Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda (Kinyarwanda: Repubulika y'u Rwanda; French: République du Rwanda), is a sovereign state in central and east Africa. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. All of Rwanda is at high elevation Dell Latitude E5420 Battery, with a geography dominated by mountains in the west, savanna in the east, and numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate to subtropical, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons every year. The population is young and predominantly rural, with a density among the highest in Africa. Rwandans form three groups: the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa Dell Latitude E5520 Battery. The Twa are a forest-dwelling pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars disagree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi; some believe that they are derived from former social castes, while others view them as being races or tribes. Christianity is the largest religion in the country, and the principal language is Kinyarwanda Dell Latitude E6120 Battery, which is spoken by most Rwandans. Rwanda has a presidential system of government. The president is Paul Kagame of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), who took office in 2000. Rwanda has low corruption compared with neighbouring countries, but human rights organisations allege suppression of opposition groups, intimidation, and restrictions on freedom of speech Dell Latitude E6220 Battery. The country has been governed by a strict administrative hierarchy since precolonial times; there are five provinces, which are delineated by borders drawn in 2006. Hunter gatherers settled the territory in the stone and iron ages, followed later by Bantu settlers. The population coalesced, first into clans and then into kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century Dell Latitude E6320 Battery, with the Tutsi kings conquering others militarily, centralising power, and later enacting anti-Hutu policies. Germany colonised Rwanda in 1884, followed by Belgium, which invaded in 1916 during World War I. Both European nations ruled through the kings and perpetuated pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu population revolted in 1959, massacring a large number of Tutsi and ultimately establishing an independent Hutu-dominated state in 1962 Dell Latitude E6420 Battery. The Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front launched a civil war in 1990, which was followed by the 1994 genocide, in which Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500,000 to 1 million Tutsi and moderate Hutu. The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory. Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, but has since strengthened. The economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture Dell Latitude E6520 Battery. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export. Tourism is a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner; Rwanda is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can be visited safely, and visitors are prepared to pay high prices for gorilla tracking permits. Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan culture, particularly drums and the highly choreographed intore dance Dell Latitude D420 Battery. Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, including imigongo, a unique cow dung art. Main article: History of Rwanda Humans moved into what is now Rwanda following the last glacial period, either in the Neolithic period around 8000 BC, or in the long humid period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.[5] Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter gatherers in the late stone age Dell Latitude D430 Battery, followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools.[6][7] These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today.[8] Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land for agriculture. Dell Studio 1450 Battery The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the slopes of mountains.[10] Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin.[11] An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society Dell Studio 1457 Battery. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one. A reconstruction of the King of Rwanda's palace at Nyanza The flag of Rwanda between 1962 and 2001. The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the clan (ubwoko).[15] Clans existed across the Great Lakes region, with around twenty in the area that is now Rwanda.[16] The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.[16] From the 15th century, the clans began to coalesce into kingdoms; Dell Studio 1458 Battery by 1700 around eight kingdoms existed in present-day Rwanda.[18] One of these, the Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.[19] The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north, Dell Latitude D410 Battery and initiated administrative reforms; these included ubuhake, in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,[21] and uburetwa, a corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.[20] Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. Dell Inspiron 9100 Battery The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court,[10] but their numbers continued to decline.[22] The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to Germany as part of German East Africa, marking the beginning of the colonial era. The explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen was the first European to significantly explore the country in 1894; he crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king. Dell Inspiron 1320 BatteryThe Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy and delegating power to local chiefs.[25] Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, beginning a period of more direct colonial rule.[26] Belgium simplified and centralised the power structure,[27] and introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision dell inspiron 500M battery, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.[28] Both the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different races.[29] In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi dell inspiron 600M battery, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes.[30] Belgium continued to rule Rwanda as a UN Trust Territory after World War II, with a mandate to oversee independence. Tension escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution: Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, forcing more than 100,000 to seek refuge in neighbouring countries dell inspiron 630M battery. In 1962, the now pro-Hutu Belgians held a referendum and elections in which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence in 1962.[35] Cycles of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi attacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi.[36] In 1973, Juvénal Habyarimana took power in a a military coup. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued dell inspiron 640M battery, but there was greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.[37] The Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars.[38] Rwanda's population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land. dell inspiron 6000 batteryJuvénal Habyarimana In 1990, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel group composed mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.[40] Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,[41] but by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993 Arusha Accords with the RPF. dell inspiron 6400 battery The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 when Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing the President.[43] The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan Genocide, which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000[44] Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government. dell inspiron 9200 battery Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.[38] The Tutsi RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.[46] The international response to the Genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant to strengthen the already overstretched UN peacekeeping force. dell inspiron 9300 battery When the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutu fled to neighbouring countries, in particular Zaire, fearing reprisals;[48] additionally, the RPF-led army was a key belligerent in the First and Second Congo Wars.[49] Within Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the reintroduction of Gacaca, a traditional village court system dell inspiron 9400 battery. During the 2000s Rwanda's economy, tourist numbers and Human Development Index grew rapidly; between 2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57 to 45 per cent,[52] and child mortality rates dropped from 180 per 1000 live births in 2000 to 111 per 1000 in 2009.[53] Politics and government Main articles: Politics of Rwanda, Foreign relations of Rwanda, and Military of Rwanda Rwandan President Paul Kagame dell inspiron e1505 batteryThe President of Rwanda is the head of state,[54] and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the Cabinet,[55] exercising the prerogative of mercy,[56] commanding the armed forces,[57] negotiating and ratifying treaties,[58] signing presidential orders,[59] and declaring war or a state of emergency.[57] The President is elected by popular vote every seven years,[60] and appoints the Prime Minister and all other members of Cabinet. dell inspiron e1705 battery The incumbent President is Paul Kagame, who took office upon the resignation of his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu, in 2000. Kagame subsequently won elections in 2003 and 2010,[62][63] although human rights organisations have criticised these elections as being "marked by increasing political repression and a crackdown on free speech". dell latitude d820 batteryThe current constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.[65] The constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and elections.[66] However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate dell latitude d830 battery. Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".[67] The government has also enacted laws criminalising genocide ideology, which can include intimidation, defamatory speeches, genocide denial and mocking of victims. Dell Latitude E5500 Battery According to Human Rights Watch, these laws effectively make Rwanda a one-party state, as "under the guise of preventing another genocide, the government displays a marked intolerance of the most basic forms of dissent".[69] Amnesty International is also critical, saying that genocide ideology laws have been used to "silence dissent, including criticisms of the ruling RPF party and demands for justice for RPF war crimes". Dell Latitude E5400 BatteryThe Parliament consists of two chambers. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the President and the Cabinet.[71] The lower chamber is the Chamber of Deputies, which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members DELL Latitude E5410 Battery; the remaining 53 are elected by universal suffrage under a proportional representation system.[72] Following the 2008 election, there are 45 female deputies, making Rwanda the only country with a female majority in the national parliament.[73] The upper chamber is the 26-seat Senate, whose members are selected by a variety of bodies. A mandatory minimum of 30 per cent of the senators are women. Senators serve eight-year terms. DELL Latitude E5510 BatteryThe Chamber of Deputies building Rwanda's legal system is largely based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law.[75] The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,[76] although the President and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.[77] Human Rights Watch have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty, dell latitude e6400 battery but also allege interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.[79] The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.[80] Ordinary courts are the Supreme Court, the High Court, and regional courts dell latitude e6500 battery, while specialised courts are military courts and the traditional Gacaca courts, which have been revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects. Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2010, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the 8th cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and 66th cleanest out of 178 in the world. The constitution provides for an Ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption. Public officials (including the President) DELL Latitude E6510 Battery are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the Ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.[85] The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the dominant political party in the country since 1994. The RPF has maintained control of the presidency and the Parliament in national elections, with the party's vote share consistently exceeding 70 per cent DELL Precision M2400 Battery. The RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from across the country, and is credited with ensuring continued peace, stability, and economic growth.[86] Human rights organisations, including Amnesty International and Freedom House, claim that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by restricting candidacies in elections to government-friendly parties DELL Precision M4400 Battery, suppressing demonstrations, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists. Rwanda is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Francophonie[89], East African Community[90], and the Commonwealth of Nations[91]. For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.[92] Under the RPF government DELL Precision M4500 Battery, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in East Africa and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended between 2006 and 2010 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge. Relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) were tense following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars; DELL Precision M6400 Battery the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces. Rwanda's relationship with Uganda was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War.[96] As of 2012, relations with both Uganda and the DRC are improved. Administrative divisions DELL Precision M6500 BatteryMain articles: Provinces of Rwanda and Districts of Rwanda Provinces of Rwanda Rwanda has been governed by a strict hierarchy since precolonial times.[98] Before colonisation, the King (Mwami) exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and neighbourhoods.[99] The current constitution divides Rwanda into provinces (intara), districts (uturere), cities, municipalities, towns, sectors (imirenge), cells (utugari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions, and their borders, are established by Parliament. dell xps m1210 batteryThe five provinces act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district level. The "Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework" developed by the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for "coordinating governance issues in the Province dell xps m1330 battery, as well as monitoring and evaluation." Each province is headed by a governor, appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public services as mandated by the districts. dell xps m1530 battery Districts and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive committee selected by that council.[104] The cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.[103] All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive committee is elected. The city of Kigali is a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city dell xps m1710 battery. The present borders were drawn in 2006 with the aim of decentralising power and removing associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve provinces centred around the largest cities was replaced with five provinces based primarily on geography.[105] These are Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, Western Province, and the Municipality of Kigali in the centre dell xps m1730 battery. Main articles: Geography of Rwanda and Climate of Rwanda The Kagera and Ruvubu rivers, part of the upper Nile At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest country.[106] It is comparable in size to Haiti or the state of Maryland in the United States. The entire country is at a high altitude: the lowest point is the Rusizi River at 950 metres (3,117 ft) above sea level.[75] Rwanda is located in Central/Eastern Africa, and is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east, and Burundi to the south. Dell Vostro 1710 Battery It lies a few degrees south of the equator and is landlocked.[93] The capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.[108] The watershed between the major Congo and Nile drainage basins runs from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80 per cent of the country's area draining into the Nile and 20 per cent into the Congo via the Rusizi River.