to a shut-down, which lasted until 1682. The university was re-opened largely due to regional patriots, but the university was not to enjoy a high status until well into the 19th century. Lecturing rooms were few, and lectures were held in the Lund Cathedral and its adjacent chapel. The professors were underpaid Dell Studio 1450 Battery. View of the Historical Museum building in the 19th century. In 1713, Charles XII of Sweden entered Lund. He stayed in Lund for three years, in between his warlike expeditions. The town of Lund and the university attracted a temporary attention boost. The most notable lecturer during this time was Andreas Rydelius. Peace was finally restored with the death of Charles XII in 1718, and during the first half of the 18th century the university was granted added funds Dell Studio 1457 Battery. The number of students was now well around 500. Despite not being on par with Uppsala University, it had still built a solid reputation and managed to attract prominent professors. Around 1760 the university reputation dropped as the number of students fell below 200, most of whom hailed from around the province. However, by 1780 its reputation was largely restored, and continued to rise through the 1820s Dell Studio 1458 Battery. This was largely owing to popular and well-educated lecturers particularly in philology; the prominent professor Esaias Tegnér was a particularly notable character with widespread authority. He, in turn, attracted others towards Lund. One of these was the young theological student C. G. Brunius, who studied ancient languages under Tegnér and were later to become professor of Greek Dell Latitude D410 Battery. With time he was to devote himself to architectures and he redesigned several of Lund's buildings, as well as churches of the province. 20th century-present The University Square in the 1910s. In the early 20th century, the university had a student population as small as one thousand, consisting largely of upper-class pupils training to become civil servants, lawyers and doctors. In the coming decades it started to grow significantly Dell Inspiron 9100 Battery, until it became one of the country's largest. In 1964 the social sciences were split from the Faculty of Humanities. Lund Institute of Technology was established in 1961 but was merged with Lund University eight years later. In recent years, Lund University has been very popular among applicants to Swedish higher education institutions, both nationally and internationally. For studies starting in autumn 2012, Lund received 11,160 foreign master's applications from 152 countries Dell Inspiron XPS Battery, which was roughly one third of all international applications to Swedish universities. Women at the university The first woman to study in Lund was the medical student Hedda Andersson who entered the university in 1880 (two years before the next woman to do so).[23] Hilma Borelius was the first woman who finished a doctorate in Lund, in 1910. The first woman to be appointed to a professor's chair was the historian Birgitta Odén (1965) Dell Inspiron 1320n Battery. In 1992 Boel Flodgren, Professor of Business Law, was appointed rector magnificus (or, strictly speaking, rectrix magnifica) of Lund University. As such, she was the first woman to be the head of a European university. Kungshuset, the oldest university building (completed 1584), currently houses the Department of Philosophy Dell Inspiron 1320 Battery. The university's facilities are mainly located in the small city of Lund in Scania, about 15 km away from central Malmö and 50 km from Copenhagen. The university's prominence and large student population have much impact on the city, effectively making it a university town. Over a hundred university buildings[24] scatter around town, most of them in an area covering more than 1 km² Dell Inspiron mini 910 Battery, stretching towards the north-east from Lundagård park in the very centre of town. Buildings in and around Lundagård include the main building, Kungshuset, the Historical Museum and the Academic Society's headquarters. The main library building is located in a park 400 meters to the north, followed by the large hospital complex. Lund University has a satellite campus in nearby Malmö Dell Inspiron mini 9 Battery, Sweden's third largest city. The Faculty of Fine and Perforning Arts' three academies: Malmö Art Academy, Malmö Academy of Music and Malmö Theatre Academy, are all located in Malmö. The city is also the location of Skåne University Hospital, where Lund University performs a considerable amount of research and medical training Dell Inspiron 910 Battery. Campus Helsingborg is, as the name suggests, located in the city of Helsingborg, almost 50 km from Lund. Opened in 2000, it consists of a building in the city centre, right next to the central train station and the harbour. Nearly 3,000 students are based on the campus.[25] The Department of Service Management and the Department of Communication and Media are among those located at the campus in Helsingborg Dell Inspiron 11z Battery. Teaching and training at the School of Aviation (LUSA) takes place at an airfield next to the town of Ljungbyhed, about 40 km away from Lund. University Library Lund University library was established in 1666 at the same time as the university and is one of Sweden's oldest and largest. Since 1698 it has received legal deposit copies of everything printed in the country. Today six Swedish libraries receive legal deposit copies Dell Inspiron mini 10 Battery, but only Lund and the Royal Library in Stockholm are required to keep everything for posterity. Swedish imprints make up half of the collections, which amount to 170,000 linear metres of shelving (2006). The library serves 620,000 loans per year, the staff is 200 full-time equivalents, and the 33 branch libraries house 2600 reading room desks.[26] The current main building at Helgonabacken opened in 1907. Before that, the old building was Liberiet close to the city's cathedral Dell Inspiron mini 1010 Battery. Liberiet was built as a library in the 15th century, but now serves as a cafe. Hospital Education and research in the health sciences at the university is operated in cooperation with Skåne University Hospital, located in both Lund and Malmö. Medical education takes place in the Biomedical Centre, next to the hospital in lund. Nursing and occupational therapy are taught in the Health Sciences Centre nearby. The university also operates the Clinical Research Centre in Malmö, featuring many specialized laboratories Dell Inspiron 1470 Battery. Organization Sphinxes overlooking Lundgård Park. Administration The University Board is the University's highest decision-making body. The Board comprises the Vice-Chancellor, representatives of the teaching staff and students, and representatives of the community and business sector.