[109] The country's longest river is the Nyabarongo, which rises in the south-west Dell Vostro 1720 Battery, flows north, east, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu to form the Kagera; the Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into Lake Victoria, and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the as-yet undetermined overall source of the Nile.[110] Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being Lake Kivu dell studio xps 1340 battery. This lake occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft), it is one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world.[112] Other sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, and Ihema, the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera National Park. dell studio xps 13 batteryLake and volcano in the Virunga Mountains Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda; these mountains are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of the East African Rift; this branch runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.[114] The highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano chain in the northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft). This western section of the country dell Studio XPS 16 battery, which lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion,[114] has an elevation of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) to 2,500 metres (8,202 ft).[116] The centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region consists of savanna, plains and swamps.[117] Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries due to its high elevation.[93] Kigali, in the centre of the country dell Studio XPS 1640 battery, has a typical daily temperature range between 12 °C (54 °F) and 27 °C (81 °F), with little variation through the year.[118] There are some temperature variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east.[119] There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first runs from February to June and the second from September to December dell Studio XPS 1645 battery. These are separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from December to February.[120] Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast dell Studio XPS 1647 battery. Main article: Wildlife of Rwanda Topis in Akagera National Park In prehistoric times montane forest occupied one third of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring vegetation is now mostly restricted to the three National Parks, with terraced agriculture dominating the rest of the country. Nyungwe, the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well as orchids and begonias. dell Studio 17 battery Vegetation in the Volcanoes National Park is mostly bamboo and moorland, with small areas of forest.[123] By contrast, Akagera has a savanna ecosystem in which acacia dominates the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera, including Markhamia lutea and Eulophia guineensis. dell Studio 1749 batteryThe greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are designated conservation areas.[126] Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants,[127] while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population.[128] Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species including chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys dell Studio 1745 battery; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa.[129] There are 670 bird species in Rwanda, with variation between the east and the west.[130] Nyungwe Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;[130] endemic species include the Ruwenzori Turaco and Handsome Francolin.[131] Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the Black-headed Gonolek and those associated with swamps and lakes, including storks and cranes. dell Studio 1747 batteryMain article: Economy of Rwanda Coffee beans drying in Maraba. Coffee is one of Rwanda's major cash crops. Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 Genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain the infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the country's ability to attract private and external investment. The economy has since strengthened, with per-capita GDP (PPP) estimated at $1,284 in 2011, Dell Inspiron 1440 Battery compared with $416 in 1994. Major export markets include China, Germany, and the United States.[75] The economy is managed by the central National Bank of Rwanda and the currency is the Rwandan franc; in June 2010, the exchange rate was 588 francs to the United States dollar.[133] Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007 and there are plans for a common East African shilling, which could be in place by 2015. Dell Inspiron 1750 BatteryRwanda is a country of few natural resources,[93] and the economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture by local farmers using simple tools.[135] An estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 42.1% of GDP in 2010.[75] Since the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing Dell Inspiron 14 Battery, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people. Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with population growth, and food imports are required.[75] Crops grown in the country include coffee, tea, pyrethrum, bananas, beans, sorghum and potatoes. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions Dell Inspiron 1464 Battery. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.[138] Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.[139] Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali. Shortages of land and water Dell Inspiron 15 Battery, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the industry. The industrial sector is small, contributing 14.3% of GDP in 2010. Dell Inspiron 1564 Battery Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes. Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008. Minerals mined include cassiterite, wolframite, gold, and coltan, which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones Dell Inspiron 17 Battery. Mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park Rwanda's service sector suffered during the late-2000s recession as banks reduced lending and foreign aid projects and investment were reduced.[143] The sector rebounded in 2010, becoming the country's largest sector by economic output and contributing 43.6% of the country's GDP.[75] Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade Dell Inspiron 1764 Battery, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services and public administration including education and health. Tourism is one of the fastest-growing economic resources and became the country's leading foreign exchange earner in 2011. In spite of the genocide's legacy, the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination Dell Studio 1440 Battery; The Directorate of Immigration and Emigration recorded 405,801 people visiting the country between January and June 2011; 16% of these arrived from outside Africa.[146] Revenue from tourism was US$115.6 million between January and June 2011; holidaymakers contributed 43% of this revenue, despite being only 9% of the numbers. Dell Studio 1535 Battery Rwanda is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can be visited safely; gorilla tracking, in the Volcanoes National Park, attracts thousands of visitors per year, who are prepared to pay high prices for permits.[147] Other attractions include Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus and other primates, the resorts of Lake Kivu, and Akagera, a small savanna reserve in the east of the country Dell Studio 1536 Battery. Media and communications Main article: Telecommunications in Rwanda The largest radio and television stations are state-run. Most Rwandans have access to radio and Radio Rwanda is the main source of news throughout the country. Television access is limited mostly to urban areas.[149] The press is tightly restricted and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.[149] Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda Dell Studio 1537 Battery, English, and French critical of the government are widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi, being suspended for six months by the High Media Council. Dell Studio 1555 BatteryRwandatel is the country's oldest telecommunications group, providing landlines to 23,000 subscribers, mostly government institutions, banks, NGOs and embassies.[151] Private landline subscription levels are low. As of 2011, mobile phone penetration in the country is 35%, up 1% on the previous year. The leading provider is MTN, with around 2.5 million subscribers, followed by Tigo with 700,000 Dell Studio 1557 Battery. A third mobile phone service, run by Bharti Airtel, is scheduled for launch in the first quarter of 2012. Rwandatel also operated a mobile phone network, but the industry regulator revoked its licence in April 2011, following the company's failure to meet agreed investment commitments. Internet penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2010 there were 7.7 internet users per 100 people Dell Studio 1558 Battery, up from 2.1 in 2007. In 2011, a 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) fibre-optic telecommunications network was completed, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce.[156] This network is connected to SEACOM, a submarine fibre-optic cable connecting communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa. Within Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking towns around the country. Mobile provider MTN also runs a wireless internet service accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription. Dell Studio 1735 BatteryMain articles: Transport in Rwanda and Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda Rural water pump The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, significantly increasing its share of the national budget. This funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe water; in 2008, 73% of the population had access to safe water, up from about 55% in 2005 Dell Studio 1737 Battery. The country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems which deliver water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and managed springs are used.[159] Despite rainfall exceeding 100 centimetres (39 in) annually in many areas,[118] little use is made of rainwater harvesting. Dell Inspiron 1210 Battery Access to sanitation remains low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access to improved sanitation. Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas. The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public shared pit latrines for sanitation. Rwanda's electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely from hydroelectric sources Dell Inspiron Mini 12 Battery; power stations on Lakes Burera and Ruhondo provided 90% of the country's electricity.[161] A combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the draining of the Rugezi wetlands for cultivation and grazing, caused the two lakes' water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by 2004 levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop in output from the power stations. Dell Latitude E4300 Battery This, coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in 2004 and widespread loadshedding.[162] As an emergency measure, the government installed diesel generators north of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but were very costly.[162] The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem Dell Latitude E4310 Battery, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.[163] Only 6% of the population had access to electricity in 2009.[164] The government has increased investment in the transport infrastructure of Rwanda since the 1994 Genocide, with aid from the United States Dell Vostro 1310 Battery, European Union, Japan, and others. The transport system centres primarily around the road network, with paved roads between Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the country.[165] Rwanda is linked by road to other countries in East Africa, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Kenya, as well as to the eastern Congolese cities of Goma and Bukavu; the country's most important trade route is the road to the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi. Dell Vostro 1320 Battery The principal form of public transport in the country is the shared taxi. Express routes link the major cities and local service is offered to most villages along the main roads. Coach services are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country has an international airport at Kigali that serves one domestic and several international destinations. Dell Vostro 1510 BatteryAs of 2011 the country has no railways, although funding has been secured for a feasibility study into extending the Tanzanian Central Line into Rwanda.[168] There is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists and the government has initiated a programme to encourage development of a full service. Dell Vostro 1520 BatteryDemographics Main articles: Demographics of Rwanda, Religion in Rwanda, and Languages of Rwanda Rural children 2012 estimates place Rwanda's population at 11,689,696.[75] The population is young: an estimated 42.7% are under the age of 15, and 97.5% are under 65. The annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants, and the death rate at 14.9.[75] The life expectancy is 58.02 years (59.52 years for females and 56.57 years for males), which is the 30th lowest out of 221 countries and territories. The sex ratio of the country is relatively even. Dell Vostro 2510 BatteryAt 408 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,060 /sq mi), Rwanda's population density is amongst the highest in Africa. Historians such as Gérard Prunier believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.[39] The population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the country. Dell Inspiron 1410 Battery The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province of Umutara and Akagera National Park in the east.[170] Kigali is the largest city, with a population of around one million.[171] Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development. Other notable towns are Gitarama, Butare, and Gisenyi, all with populations below 100,000.[174] The urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990 Dell Vostro 1014 Battery, to 16.6% in 2006;[175] by 2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%. Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times, and the population is drawn from just one ethnic and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda; this contrasts with most modern African states, whose borders were drawn by colonial powers and did not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial kingdoms.[177] Within the Banyarwanda people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu (84% of the population as of 2009) Dell Vostro 1015 Battery, Tutsi (15%) and Twa (1%).[178][75] The Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars do not agree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi.[179] Anthropologist Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency towards "long and narrow heads, faces and noses"; Dell Vostro 1088 Batteryothers, such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible physical difference and the categories were not historically rigid.[181] In precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the Kings and the majority of chiefs were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.[182] The current government discourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from identity cards. Dell XPS M2010 BatteryRwamagana Church The majority of Rwandans are Catholic, but there have been significant changes in the nation's religious demographics since the Genocide, with many conversions to Evangelical Christian faiths and Islam.[184] As of 2006, Catholics represented 56.5% of the population, Protestants 37.1% (of whom 11.1% were Seventh Day Adventists) and Muslims 4.6%.[185] 1.7% claimed no religious beliefs. Dell Inspiron 1520 Battery Traditional African religions despite officially representing only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with the traditional Rwandan God Imana.[186] The country's principal language is Kinyarwanda, which is spoken by most Rwandans. The major European languages during the colonial era were German, and then French, which was introduced by Belgium and remained an official and widely spoken language after independence. Dell Inspiron 1521 Battery The influx of former refugees from Uganda and elsewhere during the late 20th century[187] has created a linguistic divide between the English-speaking population and the French-speaking remainder of the country.[188] Kinyarwanda, English and French are all official languages. Kinyarwanda is the language of government and English is the primary educational medium. Swahili, the lingua franca of East Africa, is also widely spoken, particularly in rural areas. Dell Inspiron 1720 Battery Additionally, inhabitants of Rwanda's Nkombo Island speak Amashi, a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.[189] Main articles: Culture of Rwanda, Music of Rwanda, and Cuisine of Rwanda Traditional Rwandan intore dancers Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components: the umushagiriro, or cow dance Dell Inspiron 1721 Battery, performed by women;[190] the intore, or dance of heroes, performed by men; and the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ingoma.[191] The best known dance group is the National Ballet, established by President Habyarimana in 1974, which performs nationally and internationally.[192] Traditionally, music is transmitted orally Dell Vostro 1500 Battery, with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the King (Mwami).[193] Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number.[194] The country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by East African, Congolese, and American music. The most popular genre is hip hop, with a blend of rap, ragga, R&B and dance-pop Dell Vostro 1700 Battery. The cuisine of Rwanda is based on local staple foods produced by subsistence agriculture such as bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes, beans, and cassava (manioc).[196] Many Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.[196] For those who live near lakes and have access to fish, tilapia is popular.[196] The potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian colonialists, is very popular. Dell Inspiron 1420 BatteryUbugari (or umutsima) is a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form a porridge-like consistency that is eaten throughout East Africa.[198] Isombe is made from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried fish.[197] Lunch is usually a buffet known as mélange, consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.[199] Brochettes are the most popular food when eating out in the evening Dell Vostro 1400 Battery, usually made from goat but sometimes tripe, beef, or fish.[199] In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and barbecuing the meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.[200] Milk, particularly in a fermented yoghurt form called ikivuguto, is a common drink throughout the country. Dell Latitude 2100 Battery Other drinks include a traditional beer called urwagwa, made from sorghum or bananas, which features in traditional rituals and ceremonies.[197] Commercial beers brewed in Rwanda include Primus, Mützig, and Amstel.[198] Rwandan woven basket Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration Dell Latitude 2110 Battery. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common.[202] Imigongo, a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.[203] Other crafts include pottery and wood carving.[204] Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials Dell Latitude D620 Battery; circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known as nyakatsi) are the most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron. Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to folk stories. Many of the country's moral values and details of history have been passed down through the generations Dell Latitude D630 Battery. The most famous Rwandan literary figure was Alexis Kagame (1912–1981), who carried out and published research into oral traditions as well as writing his own poetry.[207] The Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence a literature of witness accounts, essays and fiction by a new generation of writers such as Benjamin Sehene. A number of films have been produced about the Rwandan Genocide Dell Precision M2300 Battery, including the Golden Globe-nominated Hotel Rwanda, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes in April, and Shooting Dogs, the last two having been filmed in Rwanda and having featured survivors as cast members.[208] Eleven regular national holidays are observed throughout the year, with others occasionally inserted by the government.[209] The week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7 April is designated an official week of mourning. sony vgp-bps2 battery The last Saturday of each month is umuganda, a national day of community service, during which most normal services close down from 07:00 in the morning until 12:00 noon.[211] Education and health Main article: Education in Rwanda Pupils at a Rwandan secondary school The Rwandan government provides free education in state-run schools for nine years: six years in primary and three years following a common secondary programme.[212] President Kagame announced during his 2010 re-election campaign that he plans to extend this free education to cover the final three secondary years. sony vgp-bps3 batteryMany poorer children still fail to attend school due to the necessity of purchasing uniforms and books and commitments at home.[214] There are many private schools across the country, some church-run, which follow the same syllabus but charge fees.[214] A very small number offer international qualifications. From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English sony vgp-bps4 battery; due to the country's increasing ties with the East African Community and the Commonwealth, only the English syllabi are now offered. The country has a number of institutions of tertiary education, with the National University of Rwanda (UNR), Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), and Kigali Institute of Education (KIE) being the most prominent. sony vgp-bps5 battery In 2009, the gross enrolment ratio for tertiary education in Rwanda was 5%. The country's literacy rate, defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write, was 71% in 2009, up from 38% in 1978 and 58% in 1991.[217] A hospital at Butaro, Northern Province The quality of healthcare is generally low, but improving. It once was that one in five children died before their fifth birthday, often from malaria.[citation needed], however, infant mortality has dropped to half of what it was in the period 2005-2010. sony vgp-bps7 battery There is a shortage of qualified medical professionals in the country, and some medicines are in short supply or unavailable.[219] 87% have access to healthcare but there are only two doctors and two paramedics per 100,000 people. The government is seeking to improve the situation as part of the Vision 2020 development programme. In 2008, the government spent 9.7% of national expenditure on healthcare, compared with 3.2% in 1996. sony vgp-bpl7 battery It also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health Institute (KHI). Health insurance became mandatory for all individuals in 2008;[222] in 2010 over 90% of the population was covered.[223] Prevalence of some diseases is declining, including the elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus[224] and a sharp reduction in malaria morbidity, mortality rate, and specific lethality, sony vgp-bps8 batterybut Rwanda's health profile remains dominated by communicable diseases.[224] HIV/AIDS seroprevalence in the country is classified by the World Health Organization as a generalized epidemic; an estimated 7.3% of urban dwellers and 2.2% of rural dwellers, aged between 15 and 49, are HIV positive. Eritrea), officially the State of Eritrea, sony vgp-bps8a battery is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea is the Italian form of the Greek name Ἐρυθραίᾱ (Erythraíā ), meaning "red [land]". The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeast and east of the country has an extensive coastline on the Red Sea, directly across from Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands are part of Eritrea sony vgp-bps8b battery. Eritrea's size is approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi) with an estimated population of 6 million. The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, rose somewhere around the first or second centuries.[8][9] and adopted Christianity shortly after its formation.[10] In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri Kingdom, with part being part of the Hamasien Republic sony vgp-bpl8 battery. The creation of modern day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent Kingdoms and various vassal states of the Ethiopian empire and the Ottoman Empire, eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea. In 1947 Eritrea became part of a federation with Ethiopia, the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Subsequent annexation by Ethiopia led to the Eritrean War of Independence, ending with Eritrean independence in 1991 sony vgp-bps9 battery. Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations and IGAD, and is an observer in the Arab League. Main article: History of Eritrea Together with northern Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Eritrea is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Land"), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC.[11] The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut sony vgp-bps9/s battery. Map of the Kingdom D'mt in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia ca. 400 BC. D'mt was a kingdom located in southern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia that existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. With its capital at Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms sony vgp-bps9a/s battery, until the rise of one of these polities, the Aksumite Kingdom during the first century, which was able to reunite the area.[12] The history of Eritrea is tied to its strategic position on the Red Sea littoral, with a coastline that extends more than 1,000 km. Many scientists believe that it is from this area that anatomically modern humans first expanded out of Africa.[13] From across the seas came various invaders and colonizers, such as the South Arabians hailing from the present-day Yemen area sony vgp-bps9/b battery, as well as the Ottoman Turks, the Portuguese from Goa (India), the Egyptians, the British and, in the 19th century, the Italians. Over the centuries, invaders also came from the neighboring countries in Africa, like Egypt and Sudan to the west and north, as well as Ethiopia to the south. However, present-day Eritrea was largely affected by the Italian colonisers of the 19th century sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. In the period following the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded Ethiopia and occupied Eritrea. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of Italy. In 1936, it became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana) sony vgp-bps9a battery, along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.[14] Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians[15] and took over the administration of the country. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia per UN Resolution 390A(V) under the prompting of the United States adopted in December 1950. sony vgp-bps9b batteryPre-Axumite monolithic columns in Qohaito. This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters. The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, along with their shared history, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1952 sony vgp-bpl9c battery. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic, the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961) sony vgp-bpl9 battery, which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. sony vgp-bps10 batteryThe de facto predominant languages are Tigrinya and Arabic, both of which belong to the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. English is used in the government's international communication and is the language of instruction in all formal education beyond the fifth grade. Sony VGP-BPS12 BatteryEritrea is a single-party state. Though its constitution, adopted in 1997, stipulates that the state is a presidential republic with a unicameral parliamentary democracy, it has yet to be implemented. In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the two year long Eritrean–Ethiopian War. The war resulted in the death of as many as 100,000 Ethiopian and Eritrean soldiers, although specific casualty estimates are varied. Sony VGP-BPL12 BatteryGovernment and Politics Main article: Politics of Eritrea Eritrea is run by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).[20] Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats, of which 75 are occupied by the PFDJ. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery; none have ever been held in the country.[2] The president, Isaias Afewerki, has been in office since independence in 1993. Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery according to various international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its record of religious persecution.[21] National election Building of regional administration in Asmara. Eritrean National elections were set for 2001 but was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under occupation, elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. However, local elections have continued in Eritrea Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011. On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,[22] “The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It's not dependent on regional elections Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery.” As yet, no national elections have been held since independence.[2] Regions and districts Main articles: Regions of Eritrea and Districts of Eritrea Map of Eritrea Eritrea is divided into six regions (zobas) and subdivided into districts (sub-zobas). The geographical extent of the regions is based on their respective hydrological properties. This a dual intent on the part of the Eritrean government: to provide each administration with sufficient control over its agricultural capacity, and to eliminate historical intra-regional conflicts Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. Human rights Main article: Human rights in Eritrea The human rights record of Eritrea is considered poor. Since Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, Eritrea's human rights record has worsened. Several human rights violations are committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. Those that practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison. Well known prisoners are usually held in underground cells and less known prisoners are usually put together in cargo containers or in very overcrowded prisons. Domestic and international human rights organizations are not allowed to function in Eritrea Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery. The registered, census-based religions are the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (a monophysite Oriental Orthodox denomination), the Roman Catholic Church, Eritrean Lutheran Church, and Sunnite Islam. All other religions are persecuted, including other denominations of Islam, such as Shi'ism, and other denominations of Christianity, Sony VGP-BPS13A batterysuch as any of the myriad Protestant denominations. All denominations of Christianity enjoyed freedom of worship until 2002 when the government outlawed worship and assembly outside the 'registered' denominations. All groups who worship secretly in a house or other any unregistered place of assembly are arrested and imprisoned without charge or trial Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery. Religious prisoners are often tortured in Eritrea. Freedom of worship is one of the top reasons thousands of Eritreans flee the country. There are thousands of Eritrean refugees in Ethiopia and the Sudan seeking asylum in Europe or another region of the West.[23] Eritrea is a one-party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. Sony VGP-BPS13AS batteryIn its 2010 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment in Eritrea at 178 out of 178, the lowest possible rating and below that of totalitarian North Korea at 177.[25] According to the BBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media",[26] and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[they] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse. ... Sony VGP-BPS13S batteryNot a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara."[27] The state-owned news agency censors news about external events.[28] Independent media have been banned since 2001.[28] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Eritrea Embassy of Eritrea in Washington, D.C. Eritrea is a full member of the African Union (AU), the successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). However, it had withdrawn its representative to the AU in protest at the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery. The Eritrean government has since January 2011 appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.