[27] Chair of the board is Margot Wallström. Executive power lies with the Vice-Chancellor and the University Management Group, to which most other administrative bodies are subordinate Dell Inspiron 1470n Battery. Education Approximately 27,700 students study within one of the 274 educational programs, the eightyfive international master's programmes or the 2000 free-standing courses. Around five hundred courses are, or can be, held in English for the benefit of international exchange students. There are several programmes allowing foreign students to study abroad at the University Dell Inspiron 15z Battery. Notable exchangees include United States Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who spent time at Lund University in the 1960s conducting research.[30] The university offers 9 out of the 20 most sought after programmes in Sweden. The master's programme in International Marketing is the most popular choice in the country, with almost a thousand applications yearly Dell Inspiron 1570 Battery. Research Lund University is well known as one of Scandinavia's largest research universities.[9] It ranks among top performers in the European Union in terms of papers accepted for publication in scientific journals. It is one of Sweden's top receiver of research grants, most of which come from government-funded bodies. The EU is the university's second largest external research funder and Lund is the 23rd largest receiver of funding within the union's Seventh Framework Programme Dell Inspiron 1570n Battery. The university is active in many internationally important research areas such as nanotechnology, climate change and stem cell biology. Rankings Lund University is among the most renowned institutions of higher learning in the Nordic countries and is rarely ranked below 100 in the world by the most influential ranking agencies. In 2011, it ranked 1st among comprehensive universities in Scandinavia and 80th in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings dell inspiron 500M battery, and in the Academic Ranking of World Universities, compiled by Shanghai Jiao Tong University, it was in the 101-150 category. Lund was ranked 86th in the world in the 2011 QS World University Rankings[39] and the University Ranking by Academic Performance Research Laboratory ranked Lund 62nd in the world and second in Sweden in 2011 dell inspiron 600M battery. In 2011, Times Higher Education compiled a special world ranking based exclusively on reputation for teaching and research, where Lund University appeared in the 71-80 category.[41] In the same year, QS issued world university rankings by subject,[42] placing Lund within the top 50 in environmental sciences, geography and area studies, physical sciences and civil and structural engineering dell inspiron 630M battery. Student life AF-Borgen, the student-run complex at the heart of student life in Lund, May 2002. Lund student life is based on three central structures: the student nations, the Academic Society (AF) and the student unions. Before July 1, 2010, students were required to enroll in a student union, nation or AF in order to receive grades at the university, but this is no longer compulsory.[43] Students may still enroll in these organizations if they wish dell inspiron 640M battery. Student Nations Main article: List of Lund University Nations The nations in Lund are a central part of the university's history, initially serving as residential colleges for students, organized by geographic origin. Östgöta Nation, the oldest nation, was established in 1668, two years after the university was founded. While the nations still offer limited housing, today they are best described as student societies dell inspiron 6000 battery. Today students may enroll in any nation, although the nations still preserve their geographic names. In most cases it does not matter what nation one enrolls in, but different nations offer different activities for interested students. Each nation has student housing, but the accommodations in no way meet demand, and they are usually appointed according to a queue system. Each nation has at least one pub evening per week, with a following night club dell inspiron 6400 battery. The solemn peak event in the course of an activity year is the organization of student balls once a year. Most well known of the nation balls (as opposed to balls organized by student unions) is the ball hosted by Göteborgs Nation - called the "Gustaf II Adolf Ball" (also known as the "GA-Ball"). Most nations also host at least one banquet per week, where a three course dinner is served dell inspiron 9200 battery. Each nation also has different activities for students interested in sports, arts, or partying. All activities within the nations are voluntary. The Academic Society Another view of AF-Borgen In 1830, Professor Carl Adolph Agardh formed Akademiska Föreningen (The Academic Society), commonly referred to as AF, with the goal of "developing and cultivating the academic life" by bringing students and faculty from all departments and student nations together in one organization dell inspiron 9300 battery. Prince Oscar I, then Sweden's Chancellor of Education, donated 2000 Kronor to help found the society. In 1848, construction began on AF-Borgen (the AF Fortress), which is located opposite the Main Building in Lundagård. To this day, AF is the center of student life in Lund, featuring many theater companies, a prize-winning student radio (Radio AF), and organizing the enormous Lundakarnevalen (the Lund Carnival) every four years dell inspiron 9400 battery. "AF Bostäder", an independent foundation with close ties to Akademiska Föreningen, maintains over 5,700 student residences in Lund.[44] The Delphi residential area, located in the northern part of Lund, is one of the large student housing complexes run by AF Bostäder. The student unions represent students in various decision-making boards within the university and council students regarding their rights, housing and career options. There are nine student unions, one for each faculty and an additional union for doctoral students dell inspiron e1505 battery. Lund's Doctoral Student Union is further divided into councils, one for each faculty except for the faculties of engineering and fine and performing arts. The unions are incorporated into the Association of Lund University Student Unions (LUS). It has two full-time representatives who go to weakly meetings with the vice-chancellor and other organizational university bodies dell inspiron e1705 battery. The student union association runs services such as loan institute, a day-care centre and a website with housing information. It also publishes the monthly Lundagård magazine. Notable people connected to Lund University Main article: List of Lund University people The following is a select list of some of the most notable people who have been affiliated with Lund University as students or academics, please refer to the main article for more information. Ingvar Carlsson, former Prime Minister of Sweden dell latitude d820 battery. Karl Manne Siegbahn, Nobel Prize in Physics. Anders Jahan Retzius (1742–1821), naturalist. Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878), mycologist. Esaias Tegnér (1782–1846), poet, bishop of Växjö. Peter Estenberg (1686–1740), Greek Scholar, Professor, and advisor to King Stanislaw (Stanisław Leszczyński) of Poland in the early 18th century. Tuve Hasselquist ( 1816–1891), Swedish American Lutheran minister and church leader Albert Victor Bäcklund (1845–1912), mathematician and physicist (Bäcklund transform). Knut Wicksell (1851–1926), economist dell latitude d830 battery. Johannes Rydberg (1854–1919), physicist (Rydberg formula, Rydberg constant). V. Walfrid Ekman (1874–1954), oceanographer (Ekman spiral, Ekman number). Marcel Riesz (1886–1969), mathematician (Riesz function, Riesz theorems, Riesz mean, Riesz potential). Ivar Wickman 1872-1914), neurologist, polio expert Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978), Nobel Prize in Physics 1924. Professor at Uppsala University. Frans Gunnar Bengtsson (1894–1954), author, The Long Ships. Bertil Ohlin (1899–1979), Nobel Prize in Economics 1977 Dell Latitude E5500 Battery. Tage Erlander (1901–1985), Prime Minister of Sweden, 1946-1969. Rune Elmqvist (1906–1996), developer of the first implantable pacemaker. Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004), cultural geographer. Sune Bergström (1916–2004), Nobel Prize in Medicine 1982. Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1920–1990) pioneered medical ultrasonography (with Inge Edler). sv:Sten Broman (1902–1983) Musician, music critic, TV host, university active- founder of Uarda-akademien etc Dell Latitude E5400 Battery. Arvid Carlsson (1923-), Nobel Prize in Medicine 2000 (Professor at Göteborgs university). Hans Alfredson (1931-), writer, entertainer and film director, former head of Skansen. Lars Hörmander (1931-), mathematician awarded the Fields medal in 1962. Ingvar Carlsson (1934-), Prime Minister of Sweden 1986-91, 1994-96. Michael Treschow (1943-), chairman of Ericsson. Karl Johan Åström (1934-), (Professor Emeritus), IEEE Fellow, IEEE Medal of Honor for contributions to Control Theory DELL Latitude E5410 Battery Etzel Cardeña (1957-), Thorsen Professor of Psychology, Director of the Center for Research on Consciousness and Anomalous Psychology (CERCAP) Duncan Steel (1955-), world-renowned authority on space science Peter Gärdenfors (1949-), philosopher and cognitive scientist Mikael Dolsten M.D., Ph.D. (1959-), President of Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Adjunct Professor of Immunology at the Medical Faculty in Lund Lars Pålsson Syll, Professor of economics DELL Latitude E5510 Battery Judith Wallerstein (1921-2012), Psychologist and researcher at University of California at Berkeley. (Ph.D 1978) LTH's Design Centre. Main article: List of Lund University partners Lund University cooperates with universities on all continents, both in areas of research and student exchange. Apart from being a member of the prestigious LERU and Universitas 21 networks, the university participates in the European Erasmus and Nordplus programmes dell latitude e6400 battery. It also coordinates several intercontinental projects, mostly through the Erasmus Mundus programme. Case Western Reserve University (also known as Case Western Reserve, Case Western, Case, Reserve, and CWRU) is a private research university in Cleveland, Ohio, USA. The university was created in 1967 by the federation of Case Institute of Technology (founded in 1881 by Leonard Case Jr.) and Western Reserve University dell latitude e6500 battery (founded in 1826 in the area that was once the Connecticut Western Reserve). TIME magazine described the merger as the creation of "Cleveland's Big-Leaguer" university. In U.S. News & World Report's 2012 rankings, Case Western Reserve's undergraduate program ranked 38th among national universities.[6] The University is associated with 16 Nobel Laureates.[7] Other notable alumni include Paul Buchheit DELL Latitude E6510 Battery, creator and lead developer of Gmail; Craig Newmark, founder of craigslist.org; and Peter Tippett, who developed the first anti-virus software, Vaccine, which Symantec purchased and turned into the incredibly popular Norton AntiVirus. Case Western Reserve is particularly well known[citation needed] for its medical school, dental school, law school, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing DELL Precision M2400 Battery, and its biomedical teaching and research capabilities. Case Western is a member of the Association of American Universities.[8] The university is approximately five miles (8 km) east of downtown Cleveland in University Circle. It is contained within a 550-acre (220 ha) area containing numerous educational, medical, and cultural institutions. Case Western Reserve has a number of programs taught in conjunction with nearby institutions DELL Precision M4400 Battery, including the Cleveland Clinic, the University Hospitals of Cleveland, the Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland Institute of Music, the Cleveland Hearing & Speech Center, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Cleveland Play House DELL Precision M4500 Battery. Case Western Reserve was the site of the famous Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment, conducted in 1887 by A. A. Michelson of Case School of Applied Science and E. W. Morley of Western Reserve University. This experiment proved the non-existence of the luminiferous ether and was later cited as convincing evidence in support of special relativity as proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905 DELL Precision M6400 Battery. Michelson became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science.[9] The commemorative Michelson-Morley Memorial Fountain is located on campus, near where the actual experiment was performed. History Case Western Reserve University was created in 1967, when Western Reserve University and Case Institute of Technology (formerly Case School of Applied Science), institutions that had been neighbors for 81 years, formally federated DELL Precision M6500 Battery. Case alumnus Herbert Henry Dow, founder of Dow Chemical Western Reserve University Western Reserve College was founded in 1826 in Hudson, Ohio, which, at the time, was the region's most populated area and named for the Connecticut Western Reserve, out of which the area arose. The nearby city of Cleveland, located about 26 miles (42 km) to its northwest, had only begun to grow. Western Reserve College, or "Reserve" as it was popularly called, was the first college in northern Ohio dell xps m1210 battery. By 1875, a number of other schools had been established nearby, and Cleveland had emerged as clearly the dominant population and business center of the region. In 1882, with funding from Amasa Stone, Western Reserve College moved to Cleveland and changed its name