[29] [edit]Relations with the United States Eritrea's relationship with the United States has a short yet complex history. The United States Army operated Kagnew Station in Eritrea (which at the time was under British, then Ethiopian rule) from 1943 to 1977 as part of an agreement with Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie I. When the United Nations was debating the future of the territory of Eritrea in the beginning of the 1950s Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery (while it was under British trusteeship as a result of the end of World War II and Italian colonialism), the United States was instrumental in promoting Eritrea's linkage with Imperial Ethiopia, opposing the idea of an independent Eritrea, irrespective of the wishes of the Eritrean people. This was succinctly put by then US ambassador to the UN (later to become US Secretary of State) John Foster Dulles: "From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. Nevertheless the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally Ethiopia." When Ethiopia deposed its Emperor and became a communist state 1974–1991, the United States did not support the Eritrean rebels' struggle for independence from communist Ethiopia, but remained committed to Eritrea's linkage with Ethiopia Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery, albeit under a different, more pro-western Ethiopian administration. In spite of all this, independent Eritrea enjoyed cordial relations with the United States which extended considerable amounts of development aid to Eritrea. In the late 90's, prior to the renewed conflict with Ethiopia, the United States cooperated extensively with Eritrea in an effort to contain and isolate the Islamist regime of Sudan Sony VGP-BPL21 battery. The US under the Bill Clinton administration was one of the main mediating parties during the border war between Eritrea and Ethiopia 1998–2001, although the Eritrean government continuously expressed its reservations against what it saw as a clear pro-Ethiopia bias from the US and thus began the gradual deterioration of relations with the US Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. During the beginning of the George W. Bush administration and the US "War on Terrorism" of the early 2000s, the US still considered Eritrea a friendly state and US Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld paid Eritrea's president a visit in Eritrea. Relations ultimately worsened in October 2008 when U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer called the nation a 'state sponsor of terrorism' and stated that the U.S. government might add Eritrea to its list of rogue states Sony VGP-BPS21A battery, along with Iran and Sudan.[30] The stated reason for this was the presence of Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, an exiled Somali Islamist leader, whom the U.S. suspects of having links to Al Qaeda, at a Somali opposition conference in Asmara.[31] During the week of 2 August 2009, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton claimed that Eritrea was supplying weapons to the Somali militant group al-Shabab.[32] Although Eritrea denied this accusation in a public statement the following day, Sony VGP-BPS21B batterythe United Nations, with the backing of the African Union, imposed sanctions and an arms embargo on Eritrea under Resolution 1907 for its alleged role in Somalia and refusal to withdraw troops from the border with Djibouti. Relations with the European Union Eritrea's relationship with the Italian Republic and the European Union are still both reasonably strong and do not seem to be as strained as is the country's relationship with the United States. On 27 January 2009, the Dutch Ambassador, Yoka Brandt Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery, Director General of International Development Cooperation, paid an official visit to the country for bilateral talks with President Isaias' government, which were held in Massawa. [edit]Relations with Israel Main article: Eritrea–Israel relations Eritrea and Israel have ambassadors in each other's capitals. Avi Granot, head of the Africa division in the Israeli foreign ministry, has described Eritrea as a strategic ally, the one friendly port on the Red Sea Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. Relations with neighbouring countries Eritrea's relations with its neighbours have been strained due to a series of wars and disputes. These include a break of diplomatic relations with Sudan when Eritrea accused Sudan of hosting a network of terrorists in 1994, a war with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 (the conflict was settled through the verdict of the International Court of Arbitration in 1998), and a border conflict with Ethiopia from 1998–2001 Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. An international border commission, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission had delimited and virtually demarcated the border, but Ethiopia has refused to implement it. Eritrea's relations with the Sudan have normalised. Meanwhile, Eritrea has been recognised as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war: "It is known that Eritrea played a role in bringing about the peace agreement [between the Southern Sudanese and Government]." Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery In addition, the Sudanese government and Eastern Front rebels requested Eritrea to mediate peace talks in 2006.[36] A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war. As part of an agreement to cease hostilities the two nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague in 1998.[37] Yemen was granted full ownership of the larger islands while Eritrea was awarded the peripheral islands to the southwest of the larger islands. Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the decision. Since 1996, both governments have remained wary of one another but relations are relatively normal.[39] Relations with Ethiopia A train tunnel on the Eritrean Plateau See also: Eritrean–Ethiopian War The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 which claimed approximately 70,000 casualties from both sides Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.[41] Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. The stalemate led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the Eleven Letters penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery. The situation is further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another's countries.[citation needed] In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa, which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea has denied the claims.[45] U.S. diplomats in a cable leaked by Wikileaks stated that according to an embassy source, as well as clandestine reporting Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery, the bombing may have in fact been the work of Ethiopian government's security forces.[46] Amid fears of an emerging Islamic and nationalist Somalia, Ethiopia invaded Somalia with U.S. assistance, putting in place the at first weak and locally unpopular UN/AU-backed Transitional Federal Government which, without Ethiopian support, had been unable to exercise any control beyond its base in Baidoa and along the Ethio-Somali border Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery. The Transitional Federal Government as of 2011 taken full control of the capital and made significant gains on the territory of the now defunct Islamic Courts Union.[47] The United States Central Intelligence Agency also conducted a covert program of funding and assisting a coalition of Somali warlords to replace the Islamic Courts Union government in southern Somalia. Sony VGP-BPS14 BatteryOn its part, Eritrea used to host members of the ousted Union of Islamic Courts and the Somali Free Parliament, including the current President of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, who was also the leader of the Union of Islamic Courts ousted by Ethiopia in 2007. The Eritrean government has been accused of sponsoring, arming and hosting numerous militant leaderships and separatist rebels in the Horn of Africa. Sony VGP-BPL15/B BatteryMain article: Geography of Eritrea Eritrean highlands Eritrea is located in Northeast Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the northwest by Sudan. It lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E. The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. It has fertile lands to the west, descending to desert in the east. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly drier and cooler.[citation needed] The strategically important Bab-el-Mandeb strait connects the coasts of Eritrea and Yemen. The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somali plate) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS) Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters (9,902 ft) above sea level. The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, the northern town of Keren, and the central town Mendefera Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. Eritrea formerly supported a large population of elephants. The Ptolemaic kings of Egypt used the country as a source of war elephants in the third century BC[citation needed]. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons. It is estimated that there are around 100 elephants left in Eritrea, the most northerly of East Africa's elephants.[50] The endangered Painted Hunting Dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country. Sony VGP-BPS18 batteryIn 2006, Eritrea announced it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery. Another view of Asmara Main article: Economy of Eritrea Like the economies of many other African nations, the economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 65% of the population involved in farming and herding. Drought has often created trouble in the farming areas.[52] The Real GDP (2009 est.): $4.4 billion, and the annual growth rate (2009 est.): 3.6%.[53] The Eritrean-Ethiopian War severely hurt Eritrea's economy. GDP growth in 1999 fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in 2000 SONY VGN-FZ11E battery. In May 2000, the war resulted in some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. The war also prevented the planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%.[2] Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Warsay Yika'alo Program SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. The most significant of these projects was the building of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb as well as the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway. The rail line now runs between the Port of Massawa and the capital Asmara. Main article: Demographics of Eritrea A map indicating the ethnic composition of Eritrea Eritrean society is ethnically heterogeneous. An independent census has yet to be conducted, but the Tigrinya people make up about 50% and Tigre people make up about 30% of the population. These form the bulk of the country's predominantly Semitic-speaking population SONY VGN-FZ11M battery. A wedding in Eritrea Most of the rest of the population belong to other Afro-Asiatic-speaking communities of the Cushitic branch, such as the Saho, Hedareb, Afar and Bilen. There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic minorities who are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language SONY VGN-FZ11S battery. In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the State. The most recent addition to the nationalities of Eritrea is the Rashaida. The Rashaida came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Arabian Coast SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery. Languages Main article: Languages of Eritrea Rashaida children in the Eritrean lowlands. As of 2012 citizens of Eritrea speak many languages. The country has no official language as such, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages",[55] but Tigrinya and Arabic predominaate in official usage. English and Italian are also widely understood. Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea stem from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. SONY VGN-FZ15 battery The Semitic languages in Eritrea are Tigre, Tigrinya, the newly recognized Dahlik, and Arabic (spoken natively by the Rashaida Arabs). Other Afro-Asiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country.[56] The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin and Saho. In addition, Nilo-Saharan languages (Kunama and Nara) are also spoken as a mother tongue by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic minority groups that live in the north and northwestern part of the country. SONY VGN-FZ150E batteryMain article: Education in Eritrea There are five levels of education in Eritrea: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are nearly 238,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education. There are approximately 824 schools[57] in Eritrea and two universities (the University of Asmara and the Institute of Science and Technology) as well as several smaller colleges and technical schools SONY VGN-FZ15G battery. Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory between seven and 13 years of age. However, the education infrastructure is inadequate to meet current needs. Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that between 65 and 70% of school-aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high SONY VGN-FZ15L battery: 45 to 1 at the elementary level and 54 to 1 at the secondary level. There are an average 63 students per classroom at the elementary level and 97 per classroom at the secondary level. Learning hours at school are often less than six hours per day. Skill shortages are present at all levels of the education system, and funding for and access to education vary significantly by gender and location SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. Illiteracy estimates for Eritrea range from around 40% to as high as 70%.[58] Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low-income households.[59] Main article: Religion in Eritrea Enda Mariam Orthodox Church, St Joseph's Roman Catholic Cathedral, Al Khulafa Al Rashiudin Mosque in the capital Asmara SONY VGN-FZ15S battery. Eritrea has two dominant religions, Christianity and Islam. Various approximations have estimated that 50 to 62.5% are Christians (mostly followers of Orthodox Christianity and, to a lesser extent, Roman Catholicism) and 36.5 to 50% of the population is Sunni Muslim.[60] The Christians are primarily members of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church, which is the local Oriental Orthodox church, while considerable groups of Roman Catholics SONY VGN-FZ15T battery (including Italian Eritreans), Protestants, and other denominations also exist. Most Muslims follow Sunni Islam. Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church, Sunni Islam, Catholicism, and the Evangelical Lutheran church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process.[61] Among other things, the government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship. SONY VGN-FZ160E batteryThe Eritrean government is against reformed or radical versions of its established religions. Therefore, radical forms of Islam, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Bahá'í Faith, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and numerous other Protestant denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named men are known to have been imprisoned since 1994. SONY VGN-FZ17 battery Additionally, on 28 June 2009, police raided a private home where Jehovah's Witnesses were meeting. 23 were arrested including children as young as two years old. Some of the women and children were later released. None have been charged officially or given access to the judicial process. As of 29 July 2010, 52 Jehovah's Witnesses have been imprisoned in Eritrea for attending their religious meetings, engaging in religious activity, and for refusing to serve in the national service SONY VGN-FZ17G battery. In its 2006 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a "Country of Particular Concern" (CPC) for the third year in a row.[64] Main article: Health in Eritrea Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets in health, in particular child health.[65] Life expectancy at birth has increased from 39.1 in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008 SONY VGN-FZ17L battery, maternal and child mortality rates have dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure has been expanded.[65] Due to Eritrea's relative isolation, information and resources are extremely limited and according the World Health Organisation (WHO) found in 2008 average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years. Immunisation and child nutrition has been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach SONY VGN-FZ18 battery; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the underweight prevalence among children decreased by 12% in 1995–2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).[65] The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health has registered tremendous improvements in reducing malarial mortality by as much as 85% and the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006. SONY VGN-FZ180E/B battery The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.[66] However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Despite number of physicians increasing from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 population, this is still very low.[65] Malaria and Tubercolosis both are common in Eritrea. SONY VGN-FZ180E battery HIV prevalence among the 15–49 group exceeds 2%.[67] The fertility rate is at about 5 births per woman.[67] Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002, although the figure is still high.[65] Similarly, between 1995 and 2002, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel has doubled but still is only 28.3%.[65] A major cause of deaths of neonates is by severe infection.[67] Per capita expenditure on health is low in Eritrea. SONY VGN-FZ18E batteryCyclists competing in the Tour of Eritrea in Asmara. Kitcha fit-fit is a staple of Eritrean cuisine. A dish of shredded, oiled, and spiced bread, it is often served with a scoop of fresh yogurt and topped with berbere (spice). Main article: Culture of Eritrea See also: Cuisine of Eritrea and Music of Eritrea The Eritrean region has traditionally been a nexus for trade throughout the world. Because of this, the influence of diverse cultures can be seen throughout Eritrea. Today the most obvious influences in the capital, Asmara, are those of Italy. Throughout Asmara SONY VGN-FZ18G battery, there are small cafes serving beverages common in Italy. In Asmara, there is a clear merging of the Italian colonial influence with the traditional Tigrinya lifestyle. In the villages of Eritrea, these changes never took hold. In the cities, before the occupation and during the early years, the import of Bollywood films was commonplace, while Italian and American films were available in the cinemas as well SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. In the 1980s and since independence, however, American films have become the most common. Vying for market share are films by local producers, who have slowly come into their own. The global broadcast of Eri-TV has brought cultural images to the large Eritrean population in the Diaspora that visits the country every summer. Successful domestic films are produced by government and independent studios with revenue from ticket sales typically covering the production costs SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. Traditional Eritrean dress is quite varied, with the women of most lowland ethnicities traditionally dressing in brightly colored clothes, while the Tigrinya traditionally dress in bright white costumes. Of the Muslim ethnicities, only the Arab or Rashaida tribeswomen maintain a tradition of covering their faces SONY VGN-FZ18T battery. Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.
Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Swahili: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania),[5] is the country that was formed by the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. It is located in East Africa, bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west Sony PCG-71313M battery; and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern border lies on the Indian Ocean. The country is divided into thirty regions: five on the semi-autonomous islands of Zanzibar and twenty-five on the mainland in the former Tanganyika.[6] The head of state is President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, elected in 2005. Since 1996, the official capital of Tanzania has been Dodoma, where the country's parliament and some government offices are located. Sony PCG-71212M battery Between independence and 1996, the main coastal city of Dar es Salaam served as the country's political capital. Today, it remains Tanzania's principal commercial city and de facto seat of most government institutions. It is the major seaport for the country and its landlocked neighbours. The name Tanzania derives from the first syllables of the names of the two states, Tanganyika and Zanzibar, that united to form the country Sony PCG-71311M battery. Main article: History of Tanzania Fossil remains of humans and pre-human hominids have been found in Tanzania that date back over two million years, making the area one of the oldest-known inhabited areas on Earth. More recently, Tanzania is believed to have been populated by Cushitic and Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherer communities. About two-thousand years ago Sony PCG-71213M battery, Bantu-speaking people began to arrive from western Africa in a series of migrations. Later, Nilotic pastoralists arrived and continued to move into the area until the 18th century.[10] The people of Tanzania have been associated with the production of steel. The Haya people of East Africa invented a type of high-heat blast furnace which allowed them to forge carbon steel at 1,802 °C (3,276 °F) nearly two-thousand years ago Sony PCG-61211M battery. The Shana clan in the Pare tribe also produced iron.[citation needed] One of Tanzania's most important archeological sites is Engaruka in the Great Rift Valley which includes an irrigation and cultivation system. Travellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and western India have visited the East African coast since early in the first millennium AD. Islam was practised on the Swahili Coast as early as the eighth or ninth century AD. Sony VAIO PCG-31114M batteryGeneral von Lettow-Vorbeck in Dar es Salaam with a British Officer (left) and German Officer (right), March 1919 Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade.[12] Between 65% to 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery One of the most famous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip, who was himself the grandson of an enslaved African. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo.[14] According to Timothy Insoll, "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast." Sony VAIO PCG-31112M batteryIn the late 19th century, Imperial Germany conquered the regions that are now Tanzania (minus Zanzibar), Rwanda, and Burundi, and incorporated them into German East Africa. During World War I, an invasion attempt by the British was thwarted by German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, who then mounted a drawn out guerrilla campaign against the British Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. The post–World War I accords and the League of Nations charter designated the area a British Mandate, except for a small area in the northwest, which was ceded to Belgium and later became Rwanda and Burundi, as well as a small area in the southeast (Kionga Triangle), incorporated to Portuguese East Africa (later Mozambique). Tanzania's founding leader Julius Nyerere with U.S. President Jimmy Carter and First Lady Rosalynn Carter in 1977 Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. British rule came to an end in 1961 after a relatively peaceful (compared with neighbouring Kenya, for instance) transition to independence. In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organization into the politically oriented Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU's main objective was to achieve national sovereignty for Tanganyika Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. A campaign to register new members was launched, and within a year TANU had become the leading political organization in the country. Benjamin William Mkapa, the third President of Tanzania. Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960 and continued as Prime Minister when Tanganyika became officially independent in 1961. In 1967 Nyerere's first presidency took a turn to the Left after the Arusha Declaration, which codified a commitment to socialism in Pan-African fashion SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. After the Declaration, banks were nationalized, as were many large industries. After the Zanzibar Revolution overthrew the Arab dynasty in neighbouring Zanzibar,[16] which had become independent in 1963, the island merged with mainland Tanganyika to form the nation of Tanzania on 26 April 1964. The union of the two, hitherto separate, regions was controversial among many Zanzibaris (even those sympathetic to the revolution) SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery but was accepted by both the Nyerere government and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar owing to shared political values and goals. From the late 1970s, Tanzania's economy took a turn for the worse. Tanzania was also aligned with China, which from 1970 to 1975 financed and helped to build the 1,860-kilometer-long (1,160 mi) TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam to Zambia. SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery From the mid 1980s, the regime financed itself by borrowing from the International Monetary Fund and underwent some reforms. From the mid 1980s Tanzania's GDP per capita has grown and poverty has been reduced.[18] Main article: Politics of Tanzania President of Tanzania Jakaya Kikwete and Deputy Secretaries. The President of Tanzania, and the members of the National Assembly, are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for five-year terms SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his Cabinet from among the National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate ten non-elected members of Parliament, who are also eligible to become cabinet members SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were held in October 2010. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi in power. Opposition parties are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power, though the country remains peaceful. Raphael Masunga Chegeni, Member of Tanzania's National Assembly, addressing locals in Magu. The unicameral National Assembly elected in 2010 has 343 members SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery. These include the Attorney General, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, the special women's seats which are made up of 30% of the seats that a given party has in the House, 181 constituent seats of members of Parliament from the mainland, and 50 seats from Zanzibar. Also in the list are forty-eight appointed for women and the seats for the 10 nominated members of Parliament SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. At present, the ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi holds about 75% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters. Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are seventy-six members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar, including fifty elected by the people, ten appointed by the president of Zanzibar Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery, five ex officio members, and an attorney general appointed by the president. In May 2002, the government increased the number of special seats allocated to women from ten to fifteen, which will increase the number of House of Representatives members to eighty-one. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are five years. The semi-autonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a unique system of government. Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and English common law. Appeal is from the Primary Courts through the District Courts, Resident Magistrate Courts, to the High Courts, and the Court of Appeal. SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery Judges are appointed by the Chief Justice of Tanzania, except for those of the Court of Appeal and the High Court, who are appointed by the President. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeal of the Union. SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery A commercial court was established in September 1999 as a division of the High Court. Main articles: Economy of Tanzania, Transport in Tanzania, and Microfinance in Tanzania A market near Arusha The economy is mostly based on agriculture, which accounts for more than half of the GDP, provides 75% (approximately) of exports, and employs approximately 75% of the workforce. Topography and climate, though, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. The nation has many natural resources including minerals, natural gas, and tourism SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. Extraction of natural gas began in the 2000s. Gas is drawn into the commercial capital, Dar Es Salaam and exported to various markets overseas. Tanzania has vast amounts of minerals including gold, diamonds, coal, iron, uranium, nickel, chrome, tin, platinum, coltan, niobium, and others SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. It was announced in February 2012 that the collapsed volcano approximately 200km north of Mbeya, Mount Ngualla, contained one of the largest rare earths oxide deposits in the world.[20] Tanzania is the third-largest producer of gold in Africa after South Africa and Ghana. The country is also known for Tanzanite, a type of precious gemstone that is found only in Tanzania. The mineral sector started to pick-up slowly in the late 90s SONY PCG-8113M battery; major discoveries are announced regularly. However, the mineral sector has yet to start contributing significantly to the overall Tanzanian economy, and industry is still mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. Growth from 1991 to 1999 featured industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Commercial production of natural gas from the Songo Songo island in the Indian Ocean off the Rufiji Delta commenced in 2004, SONY PCG-8112M battery with natural gas being pumped in a pipeline to Dar es Salaam, the bulk of it converted to electricity by both public utility and private operators. A new gas field is being brought on stream in Mnazi Bay. Panorama of Dar es Salaam Recent public sector and banking reforms, as well as revamped and new legislative frameworks, have all helped increase private-sector growth and investment. Short-term economic progress also depends on curbing corruption. SONY PCG-7134M batteryProlonged drought during the early years of the 21st century has severely reduced electricity generation capacity (some 60% of Tanzania's electricity supplies are generated by hydro-electric methods).[23] During 2006, Tanzania suffered a crippling series of "load-shedding" or power-rationing episodes caused by a shortfall of generated power, largely because of insufficient hydro-electric generation SONY PCG-7131M battery . Plans to increase gas- and coal-fueled generation capacity are likely to take some years to implement, and growth is forecast to be increased to 7% or more per year.[24] There are two major airlines in Tanzania: the Air Tanzania Corporation and Precision Air; both provide local flights to Arusha, Kigoma, Mtwara, Mwanza, Musoma, Shinyanga, Zanzibar and regional flights to Kigali, Nairobi and Mombasa SONY PCG-7122M battery. There are also several charter firms and smaller airlines, such as Bold Aviation Ltd., Tropical Air and Coastal Aviation Ltd. There are two railway companies: TAZARA provides service between Dar-es-Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi, a district of the Central Province in Zambia. The other one is the Tanzania Railways Corporation, which provides services between Dar-es-Salaam and Kigoma SONY PCG-7121M battery, a town on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and between Dar-es-Salaam and Mwanza, a city on the shores of Lake Victoria. Several modern hydrofoil boats also provide transportation across the Indian Ocean between Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar. Tanzania is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation SONY PCG-7113M battery . Main article: Tourism in Tanzania Unlike minerals, the contribution of the tourism sector to the Tanzanian economy is steadily rising year after year. Mikumi National park entrance Tanzania is the home of the world-famous Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain. The country has dozens of beaches such as those found in Zanzibar and national parks like the Serengeti and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Other smaller parks, such as Mikumi National Park SONY PCG-7112M battery , which is located near Dar es Salaam, also contribute to the economy of the country. Administrative subdivisions Main articles: Regions of Tanzania and Districts of Tanzania Regions of Tanzania Tanzania is divided into thirty regions (mkoa), twentyfive on the mainland and five in Zanzibar (three on Unguja, two on Pemba).[25][26] Ninety-nine districts (wilaya), each with at least one council, have been created to further increase local authority; the councils are also known as local government authorities SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. There are 114 councils operating in 99 districts; 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are further classified as city councils (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal councils (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga) or town councils (the remaining eleven communities). Tanzania's regions are SONY PCG-8Z2M battery: Arusha · Dar es Salaam · Dodoma · Geita · Iringa · Kagera · Katavi · Kigoma · Kilimanjaro · Lindi · Manyara · Mara · Mbeya · Morogoro · Mtwara · Mwanza · Njombe · Pemba North · Pemba South · Pwani · Rukwa · Ruvuma · Shinyanga · Simiyu · Singida · Tabora · Tanga · Zanzibar Central/South · Zanzibar North · Zanzibar Urban/West Main article: Geography of Tanzania SONY PCG-8Z1M batteryFor more information on Maasai pastoralism as part of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems, see: GIAHS At 947,300 km²,[27] Tanzania is the world's 31st-largest country. Compared to other African countries, it is slightly smaller than Egypt and comparable in size to Nigeria. It lies mostly between latitudes 1° and 12°S, and longitudes 29° and 41°E SONY PCG-8Y3M battery . Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak Tanzania is mountainous in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro,[28] Africa's highest peak, is situated. To the north and west are the Great Lakes of, respectively, Lake Victoria (Africa's largest lake) and Lake Tanganyika (the continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish); to the southwest lies Lake Nyasa. Central Tanzania comprises a large plateau SONY PCG-8Y2M battery, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the island of Zanzibar lying just offshore. Landscape in Northern Tanzania, inside the East African Rift Tanzania contains many large and ecologically significant wildlife parks,[29] including the famous Ngorongoro Crater, Serengeti National Park[30] in the north, and Selous Game Reserve and Mikumi National Park in the south. Gombe National Park in the west is known as the site of Dr. Jane Goodall's studies of chimpanzee behaviour SONY PCG-7Z1M battery . The government of Tanzania through its department of tourism has embarked on a campaign to promote the Kalambo water falls in the southwestern region of Rukwa as one of Tanzania's main tourist destinations. The Kalambo Falls are the second highest in Africa and are located near the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area SONY PCG-6W2M battery . The Engaresero village on the Western shores of Lake Natron has been chosen by the government of Tanzania to exemplify the Maasai pastoral system given its singularity, integrity, high diversity of habitats and biodiversity. The site also has major additional significance, because of the presence of Lake Natron and the volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai SONY PCG-5J5M battery , which have immense ecological, geological and cultural value. The community has demonstrated a strong resilience in facing threats to their systems, and has maintained associated social and cultural institutions, which ensure its sustainability under prevailing environmental conditions. Main article: Climate of Tanzania Landscape of the ridge at the edge of the Ngorongoro Crater SONY PCG-5K2M battery. Tanzania has a tropical climate. In the highlands, temperatures range between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F) during cold and hot seasons respectively. The rest of the country has temperatures rarely falling lower than 20 °C (68 °F). The hottest period extends between November and February (25–31 °C / 77–87.8 °F while the coldest period occurs between May and August (15–20 °C / 59–68 °F). Annual temperature is 32 °C (89.6 °F) SONY PCG-5K1M battery . The climate is cool in high mountainous regions. Tanzania has two major rainfall regions. One is uni-modal (December–April) and the other is bi-modal (October–December and March–May). The former is experienced in southern, south-west, central and western parts of the country, and the latter is found to the north and northern coast SONY PCG-5J4M battery . In the bi-modal regime the March–May rains are referred to as the long rains or Masika, whereas the October–December rains are generally known as short rains or Vuli. As this country lies near the equator, the climate is hot and humid. The easterlies winds cause rainfall in the eastern coastal region SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Tanzania Savanna at Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Lion on rock in Serengeti National Park. Tanzania has considerable wildlife habitat, including much of the Serengeti plain, where the white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi) and other bovids participate in a large-scale annual migration. Up to 250,000 wildebeest perish each year in the long and arduous movement to find forage in the dry season SONY PCG-5G2M battery. Tanzania is also home to 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of them strictly endemic and included in the IUCN Red Lists of different countries.[31] Tanzania has developed a Biodiversity Action Plan to address species conservation. A recently discovered species of elephant shrew called Grey-faced Sengi was filmed for the first time in 2005, and it was known to live in just two forests in the Udzungwa Mountains Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. In 2008, it was listed as "vulnerable" on the 2008 Red List of Threatened Species. Lake Natron in northern Tanzania is the largest breeding site for the threatened Lesser Flamingo, a huge community of which nest in the salt marshes of the lake. Areas of East African mangroves on the coast are also important habitats Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Tanzania Tanzanian children in Pongwe. Almost half of the local population is under 15. As of 2010, the estimated population is 43,188,000. Population distribution is extremely uneven, with density varying from 1 person per square kilometre (3/mi²) in arid regions to 51 per square kilometre (133/mi²) in the well-watered mainland highlands Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, to 134 per square kilometre (347/mi²) on Zanzibar.[32] More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the largest city and is the commercial capital; Dodoma, located in the centre of Tanzania is the new capital and houses the Union's Parliament. The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the Sukuma, Nyamwezi Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery, Chagga, Nyakyusa, Haya, Hehe, Bena, Gogo, and the Makonde have more than 1 million members. Other Bantu peoples include the Pare, Zigua, Shambaa, and Ngoni. The majority of Tanzanians, including the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are Bantu. Cushitic peoples include the half million Iraqw. Nilotic peoples include the nomadic Maasai and Luo Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighbouring Kenya. The Sandawe speak a language that may be related to the Khoe languages of Botswana and Namibia, while the language of the Hadza, although it has similar click consonants, is a language isolate. The population also includes people of Arab, Indian, and Pakistani origin, and small European and Chinese communities. Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery Many also identify as Shirazis. As of 1994, the Asian community numbered 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans resided in Tanzania. Religion Main article: Religion in Tanzania Church in Songea, serving the country's Christian majority. Tanzania's population consists of approximately 62% Christians, 35% Muslims, and 3% followers of indigenous religions.[35] The CIA World Factbook however states that 30% of the population is Christian with Muslim being 35% and indigenous beliefs 35%. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M batteryThe national census, however, has not asked for religious affiliation since 1967 as the religious balance is seen as a sensitive topic. As Tanzanians pride themselves on living together with their diversity, the use of a statistic that is conveniently equal is seen as avoiding rivalries between the various religious groups by not identifying the majority Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. All figures on religious statistics for Tanzania are at best educated guesswork and differ widely on the question whether there are more Christians or Muslims. Most assume that the share of traditionalists has dwindled.[37] The Christian population is mostly composed of Roman Catholics. Among Protestants the strong numbers of Lutherans and Moravians point to the German past of the country Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery, the numbers of Anglicans to the British history of Tanganyika. All of them have had some influence in varying degrees from the Walokole movement (East African Revival) which has also been fertile ground for the spread of charismatic and Pentecostal groups. Zanzibar is about 97% Muslim. On the mainland, Muslim communities are concentrated in coastal areas Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, with some large Muslim majorities also in inland urban areas especially and along the former caravan routes. A large majority of the Muslim population is Sunni. The Islamic population of Dar es Salaam, the largest and richest city in Tanzania, is composed of mainly Sunni Muslims. There are also active communities of other religious groups, primarily on the mainland, such as Buddhists, Hindus, and Bahá'ís.[38] Swahili in Arabic script on the clothes of a local Tanzanian woman (early 1900s) Main article: Languages of Tanzania Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M batterySwahili and English are the official languages; however the former is the national language.[39] English is still the language of higher courts,[4] it can however be considered a de facto official language. Tanzanians see themselves as having two "official" languages, English and Swahili. Swahili is seen as the unifying language of the country between people of different ethnic groups Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery, who each have their own language; English serves the purpose of providing Tanzanians with the ability to participate in the global economy and culture. Over 100 different (tribal) languages are spoken in Tanzania, including Maasai, Sukuma and Makonde.[40] The first language typically learned by a Tanzanian is that of his or her ethnic group, with Swahili and English learned thereafter Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. According to the official linguistic policy of Tanzania, as announced in 1984, Swahili is the language of the social and political sphere as well as primary and adult education, whereas English is the language of secondary education, universities, technology, and higher courts.[4] Though the British government financially supports the use of English in Tanzania, Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery its usage in the Tanzanian society has diminished over the past decades: In the seventies Tanzanian university students used to speak English with each other, whereas now they almost exclusively use Swahili outside the classroom. Even in secondary school and university classes, where officially only English should be used, it is now quite common to use a mix of Swahili and English Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. Other spoken languages are Indian languages, especially Gujarati, and Portuguese (spoken by Indians and Mozambican blacks, respectively) and to a lesser extent French (from neighbouring Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of the Congo). Historically German was widely spoken during that colonial period, but this practice is already forgotten Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. Emmaus students in Tanzania Main article: Education in Tanzania The literacy rate in Tanzania is estimated to be 73%.[41] Education is compulsory for seven years, until children reach age 15, but most children do not attend school until this age, and some do not attend at all. In 2000, 57% of children age 5–14 years were attending school. As of 2006, 87.2% of children who started primary school were likely to reach grade 5. Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M batteryMain articles: Health in Tanzania and HIV/AIDS in Tanzania Malaria Clinic in Tanzania helped by SMS for Life program The under-five mortality rate in 2010 is estimated to be 76 out of 1,000.[43] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 52.[44] The 15–60 year old adult mortality (the probability of dying between the ages 15–60) in 2009 was 456/1000 for men and 311/1000 for women.[45] The leading cause of death in children who survive the neonatal period is malaria. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery Other leading causes of death in under 5’s is pneumococcal disease (pneumonia) and rotavirus (diarrhea). The HIV/AIDS epidemic is a significant problem in Tanzania; in 2009, the prevalence was estimated to be 5.6% of the adult population.[47] Anti-retroviral treatment coverage for people with advanced HIV infection was 30% in 2011 – 7% below the average for the continent Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, HIV prevalence has declined among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics, young people (ages 15–24 years) and men in the general population. 2006 data show that 55% of the population had sustainable access to improved drinking water sources and 33% had sustainable access to improved sanitation. Main articles: Culture of Tanzania and Music of Tanzania Sony VAIO PCG-9131L batteryMakonde carvings The music of Tanzania stretches from traditional African music to the string-based taarab to a distinctive hip hop known as bongo flava. Famous taarab singers names are Abbasi Mzee, Culture Musical Club, Shakila of Black Star Musical Group. Internationally known traditional artists are Bi Kidude, Hukwe Zawose and Tatu Nane. Tanzania has its own distinct African rumba music, termed muziki wa dansi ("dance music") where names of artists/groups like Tabora Jazz, Western Jazz Band Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, Morogoro Jazz, Volcano Jazz, Simba Wanyika, Remmy Ongala, Marijani Shaabani, Ndala Kasheba,[50] NUTA JAZZ, ATOMIC JAZZ, DDC Mlimani Park, Afro 70 & Patrick Balisidya, Sunburst, Tatu Nane[54] and Orchestra Makassy must be mentioned in the history of Tanzanian music. One of Tanzania's, and other parts of Eastern Africa's, most common cultural dishes is Ugali. It is mainly composed of corn and is similar to the consistency of porridge, giving it its second name of corn meal porridge Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery. Tanzania has many writers. The list of writers' names includes well-known writers such as Godfrey Mwakikagile, Mohamed Said, Abdulrazak Gurnah, Prof. Julius Nyang'oro, Prof. Clement Ndulute, Prof. Frank Chiteji, Prof. Joseph Mbele,[55] Juma Volter Mwapachu, Prof. Issa Shivji, Jenerali Twaha Ulimwengu, Prof. Penina Mlama,[56] Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, Adam Shafi, Dr. Malima M.P Bundala and Shaaban Robert Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Tanzania has remarkable position in art. Two styles became world known: Tingatinga and Makonde. Tingatinga are the popular African paintings painted with enamel paints on canvas. Usually the motifs are animals and flowers in colourful and repetitive design. The style was started by Mr. Edward Saidi Tingatinga born in South Tanzania. Later he moved to Dar Es Salaam Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. Since his death in 1972 the Tingatinga style expanded both in Tanzania and worldwide. Makonde is both a tribe in Tanzania (and Mozambique) and a modern sculpture style. It is known for the high Ujamaas (Trees of Life) made of the hard and dark ebony tree. Tanzania is also a birthplace of one of the most famous African artists – George Lilanga Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. See also: Rugby union in Tanzania and Tanzania at the Olympics Youth soccer club in Zanzibar Filbert Bayi and Suleiman Nyambui both won track and field medals in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Tanzania competes in the Commonwealth Games as well as in the African Championships in Athletics. Football is widely played all over the country with fans divided between two major clubs, Young African Sports Club (Yanga) and Simba Sports Club (Simba) Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. Football is the most popular sport in Tanzania, despite the little success that has been achieved by the national team. To date, they have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup and have made just one appearance in the African Cup of Nations, back in 1980, where they finished last in their group with just 1 draw and 2 losses Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. Basketball is also played but mainly in the army and schools. Hasheem Thabeet is a Tanzanian-born NBA player with the Oklahoma City Thunder. He is the first Tanzanian to play in the NBA. Cricket is a rapidly growing sport in Tanzania after hosting the ICC Cricket League division 4 in 2008, Tanzania finished with one win for the tournament, and Tanzania also has its own national team. Rugby is a minor sport in Tanzania Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery. Tanzania now has a national team, which used to be part of the East Africa team, but was separated. The city of Arusha is home to Tanzanian rugby, and the city was host to 2007 Castel Beer Trophy. The Gambia (the i/ˈɡæmbiə/; officially the Republic of The Gambia), also commonly known as Gambia, is a country in West Africa. Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, surrounded by Senegal except for a short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean in the west Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. The country is situated around the Gambia River, the nation's namesake, which flows through the country's centre and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 11,295 km² with an estimated population of 1.7 million. On 18 February 1965, The Gambia gained independence from the United Kingdom and joined the Commonwealth of Nations. Banjul is The Gambia's capital, but the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. The Gambia shares historical roots with many other West African nations in the slave trade, which was the key factor in the placing and keeping of a colony on the Gambia River, first by the Portuguese and later by the British. Since gaining independence in 1965, The Gambia has enjoyed relative political stability, with the exception of a brief period of military rule in 1994. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L batteryThanks to the fertile land of the country, the economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism. About a third of the population lives below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day Main article: History of The Gambia Arab traders provided The Gambia's first written accounts in the 9th and 10th centuries. During the 10th century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to a large trade in slaves, gold, ivory (exports) and manufactured goods, etc. (imports). Serer civilisation The first picture is of the Senegambian stone circles (megaliths) which runs from Senegal all the way to The Gambia and described by UNESCO as "the largest concentration of stone circles seen anywhere in the world" Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. By the 11th century or the 12th century, the rulers of kingdoms such as Takrur (a monarchy centred on the Senegal River just to the north), ancient Ghana and Gao, had converted to Islam and had appointed Muslims who were literate in the Arabic language as courtiers.[6] At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. The Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and they began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, sold exclusive trade rights on the Gambia River to English merchants. Letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with The Gambia and the Gold Coast (now Ghana) Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Between 1651 and 1661 some parts of The Gambia were under Courland's rule, and had been bought by Prince Jacob Kettler, who was a Polish-Lithuanian vassal. A map of James Island and Fort Gambia During the late 17th century and throughout the 18th century, the British Empire and the French Empire struggled continually for political and commercial supremacy in the regions of the Senegal River and the Gambia River Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. The British Empire occupied The Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there—following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River, but the French retained a tiny enclave at Albreda on the river's north bank. This was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856 Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. According to its president Yahya Jammeh, The Gambia "is one of the oldest and biggest countries in Africa that was reduced to a small snake by the British government—[which] sold all our lands to the French".[7] As many as three million slaves may have been taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade was operated. It is not known how many slaves were taken by inter-tribal wars or Muslim traders before the transatlantic slave trade began Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. Most of those taken were sold by other Africans to Europeans; others were prisoners of inter-tribal wars; some were victims sold because of unpaid debts; and others were simply victims of kidnapping. Traders initially sent slaves to Europe to work as servants until the market for labour expanded in the West Indies and North America in the 18th century. In 1807, the United Kingdom abolished the slave trade throughout its Empire Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. It also tried, unsuccessfully, to end the slave trade in The Gambia. Slave ships intercepted by the Royal Navy in the Atlantic were also returned to The Gambia, with Liberated Slaves released on MacCarthy Island far up the Gambia River where they were expected to establish new lives.[8] The British established the military post of Bathurst (now Banjul) in 1816 Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. In the ensuing years, Banjul was at times under the jurisdiction of the British Governor General in Sierra Leone. In 1888, The Gambia became a separate colony. An agreement with the French Republic in 1889 established the present boundaries. The Gambia became a British Crown Colony called British Gambia, divided for administrative purposes into the colony (city of Banjul and the surrounding area) and the protectorate (remainder of the territory). The Gambia received its own executive and legislative councils in 1901 Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery, and it gradually progressed toward self-government. Slavery was finally abolished in 1906. During World War II, the entire Gambian army, 10 soldiers, fought with the Allies of World War II. Though these soldiers fought mostly in Burma, some died closer to home and there is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Fajara (close to Banjul). According to Jammeh, "when Germany was about to defeat Britain Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery, not only were Gambians conscripted and forced to go and fight in Britain, but also..."[7] Banjul contained an airstrip for the U.S. Army Air Forces and a port of call for Allied naval convoys. President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt visited by air and stopped overnight in Banjul en route to and from the Casablanca Conference (1943) in Morocco, marking the first visit to the African continent by an American President Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. After World War II, the pace of constitutional reform increased. Following general elections in 1962, the United Kingdom granted full internal self-governance in the following year. The Gambia achieved independence on 18 February 1965, as a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations. Shortly thereafter Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery, the national government held a referendum proposing that an elected president should replace The Gambian monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) as the head of state. This referendum failed to receive the two-thirds majority required to amend the constitution, but the results won widespread attention abroad as testimony to The Gambia's observance of secret balloting Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery, honest elections, civil rights, and liberties. On 24 April 1970, Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth, following a second referendum. Prime Minister Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara became the Head of State. The Gambia was led by President Dawda Jawara, who was re-elected five times. The relative stability of the Jawara era was shattered first by an attempted coup in 1981. The coup was led by Kukoi Samba Sanyang, who, on two occasions Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery, had unsuccessfully sought election to Parliament. After a week of violence which left several hundred people dead, Jawara, in London when the attack began, appealed to Senegal for help. Senegalese troops defeated the rebel force. In the aftermath of this attempted coup, Senegal and Gambia signed a Treaty of Confederation in 1982. The goal of the Senegambia Confederation was to combine the armed forces of the two states and to unify their economies and currencies Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. After just a short stretch of years, Gambia permanently withdrew from this confederation in 1989. In 1994, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) deposed the Jawara government and banned opposition political activity. Lieutenant Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh, chairman of the AFPRC, became head of state. Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery The AFPRC announced a transition plan for return to democratic civilian government. The Provisional Independent Electoral Commission (PIEC) was established in 1996 to conduct national elections. The PIEC was transformed to the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) in 1997 and became responsible for registration of voters and conduct of elections and referendums. In late 2001 and early 2002, the Gambia completed a full cycle of presidential Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery, legislative, and local elections, which foreign observers deemed free, fair, and transparent, albeit with some shortcomings. President Yahya Jammeh, who was elected to continue in the position he had assumed during the coup, took the oath of office again on 21 December 2001. Jammeh's Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction (APRC) maintained its strong majority in the National Assembly Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, particularly after the main opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) boycotted the legislative elections. Map of the Gambia Main article: Geography of the Gambia The Gambia is a very small and narrow country whose borders mirror the meandering Gambia River. It lies between latitudes 13° and 14°N, and longitudes 13° and 17°W. The country is less than 48.2 km (30.0 mi) wide at its widest point, with a total area of 11,295 km². Approximately 1,300 km² of The Gambia's area is covered by water Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. It is the smallest country on the continent of Africa. In comparative terms The Gambia has a total area which is slightly less than that of the island of Jamaica. The western side of the country borders the North Atlantic Ocean with 50 miles of coastline.[10] The climate of The Gambia is tropical. There is a hot and rainy season, normally from June until November, but from then until May there are cooler temperatures with less precipitation. Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery The climate in The Gambia is about the same as that found in neighbouring Senegal, southern Mali, and the northern part of Benin. Its present boundaries were defined in 1889 after an agreement between the United Kingdom and France. During the negotiations between the French and the British in Paris, the French initially gave the British approximately 200 miles (320 km) of the Gambia River to control Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. Starting with the placement of boundary markers in 1891, it took nearly fifteen years after the Paris meetings to determine the final borders of The Gambia. The resulting series of straight lines and arcs gave the British control of areas that are approximately 10 miles (16 km) north and south of the Gambia River Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. Marina Parade street. Main article: Politics of The Gambia The Gambia is a republic and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The serving President is His Excellency Sheikh Professor Al Haji Dr Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh. Following independence, The Gambia conducted freely contested elections every five years. Each election was won by The People's Progressive Party (PPP), headed by Dawda (David) Jawara. The PPP dominated Gambian politics for nearly 30 years Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. After spearheading the movement toward complete independence from Britain, the PPP was voted into power and was never seriously challenged by any opposition party. The last elections under the PPP regime were held in April 1992. In 1994, following corruption allegations against the Jawara regime and widespread discontent in the army, a largely bloodless and successful coup d’état installed army Lieutenant Yahya Jammeh into power Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. Politicians from deposed President Jawara's People's Progressive Party (PPP) and other senior government officials were banned from participating in politics until July 2001. A presidential election took place in September 1996, in which Yahya Jammeh won 56% of the vote. The legislative elections held in January 1997 were dominated by the APRC, which captured 33 out of 45 seats Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. In July 2001, the ban on Jawara-era political parties and politicians was lifted. Four registered opposition parties participated in the 18 October 2001, presidential election, which the incumbent, President Yahya Jammeh, won with almost 53% of the votes. The APRC maintained its strong majority in the National Assembly in legislative elections held in January 2002 Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery, particularly after the main opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) boycotted the legislative elections.[13] Arch 22 monument commemorating the 1994 coup Jammeh won the 2006 election handily after the opposition coalition, the National Alliance for Democracy and Development, splintered earlier in the year. The voting was generally regarded as free and fair, though events from the run-up raised criticism from some Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. A journalist from the state television station assigned to the chief opposition candidate, Ousainou Darboe, was arrested. Additionally, Jammeh said, "I will develop the areas that vote for me, but if you don't vote for me, don't expect anything". On the 21 and 22 March 2006, amid tensions preceding the 2006 presidential elections, an alleged planned military coup was uncovered Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. President Yahya Jammeh immediately returned from a trip to Mauritania, many army officials were arrested, and prominent army officials fled the country. Some believe the planned coup was fabricated by the President for his own purposes, but no proof has been found. For their roles in an alleged 2009 coup plot, 8 Gambians, including the former Chief of Defense Staff of the Gambian Armed Forces Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery, a former head and deputy head of the National Intelligence Agency and others were tried for treason, found guilty and sentenced to death in July, 2010. One of the convicted, a businessman, disappeared while in custody awaiting his appeal. Before that trial concluded, the former Chief of Defense Staff and the former Chief of the Gambia Naval Staff were charged with treason for their complicity in the failed 2006 coup Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. A key prosecution witness, serving a lengthy prison sentence for his role in the 2006 coup plot, received a Presidential Pardon, apparently in return for his testimony. The 1970 constitution, which divided the government into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, was suspended after the 1994 military coup. As part of the transition process, the AFPRC established the Constitution Review Commission (CRC) through decree in March 1995 Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery. In accordance with the timetable for the transition to a democratically elected government, the commission drafted a new constitution for the Gambia, which was approved by referendum in August 1996. The constitution provides for a strong presidential government, a unicameral legislature, an independent judiciary, and the protection of human rights Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. In November 2011, elections were held under conditions that the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) characterised as "not to be conducive for the conduct of free, fair and transparent polls".[16] These elections, which were not monitored by ECOWAS, returned Jammeh to another 5-year term Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery. On 22 August 2012, Gambia announced it will execute all death-row convicts, 42 men and 2 woman, by September 2012. The country has not executed anyone in the past 30 years.[17] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of The Gambia and Military of The Gambia The Gambia followed a formal policy of nonalignment throughout most of former President Jawara's tenure. It maintained close relations with the United Kingdom, Senegal, and other African countries Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. The July 1994 coup strained the Gambia's relationship with Western powers, particularly the United States, which until 2002 suspended most non-humanitarian assistance in accordance with Section 508 of the Foreign Assistance Act. Since 1995, President Jammeh has established diplomatic relations with several additional countries, including Libya (suspended in 2010), Republic of China (Taiwan), and Cuba Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. The Gambia plays an active role in international affairs, especially West African and Islamic affairs, although its representation abroad is limited. As a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), The Gambia has played an active role in that organisation's efforts to resolve the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone and contributed troops to the community's the ceasefire monitoring group Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery (ECOMOG) in 1990 and (ECOMIL) in 2003. It also has sought to mediate disputes in nearby Guinea-Bissau and the neighbouring Casamance region of Senegal. The Government of the Gambia believes Senegal was complicit in the March 2006 failed coup attempt. This has put increasing strains on relations between the Gambia and its neighbour. Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery The subsequent worsening of the human rights situation has placed increasing strains of U.S.-Gambian relations.[13] The Gambian national army numbers about 1,900. The army consists of infantry battalions, the national guard, and the navy, all under the authority of the Department of State for Defense (a ministerial portfolio held by Jammeh). Prior to the 1994 coup, the Gambian army received technical assistance and training from the United States Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery, United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, Nigeria, and Turkey. With the withdrawal of most of this aid, the army has received renewed assistance from Turkey and others. A number of junior Gambian army officers are regularly trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, and sergeants from the Royal Gibraltar Regiment were observed training Gambian troops in Bakau in November 2010 Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. The Gambia allowed its military training arrangement with Libya to expire in 2002.