to Western Reserve University dell xps m1330 battery. Case Institute of Technology John J.R. Macleod, 1923 Nobel Prize winner for discovering Insulin and Western Reserve University Professor of Physiology In 1877, Leonard Case Jr. began laying the groundwork for the Case School of Applied Science by secretly donating valuable pieces of Cleveland real estate to a trust. He asked his confidential advisor, Henry Gilbert Abbey, to administer the trust and to keep it secret until after his death dell xps m1530 battery. The Case School of Applied Science was issued a charter by the state of Ohio in 1882-—just four short months after Case's death. For the first four years of the school's existence, it was located in the Case family's home on Rockwell Street in downtown Cleveland. Classes were held in the family house, while the chemistry and physics laboratories were on the second floor of the barn dell xps m1710 battery. Amasa Stone's gift to relocate Western Reserve College to Cleveland also included a provision for the purchase of land in the University Circle area, adjacent to Western Reserve University, for the Case School of Applied Science. The school moved to University Circle in 1885. During World War II, Case Institute of Applied Science was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission dell xps m1730 battery. Over time, the Case School of Applied Science grew to encompass a broader vision, adopting the name Case Institute of Technology in 1947 to reflect the institution's growing stature. Creating a federation Although the trustees of Case Institute of Technology and Western Reserve University did not formally federate their institutions until 1967, the union had been seen by many as inevitable for decades before that. Dell Vostro 1710 Battery The institutions already shared buildings and staff when necessary and worked together often. One such example was seen in 1887, when Case physicist Albert Michelson and Reserve chemist Edward Morley collaborated on the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. The results of their experiment served as a foundation for Albert Einstein's theory of relativity Dell Vostro 1720 Battery. There had been some discussion of a merger of the two institutions as early as 1890, but those talks dissolved quickly. In the 1920s, the Survey Commission on Higher Education in Cleveland took a strong stand in favor of federation and the community was behind the idea as well, but in the end all that came of the study was a decision by the two institutions to cooperate in founding Cleveland College, a special unit for part-time and adult students in downtown Cleveland dell studio xps 1340 battery. By the 1960s, Reserve President John Schoff Millis and Case President T. Keith Glennan shared the idea that federation would create a complete university, one better able to attain national distinction. Financed by the Carnegie Corporation, Cleveland Foundation, Greater Cleveland Associated Foundation, and several local donors, a study commission of national leaders in higher education and public policy was charged with exploring the idea of federation dell studio xps 13 battery. The Heald Commission, so known for its chair, former Ford Foundation President Henry T. Heald, issued its final report, "Vision of a University." The report predicted that federation would create one of the largest private universities in the nation, with a combined faculty larger than that of Princeton, Chicago, Stanford, or Johns Hopkins dell Studio XPS 16 battery. Case Institute of Technology, a school of science and engineering, and Western Reserve University, known for its strong liberal arts and professional programs, came together in 1967 to form Case Western Reserve University. Campus Haydn Hall on the campus of Case Western Reserve University (Flora Stone Mather Quadrangle) in Cleveland dell Studio XPS 1640 battery. The university is approximately five miles (eight km) east of downtown Cleveland, adjacent to the historic Wade Park District in University Circle, a city neighborhood and commercial center center, home to numerous educational, medical, and other cultural institutions. Case Western Reserve has a number of programs taught in conjunction with nearby institutions, dell Studio XPS 1645 battery including the Cleveland Institute of Music, the Cleveland Institute of Art, the Cleveland Hearing & Speech Center, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland Botanical Garden, and the Cleveland Play House dell Studio XPS 1647 battery. Kent H. Smith Quadrangle The Kent H. Smith Quadrangle (known to students as the Main Quad) is located south of Euclid between Adelbert Road and Martin Luther King Jr. Drive. All of the engineering buildings are located on this quad in addition to all of the natural science buildings. Flora Stone Mather Quadrangle The Flora Stone Mather Quadrangle (known to students as the Mather Quad) is located north of Euclid Avenue between East Blvd. dell Studio 17 battery, E. 115th Street, and Juniper Road. Usually it is more strictly defined by the area between East Blvd, Bellflower Road, and Ford Road north of Euclid Avenue. Named for the philanthropist wife of prominent industrialist Samuel Mather and sister-in-law of the famous statesman John Hay, the Flora Stone Mather Quad is home to Weatherhead School of Management, School of Law dell Studio 1749 battery, Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, and many departments of the College of Arts and Sciences. The Kelvin Smith Library (Case Western Reserve's main library) and the Thwing Student Center are also located on Mather Quad. North Residential Village dell Studio 1745 battery Situated on the northeast end of campus, the North Residential Village (NRV) is home to all Case Western Reserve's freshman who reside on campus. Constructed in the 1960s, the NRV consists of 12 4 floor buildings, an 11 floor "tower," Leutner (a dining hall), and a building containing the NRV area office and rehearsal space for Case Western Reserve's music department dell Studio 1747 battery. Village at 115 Located along E. 115th Street, this is the newest addition to Case Western Reserve's residential housing units, which opened in the fall of 2005. Currently, only upper-class members may reside there. The Village (as students refer to it) consists of seven houses that surround the football field and track. Village housing is apartment style, with apartments that house one to nine people (excluding eight person units) Dell Inspiron 1440 Battery. The apartments are fully furnished. The Village is also LEED certified. Houses 1-4 & 6-7 are certified silver while house 5 is certified gold. In February 2011, a broken pipe joint in the plumbing of House 6 caused over a 500,000 US gallons (1,900 m3) of water to flood the House's apartments, displacing upwards of 40 students. Although University Housing had crews working to repair the damage around the clock, it was over a week before any students could return, some as long as three weeks Dell Inspiron 1750 Battery. This raised concerns about cut corners resulting in poor construction quality of the Village Houses.[citation needed] South Residential Village Located between Murray Hill, Cedar, Edgehill, and Overlook roads, the South Residential Village (SRV) is home to most of Case Western Reserve's sophomore class. SRV is divided into two sections: Murray Hill Complex and Carlton Road Complex (known to students as bottom of the hill and top of the hill, respectively, due to the hill separating the two complexes) Dell Inspiron 14 Battery. Carlton Road Complex includes three sophomore-only dormitories and several Greek life houses. Murray Hill Complex includes two sophomore only buildings, one sophomore and upperclassmen building, one upperclassmen-only building, and Fribley, the SRV dining hall. Transportation There are two main transportation options for students: For on- and near-campus transportation, Case Western Reserve has a fleet of shuttle buses known as Greenies, though they are currently painted blue. Dell Inspiron 1464 Battery For longer trips, students may use the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA) bus and rail system. Each undergraduate student receives an unlimited RTA pass, which is paid for via a mandatory $25 fee per semester. Parking Case Western Reserve does not manage its parking lots (University Circle Incorporated manages the lots). Students, faculty, and staff still purchase permits from the university. The rates vary between approximately $30 and $120 per month Dell Inspiron 15 Battery. The university owns two parking garages, one at the Village at 115 (Lot S-46) and the other near the Veale Athletic Center (Lot S-53). Permits for these two lots are purchased from the university, and cost about $670 and $760, respectively, per year,[14] excluding the summer. In 2011, Washington Monthly ranked Case Western Reserve as the nation's 7th best national university for contributing to the public good Dell Inspiron 1564 Battery. The publication's ranking was based upon a combination of factors including social mobility, research, and service. In 2009, the school had ranked 15th. In 2010, The Times ranked Case Western Reserve 39th in the U.S. and 65th worldwide. In September 2009, "BusinessWeek" ranked Case Western Reserve's Weatherhead School of Management as one of the 30 best Design Thinking schools in the world. In 2008, the National Science Foundation ranked Case Western Reserve #23 in the country for producing the highest percentage of undergraduate students that go on to earn Engineering and Science Ph.Ds Dell Inspiron 1764 Battery. The Advocate ranked Case Western Reserve University one of the top 100 LGBT-friendly universities. Case Western Reserve ranks 13th among private institutions (26th among all) in federal expenditures for science and engineering research and development, per the National Science Foundation Dell Studio 1440 Battery. Undergraduate profile Craig Newmark (BS '75, MS '77) - founder of CraigsList 97 percent of enrolled students received financial aid, with an average award of $34,318. 67 percent of admitted students were in the top 10 percent of their high school class, 82 percent were in the top 20 percent, and 92 percent were in the top 30 percent.[28] The SAT scores of the middle 50th percentile of admitted students were 610-700 in critical reading, 650-750 in math, and 600-690 in writing.[29] On the ACT, the middle 50% of scores was 28-32 Dell Studio 1535 Battery. The most popular intended majors among the class of 2011 were engineering/computer science with 35 percent, followed by science/mathematics and pre-med/pre-dental medicine/pre-law with 18 percent and 15 percent, respectively. Only 7 percent were undecided.[30] The class of 2013 had 35 percent of students from Ohio, 56 percent from other states, and 9 percent from outside of the United States—representing a total of 50 states and 82 countries Dell Studio 1536 Battery. Schools and programs The controversial "Case" logo In 2003, the university unveiled a new logo and branding campaign that emphasized the "Case" portion of its name. In 2006, interim university president Gregory Eastwood convened a task group to study reactions to the campaign. The panel's report indicated that it had gone so poorly that, "There appear to be serious concerns now about the university's ability to recruit and maintain high-quality faculty Dell Studio 1537 Battery, fund-raising and leadership." Also, the logo was derided among the university's community and alumni and throughout northeastern Ohio; critics said it looked like "...a fat man with a surfboard." In 2007, the university's board of trustees approved a shift back to giving equal weight to "Case" and "Western Reserve." A new logo was chosen and implementation began July 1.[34] In an open letter to the university community, interim president Eastwood admitted that "the university had misplaced its own history and traditions Dell Studio 1555 Battery." Endowment Case Western Reserve University's endowment ranks at No. 30 among all U.S. colleges and universities. The university comes in at No. 18 for largest endowment growth over the past 20 years, experiencing an increase of 393 percent in that time (See: List of U.S. colleges and universities by endowment) Dell Studio 1557 Battery. [edit]Student body As of 2009, the university had 4,228 undergraduate students and 5,510 graduate and professional students. The undergraduate student body hails from all 50 states and 82 countries. Allen Memorial Medical Library DEXTER, Team Case's autonomous car, in DARPA Grand Challenge 2007 Following is a partial list of major contributions made by faculty, staff, and students at Case Western Reserve Dell Studio 1558 Battery: Case Western Reserve was the site of the famous Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment, conducted in 1887 by Albert Abraham Michelson of Case Institute of Technology and E. W. Morley of Western Reserve University. This experiment proved the non-existence of the ether, and provided circumstantial evidence to substantiate Einstein's special theory of relativity (Profs. Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley, 1887) Dell Studio 1735 Battery. Albert Abraham Michelson, who became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science, taught at Case Institute of Technology. He won the prize in physics in 1907. Edward Morley, in 1895, discovered the atomic weight of oxygen, the basis for calculating the weights of all other elements. Dayton C. Miller, in 1896, performed the first full X-ray of the human body—on himself. George W. Crile, in 1905, performed the first modern blood transfusion, using a coupling device to connect blood vessels Dell Studio 1737 Battery. Roger G. Perkins, in 1912, pioneered drinking water chlorination to eradicate typhoid bacilli. Henry J. Gerstenberger, in 1915, developed simulated infant formula. Claude S. Beck, in 1935, pioneered surgical treatment of coronary artery disease. Frederick S. Cross, in the 1950s, developed the first heart-lung machine used during open heart surgery Dell Inspiron 1210 Battery. Claude S. Beck, in 1947, performed the first successful lifesaving defibrillation of the human heart and developed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Robert Kearns, in 1964, invented the intermittent windshield wiper used in most modern automobiles. Frederick Reines, in 1965, first detected neutrinos created by cosmic ray collisions with the Earth's atmosphere and developed innovative particle detectors Dell Inspiron Mini 12 Battery. Case Western Reserve had selected Prof. Reines as chair of the physics department based on Reines's work that first detected neutrinos emitted from a nuclear reactor—work for which Reines shared a 1995 Nobel Prize.[36] Eric Baer, in 1967, pioneered the materials science of polymers and created the first comprehensive polymer science and engineering department at a major U.S. university Dell Latitude E4300 Battery. Joseph F. Fagan, in 1987, developed a test for infants to identify mental retardation within one year of birth. Huntington F. Willard of the School of Medicine and University Hospitals of Cleveland—collaborating with colleagues at Athersys, Inc., in 1997—created the first artificial human chromosomes, opening the door to more detailed study of human genetics and potentially offering a new approach to gene therapy Dell Latitude E4310 Battery. Tshilidzi Marwala, in 2006, began work on Local Loop Unbundling in Africa. He also chaired the Local Loop Unbundling Committee on behalf of the South African Government. Roger Quinn, in 2001, developed robots such as Whegs that mimic cockroaches and other crawling insects (Case Biorobotics Lab) Dell Vostro 1310 Battery In 2007, a team from Case Western Reserve participated in the DARPA Urban Challenge with a robotic car named DEXTER. Team Case placed as one of 36 semi-finalists.[38] DEXTER was the only car in the race without any seating for humans, and the only one built from scratch as a robot car. Dell Vostro 1320 Battery Today, the university operates several facilities off campus for scientific research. One notable example of this is the Warner and Swasey Observatory at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Unless students are living with a relative within 40 miles (64 km) of the university, Case Western Reserve requires first- and second-year students to live in on-campus housing Dell Vostro 1510 Battery. Meal plan participation is also mandatory for first- and second-year students, with some exceptions made for religious and medical reasons. New housing for underclassmen, along with a "Greek village," bringing all the college's fraternities and sororities together with the other undergraduates, is slated to be constructed in the future Dell Vostro 1520 Battery. The residence halls are divided into two areas, one featuring suite-style rooms for second-year students and upperclassmen and the other featuring double and single rooms for first-year students. Both have gigabit ethernet network access and the wired network is one of the fastest that exists. A wireless campus network is also available anywhere on campus and ranked as one of the fastest by Intel in 2005. New housing, known as the Village at 115 Dell Vostro 2510 Battery, was opened in fall 2005 for upperclassmen, which features one- to nine-person, "apartment-style" residence halls that come with air conditioning, a full kitchen area, and full-sized beds. Residence Life at Case Western Reserve has a recent history of being liberal in its policies, including allowing co-ed suites (an option offered to non-freshman students, when requested and agreed upon by all occupants of a suite) Dell Inspiron 1410 Battery and some co-ed floors for freshmen, as well as a three-day guest policy. Pets are allowed except for dogs, cats, ferrets, and a few other small mammals, but requests are granted discussion. Graduate students are not offered housing. A campus shuttle runs to Coventry Village, a shopping district in neighboring Cleveland Heights. Cleveland's Little Italy is within walking distance. Legacy Village, Severance Center, and Shaker Square shopping centers are all within driving distance or accessible by RTA Dell Vostro 1014 Battery. WRUW-FM (91.1 FM) is the campus radio station of Case Western Reserve University. Its motto "More Music, Fewer Hits" can be seen adorning the rear bumpers of many vehicles in the area. WRUW broadcasts at a power of 15,000 watts and covers most of Northeast Ohio 24 hours a day, 365 days a year Dell Vostro 1014n Battery. WRUW is staffed by Case Western Reserve students and community volunteers. The station's format can be classified as non-commercial "variety." Case Western Reserve is also home to several performing ensembles, including a cappella groups such as the Case Men's Glee Club, Case Women's Glee Club, Case in Point, Speakeasy, Dhamakapella, Bigger Than A Breadbox Dell Vostro 1015 Battery, and Solstice. Other ensembles include the Case/University Circle Symphony Orchestra, Camerata Chamber Orchestra, Case/CIM Baroque Orchestra, Concert Choir, Early Music Singers, Jazz Ensemble 1 and 2, Marching Spartans, Percussion Ensemble, Symphonic Winds, University Singers, Collegium Musicum, New Music Ensemble, Wind Ensemble, and Chamber Music Dell Vostro 1088 Battery. Case Western Reserve has two main rehearsal spaces for performing arts music majors and school ensembles. Hadyn Hall contains practice rooms with Steinway pianos, along with the department offices. Denison Hall serves as a rehearsal, practice, and teaching space for the music students and school ensembles, and is attached to Wade Commons Dell Vostro A840 Battery. The Cleveland Youth Wind Symphony also rehearses in Denison Hall. Music majors take lessons at the Cleveland Institute of Music. For performances, all students, ensembles, and cappella groups use Harkness Chapel. The bands and orchestra also perform at Severance Hall (the on-campus home of the Cleveland Orchestra) and CIM's Kulas Hall Dell Vostro A860 Battery. Computing Case Western Reserve had the first ABET-accredited program in computer engineering.[40] In 1968, the university formed a private company, Chi Corporation, to provide computer time to both it and other customers. Initially this was on a Univac 1108 (replacing the preceding UNIVAC 1107), 36 bit, one's complement machine.[41] The company was sold in 1977 to Robert G. Benson in Beachwood, Ohio Dell XPS M2010 Battery. Project Logos, under ARPA contract, was begun within the department on a DEC System-10 (later converted to TENEX (BBN) in conjunction with connection to the ARPANET) to develop a computer-aided computer design system. This system consisted in a distributed, networked, graphics environment, a control and data flow designer and logic (both hardware and software) analyzer Dell Inspiron 1520 Battery. Graphics and animation became another departmental focus with the acquisition of an Evans & Sutherland LDS-1, which was hosted by the DEC System-10, and later with the acquisition of the stand alone LDS-2. Case Western Reserve was one of the earliest universities connected to the ARPANET, predecessor to the Internet. ARPANET went online in 1969; Case Western Reserve was connected in January, 1971. Dell Inspiron 1521 BatteryCase Western Reserve graduate Ken Biba published the Biba Integrity Model in 1977 and served on the ARPA Working Group that developed the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) used on the Internet. Case Western Reserve pioneered the early Free-net computer systems, creating the first Free-net, The Cleveland Free-Net, as well as writing the software that drove a majority of those systems, known as FreePort. The Cleveland Free-Net was shut down in late 1999, as it had become obsolete Dell Inspiron 1720 Battery. It was the first university to have an all-fiber-optic network, in 1989.[43][44] At the inaugural meeting in October, 1996, Case Western Reserve was one of the 34 charter university members of Internet2. The university was ranked No. 1 in Yahoo Internet Life's 1999 Most Wired College list.[46] There was a perception that this award was obtained through partially false or inaccurate information submitted for the survey, and the university did not appear at all on the 2000 Most Wired College list (which included 100 institutions) Dell Inspiron 1721 Battery. The numbers reported were much lower than those submitted by Ray Neff in 1999. The university had previously placed No. 13 in the 1997 poll. In August 2003, Case Western Reserve joined the Internet Streaming Media Alliance, then one of only two university members. In September 2003, Case Western Reserve opened 1,230 public wireless access points on the Case Western Reserve campus and University Circle. Dell Vostro 1500 Battery Case Western Reserve was one of the founding members of OneCleveland, formed in October 2003.[53] OneCleveland is an "ultra broadband" (gigabit speed) fiber optic network. This network is for the use of organizations in education, research, government, healthcare, arts, culture, and the nonprofit sector in Greater Cleveland Dell Vostro 1700 Battery. Case Western Reserve is also known for its Virtual Worlds gaming computer lab, which opened in 2005. The lab has a large network of Alienware PCs equipped with game development software such as the Torque Game Engine and Maya 3D modeling software. Additionally, it contains a number of specialized advanced computing rooms including a medical simulation room Dell Inspiron 1420 Battery, a MIDI instrument music room, a 3D projection "immersion room," a virtual reality research room, and console room, which features video game systems such as Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii.[54] This laboratory can be used by any student in the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department, and is heavily used for the Game Development (EECS 290) course Dell Vostro 1400 Battery. Case Western's Internet Technology Service also runs a High Performance Computing Cluster (HPCC) utilizing 976 processors over 133 computer nodes interconnected with gigabit fiberoptic ethernet. The HPCC is available for research utilizing a wide array of commercial and custom scientific software packages and computer languages including: Matlab, Mathematica, Ansys CFX Fluent and ICEM, Schrödinger, LAMMPS, Gaussian Dell Latitude 2100 Battery, NEURON, MCell, Python, Qhull, Sundials, Charmm/qchem, Rosetta, Gromacs, NAMD, C, C++, Fortran. Housing First-year students are grouped into one of three residential colleges that are overseen by first-year coordinators. The Mistletoe, Juniper, and Magnolia residential colleges were established when the "First Year Experience" system was introduced, and Cedar was created in the fall of 2005 to accommodate a large influx of new students Dell Latitude 2110 Battery. In the fall of 2007, Magnolia was integrated into Mistletoe. The areas of focus for each college – Cedar: visual and performing arts; Mistletoe: service leadership; and Juniper: multiculturalism – remain the same. The residential colleges plan events together and are run by college councils that take student input and use it to plan social and community service-oriented activities Dell Latitude D620 Battery. Greek life Nearly one-third of the campus undergraduates are in a fraternity or sorority. There are seven sororities and sixteen fraternities currently on campus. Greek organizations are governed by an Interfraternity Council and Panhellenic Council. Recently semi-recognition had been given to a colony of Omega Tau Zeta, but they unfortunately disbanded Fall 2011 Dell Latitude D630 Battery. During the 2008–2009 school year, fraternities and sororities at Case collectively raised over $43,000 for philanthropy.[55] In September 2010, the Delta Chi Fraternity joined the Greek community. In March 2011, the Interfraternity Council at Case ceased recognition of Sigma Alpha Mu. However, Sigma Alpha Mu continues to exist on campus as a nationally recognized fraternity. The fraternities are: From 1937 to 2001 there was a German-American Studentenverbindung situated in Cleveland called Corps Brandenburgia Berlin zu Cleveland. It consisted mainly of students from the German nobility. Together with the Corps Teuto-Rugia, they formed the SC zu Cleveland sony vgp-bps2 battery. Traditions The Hudson Relays is an annual tradition at Case Western Reserve University that occurs on the last weekend before finals every spring semester. It is a relay race between teams drawn from each class year. The race is a distance of 26 miles (42 km). Originally, the race was run from Hudson, Ohio, the original site of Western Reserve University sony vgp-bps3 battery, to the present location of the school in University Circle. Since the mid-1980s, the race has been run entirely in the University Circle area. University tradition is that if a class wins the relay for each of its four years, the team will be rewarded with a champagne and steak dinner with the president of the university. The most recent class to achieve this was the class of 2011. The winning class for each year is carved on a boulder located behind Adelbert Hall sony vgp-bps4 battery. Springfest is a day-long concert and student group festival that occurs later in the same day as Hudson Relays. The Springfest Planning Committee brings in several bands and a beer garden, student groups set up booths to entertain the student body, and various inflatable carnival-style attractions are brought in to add to the festive atmosphere sony vgp-bps5 battery. Occasionally, due to adverse weather conditions, the festival must be moved indoors, usually to Thwing Center or Adelbert Gym. Halloween at the Farm is a tradition established in the fall of 2002. Halloween at the Farm takes place at the Squire Valleevue Farm in Hunting Valley, Ohio. Students, their families, and faculty are invited to enjoy games, a bonfire, an open air concert and hay rides. Organized by the members of the Class Officer Collective, HATF is one of the biggest events of the year sony vgp-bps7 battery. In the fall of 2009 the event was moved to the main campus and renamed "Halloween at Home". Since 1974, the Film Society of Case Western Reserve University has held a science fiction marathon. The film festival, the oldest of its type, boasts more than 34 hours of non-stop movies, cartoons, trailers, and shorts spanning many decades and sub-genres sony vgp-bpl7 battery. Athletics The Veale Athletic Center, which houses much of the Case Western Reserve University athletic and Physical Education departments. Case Western Reserve University has been a member of the University Athletic Association (UAA) since the early 1990s. The conference participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's (NCAA) Division III. The university offers 10 men's sports and nine women's sports sony vgp-bps8 battery. Two of the teams attained unprecedented success in the fall of 2006, with the women's cross country team winning the Great Lakes regional championship for the first time, and the men's soccer team earning its first-ever NCAA tournament bid. The Case Western Reserve Men's Soccer team finished their 2006 season with a 17–2–2 record and a UAA championship. The team reached the Sweet 16 in their first-ever NCAA Division III tournament appearance and concluded the season ranked 12th in the nation sony vgp-bps8a battery. Case Western Reserve has an excellent cross country program, as evidenced by their finishes at the NCAA national competition over the past three years. The Case Western Reserve's women's cross country team finished the 2006 season with a UAA Championship and a bid to the NCAA Championship. The Lady Spartans finished 10th in the nation sony vgp-bps8b battery. The women's team went on to finish even higher at nationals in 2007, earning a sixth-place finish at the NCAA DIII national championship. Both the men's and women's Cross Country teams qualified for and competed in the NCAA DIII national championships in 2008, with the women's team coming away with two All-Americans and a 16th-place finish. In 2009, they had two All-Americans and finished 15th. In 2010, the lady Spartans finished 19th sony vgp-bpl8 battery, with one all-American, senior Justine Jeroski. The Case Western Reserve football team finished the 2007 season with the school's first UAA Championship in football, first playoff appearance, and first playoff win against Widener University. The team lost to Wabash College in the second round. Case Western Reserve football had another undefeated regular season in 2008 but lost in the first round of the NCAA Division III playoffs to Wabash College sony vgp-bps9 battery. In 2009, the team finished its 3rd consecutive undefeated regular season and won the UAA. It earned a 3rd straight playoff appearance, losing in the first round to Trine University. Beginning with the 2014 season, the football team will be moving to the Presidents' Athletic Conference. All other sports will remain in the University Athletic Association sony vgp-bps9/s battery. Case Western Reserve's primary athletic rival is Carnegie Mellon University. Alumni Associations Throughout the years, many higher education institutions merged to form what is now known as Case Western Reserve University. Even though the colleges do not exist individually, two alumni associations are still thriving sony vgp-bps9a/s battery. Case Alumni Association The Case Alumni Association (CAA) is one of the oldest independent alumni organization in the United States, having been organized in 1885. Membership in the Association is conferred upon all graduates of the Case School of Applied Science, Case Institute of Technology, Case School of Engineering, and the mathematics and science departments within the College of Arts and Sciences sony vgp-bps9/b battery. Those who have attended any of the above institutions for at least one semester are considered members of the association. The main offices returned to campus in November 2010 at Tomlinson Hall, 2121 Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, Cleveland, Ohio, 44106. CAA recently expanded its reach by establishing chapters (Case Clubs) in various U.S. cities, including Washington, D.C., Silicon Valley, San Diego, Los Angeles, Phoenix and Boston. sony vgp-bps9a/b battery [edit]CWRU Alumni Relations Case Western Reserve University Alumni Relations is the primary alumni association for any alumni who have attend CWRU for at least one semester. Cultural references The 1997 Air Force One was in part filmed on Case campus. The opening scene depicting the presidential palace of the leader of Kazakhstan was shot at Severance Hall - home of the Cleveland Orchestra adjacent to Case campus sony vgp-bps9a battery. Also seen are several landmarks of Case including the Thwing Center (the student union) and the Allen Memorial Medical Library. In the 1999 film Being John Malkovich, Mary Kay Place's character - Floris - is mentioned to have received "her doctorate in speech impedimentology from Case Western." In the 2001 film The Man Who Wasn't There, it is mentioned that the James Gandolfini character 'Big Dave Brewster' attended Case Western sony vgp-bps9b battery. In the 2003 book Mountains Beyond Mountains, Tracy Kidder talks about Paul Farmer choosing to apply to only two MD/PhD-anthropology programs in the nation - CaseMed and Harvard Medical School. The 2004 Vice-Presidential Debate between then Vice-President Dick Cheney and Senator John Edwards was held on Case Western campus. sony vgp-bpl9 battery In the 2006 film The Oh in Ohio, Paul Rudd's character - Jack - becomes romantically involved with a Case student Kristin (played by Mischa Barton). In one scene, Jack drops Kristin off at the "Case Biophysics building," which is actually the Frank Gehry designed Peter B. Lewis Building at Case's Weatherhead School of Management. In this scene, a number of actual Case Western Reserve students were cast as extras, and had minor speaking roles sony vgp-bps10 battery. In "Drew's Cousin," a 1998 installment of The Drew Carey Show's third season, the episode's namesake mentions to Drew that she "got into Case Western." In 2008, the movie Flash of Genius detailed the story of Robert Kearns, who graduated from Case Institute of Technology. The movie is about how he designed the first intermittent windshield wipers, and his battle against the automobile industry to get recognition for his invention Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery. In 2010, the show The Deep End on ABC features a main character, Addy Fisher, who graduated from Case Western Reserve Law School.
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