[13] Members of the Gambian military participated in ECOMOG, the West African force deployed during the Liberian civil war beginning in 1990. Gambian forces have subsequently participated in several other peacekeeping operations, including Bosnia, Kosovo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea and East Timor Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. The Gambia contributed 150 troops to Liberia in 2003 as part of the ECOMIL contingent. In 2004, the Gambia contributed a 196-man contingent to the UN Peacekeeping Mission in Darfur, Sudan. Responsibilities for internal security and law enforcement rest with the Gambian police under the Inspector General of Police and the Secretary of State for the Interior Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. Main article: Economy of The Gambia Graphical depiction ofGambia's product exports in 28 color coded categories. Brightly painted fishing boats are common in Bakau, The Gambia. The Gambia has a liberal, market-based economy characterised by traditional subsistence agriculture, a historic reliance on groundnuts (peanuts) for export earnings, a re-export trade built up around its ocean port, low import duties, minimal administrative procedures, a fluctuating exchange rate with no exchange controls, and a significant tourism industry. Sony VAIO PCG-7172L batteryThe World Bank pegs Gambia's GDP for 2009 at US$733M while the International Monetary Fund puts it at US$968M for 2009. Agriculture accounts for roughly 30% of gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about 70% of the labour force. Within agriculture, peanut production accounts for 6.9% of GDP, other crops 8.3%, livestock 5.3%, fishing 1.8%, and forestry 0.5%. Industry accounts for approximately 8% of GDP and services approximately 58% Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. The limited amount of manufacturing is primarily agricultural-based (e.g., peanut processing, bakeries, a brewery, and a tannery). Other manufacturing activities include soap, soft drinks, and clothing.[13] Previously, Great Britain and other EU countries constituted the Gambia's major domestic export markets. However, in recent years Senegal, the United States Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery, and Japan have become significant trade partners of the Gambia. In Africa, Senegal represented the biggest trade partner of the Gambia in 2007, which is a defining contrast to previous years that saw Guinea-Bissau and Ghana as equally important trade partners. Globally, Denmark, the United States, and China have become important source countries for Gambian imports Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. The U.K., Germany, Côte d'Ivoire, and the Netherlands also provide a fair share of Gambian imports. The Gambia's trade deficit for 2007 was $331 million. As of May 2009, there were twelve commercial banks in the Gambia, including one Islamic bank. The oldest of these, Standard Chartered Bank dates its presence back to the entry in 1894 of what shortly thereafter became Bank of British West Africa. In 2005, the Swiss-based banking group, International Commercial Bank established a subsidiary and has now four branches in the country. In 2007 Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery, Nigeria's Access Bank established a subsidiary that now has four branches in the country, in addition to its head office; the bank has pledged to open four more. In May 2009, the Lebanese Canadian Bank opened a subsidiary called Prime Bank (Gambia). [20] Demographics Main article: Demographics of The Gambia Gambian woman and child. More than 63% of Gambians live in rural villages (1993 census), although more and more young people come to the capital in search of work and education Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Provisional figures from the 2003 census show that the gap between the urban and rural populations is narrowing as more areas are declared urban. While urban migration, development projects, and modernisation are bringing more Gambians into contact with Western habits and values, indigenous forms of dress and celebration and the traditional emphasis on the extended family remain integral parts of everyday life Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The UNDP's Human Development Report for 2010 ranks The Gambia 151st out of 169 countries on its Human Development Index, putting it in the 'Low Human Development' category. This index compares life expectancy, years of schooling, Gross National Income (GNI) per capita and some other factors Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. Ethnicity and language A variety of ethnic groups live in The Gambia, each preserving its own language and traditions. The Mandinka ethnicity is the largest, followed by the Fula, Wolof, Jola, Serahule, Serers and the Bianunkas. The Krio people, locally known as Akus, constitute one of the smallest ethnic minorities in The Gambia. They are descendants of the Sierra Leone Creole people and have been traditionally concentrated in the capital Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. There are approximately 3,500 non-African residents including Europeans and families of Lebanese origin (roughly 0.23% of the total population). Most of the European minority are Britons, many of whom left after independence. English is the official language of The Gambia. Other languages are Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, Serer, Krio and other indigenous vernaculars.[21]Due to geographical setting French language knowledge is relatively wide spread Sony VPCW21C7E battery. Main article: Education in The Gambia Classroom at Armitage High School The Constitution mandates free and compulsory primary education in the Gambia. Lack of resources and educational infrastructure has made implementation of this difficult.[22] In 1995, the gross primary enrollment rate was 77.1% and the net primary enrollment rate was 64.7% School fees long prevented many children from attending school Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery, but in February 1998 President Jammeh ordered the termination of fees for the first six years of schooling.[22] Girls make up about 52 percent of primary school students. The figure may be lower for girls (and consequently higher for boys) in rural areas, where cultural factors and poverty prevent parents from sending girls to school.[22] Approximately 20 percent of school-age children attend Koranic schools Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Gambia is 400. This is compared with 281.3 in 2008 and 628.5 in 1990 Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 106 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 31. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – reduce maternal death. In Gambia the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 5 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 49 Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. Public expenditure was at 1.8% of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure was at 5.0%.[24] There were 11 physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s. Life expectancy at birth was at 59.9 for females in 2005 and for males at 57.7. According to the World Health Organization in 2005 an estimated 78.3% of Gambia's girls and women have suffered female genital mutilation Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. c.90% of Gambian men have been circumcised. A group called Power Up Gambia operates in The Gambia to provide solar power technology to health care facilities, ensuring greater access to electricity. [edit]Public health progress Under President Jammeh, The Gambia has improved public health. In October 2012, it was reported that The Gambia has made significant improvements in polio, measles immunization, and the PCV-7 vaccine Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. The Gambia was certified as polio-free in 2004. "The Gambia EPI program is one of the best in the WHO African Region," Thomas Sukwa, a representative of the World Health Organization, said, according to the Foroyaa Newspaper. "It is indeed gratifying to note that the government of the Gambia remains committed to the global polio eradication initiative Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery." Immunizations According to Vaccine News Daily: Gambia is tied for third place in Africa for measles immunization among one-year-old children. Gambia is tied for fourth place in the world for the DTP3 immunization for one-year-old children. Gambia is ranked second in Africa for "feverish children under the age of five who received antimalarial treatment, according to Trading Economics Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery." Saint Mary's Anglican Cathedral in Banjul Further information: Religion in The Gambia Article 25 of the Constitution protects the rights of citizens to practice any religion that they choose.[30] The government also did not establish a state religion.[31] Islam is the predominant religion, practised by approximately 90 percent of the country's population. The majority of the Muslims in the Gambia adhere to Sufi laws and traditions. Sony VPCYA1V9E/B batteryVirtually all commercial life in The Gambia comes to a standstill during major Muslim holidays, including Eid al-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr.[32] Most Muslims in the Gambia follow the Maliki school of jurisprudence.[33] There is also a Shiite Muslim community in the Gambia, mainly from Lebanese and other Arab immigrants to the region.[34] The Christian community represents about 8 percent of the population Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. Residing in the western and the southern parts of the Gambia, most of the Christian community identify themselves as Roman Catholic. However, there are smaller Christian groups present, such as Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses and small evangelical denominations Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery. Serer religious symbol (the Ndut). The remaining 1.97 percent of the population adheres to indigenous beliefs, such as the Serer religion.[35] Serer religion encompasses cosmology and a belief in a supreme deity called Rog. Some of its religious festivals include the Xoy, Mbosseh and Randou Rande. Each year, adherents to Serer religion make the annual pilgrimage to Sine in Senegal for the Xoy divination ceremony. Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery Serer religion also has a rather significant imprint on Senegambian Muslim society in that, all Senegambian Muslim festivals such as "Tobaski", "Gamo", "Koriteh" and "Weri Kor", etc., are all loanwords from Serer religion. They were ancient Serer festivals.[37] Like the Serers, the Jola people also have their religious custom. One of the major religious ceremonies of the Jolas is the Boukout Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. Due to immigration from South Asia, there is a presence of Buddhists and followers of the Baha'i Faith.[31] Main article: Music of The Gambia Although the Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, its culture is the product of very diverse influences. The national borders outline a narrow strip on either side of the River Gambia, a body of water that has played a vital part in the nation's destiny and is known locally simply as "the River." Without natural barriers Sony VPCY11S1E battery, the Gambia has become home to most of the ethnic groups that are present throughout western Africa, especially those in Senegal. Europeans also figure prominently in the nation's history because the River Gambia is navigable deep into the continent, a geographic feature that made this area one of the most profitable sites for the slave trade from the 15th through the 17th centuries Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. (It also made it strategic to the halt of this trade once it was outlawed in the 19th century.) Some of this history was popularised in the Alex Haley book and TV series Roots which was set in the Gambia. Critics have accused the government of restricting free speech. A law passed in 2002 created a commission with the power to issue licenses and imprison journalists; in 2004, additional legislation allowed prison sentences for libel and slander and cancelled all print and broadcasting licenses, forcing media groups to re-register at five times the original cost Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. Three Gambian journalists have been arrested since the coup attempt. It has been suggested that they were imprisoned for criticising the government's economic policy, or for stating that a former interior minister and security chief was among the plotters.[40] Newspaper editor Deyda Hydara was shot to death under unexplained circumstances, days after the 2004 legislation took effect Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery. Licensing fees are high for newspapers and radio stations, and the only nationwide stations are tightly controlled by the government.[38] Reporters Without Borders has accused "President Yahya Jammeh's police state" of using murder, arson, unlawful arrest and death threats against journalists.[41] In December, 2010 Musa Saidykhan, former editor of The Independent newspaper, was awarded US$200,000 by the ECOWAS Court in Abuja, Nigeria Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery. The court found the Government of The Gambia guilty of torture while he was detained without trial at the National Intelligence Agency. Apparently he was suspected of knowing about the 2006 failed coup. Footballer Ebrima Sohna Even with a population under two million, Gambian players abroad have been making a distinct impact in the football (soccer) world. Macoumba Kandji plays with the 2006 and 2007 MLS Champions Houston Dynamo Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery. Portland Timbers (MLS) team features Gambian defender Mamadou "Futty" Danso as a starter in 2011. On 12 July 2011, Mustapha Jarju signed with Vancouver Whitecaps FC in the MLS.[42] Other Gambian players in MLS include Amadou Sanyang (Seattle Sounders FC), Sanna Nyassi (Montreal Impact), Sainey Nyassi (New England Revolution) and Kenny Mansally (Real Salt Lake). Mamadou Danso was called up to the national team along with Sanna Nyassi Sony VPCZ138GA battery, Sainey Nyassi and Kenny Mansally for a 2012 Africa Cup of Nations qualification match versus Namibia.[43] Other Gambian players who play outside the Gambia include Ousman Jallow and Paul Jatta (Brøndby IF), Ibou (OH Leuven), Tijan Jaiteh (SK Brann), Momodou Ceesay (MŠK Žilina), Ebrima Sohna (Sandefjord Fotball), Matarr Jobe(Nesta) (Valur FC Iceland) Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery, Yankuba Ceesay (JK Nõmme Kalju) and Mustapha Carayol (Milton Keynes Dons, Lincoln City F.C., Bristol Rovers). The former England under-21 international Cherno Samba was fully capped by Gambia. Alhaji Momodo Nije, also known as Biri Biri, who played for Sevilla FC, was the first Gambian footballer to play professionally abroad. He is regarded as the best Gambian footballer of all time. The name of the current group of Sevilla FC supporters is called Biris after his name Sony VPCZ13M9E/X battery. Gambian Patrick Mendy (born 26 September 1990) is a professional boxer. He was picked as a contender for the 13th series of Prizefighter series where he went on to win the super middleweight competition. He was also the youngest fighter ever to take part in the competition at the age of 19 Sony VPCZ13V9E battery.
Ethiopia, officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa, and is the most populous landlocked country in the world. It is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. Ethiopia is the second-most populous nation on the African continent( SONY PCG-5G2L battery), with over 84,320,000 inhabitants,[3] and the tenth largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2. Its capital, Addis Ababa, is known as "the political capital of Africa." Ethiopia is one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists.[5] It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond. Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history until the last dynasty of Haile Selassie ended in 1974, and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC. ( SONY PCG-5G3L battery) Alongside Rome, Persia, China and India,[10] the Kingdom of Aksum was one of the great world powers of the 3rd century and the first major empire in the world to officially adopt Christianity as a state religion in the 4th century. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia was the only African country beside Liberia that retained its sovereignty as a recognized independent country( SONY PCG-F305 battery), and was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. Ethiopia then became a founding member of the UN. When other African nations received their independence following World War II, many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag, and Addis Ababa became the location of several global organizations focused on Africa. Ethiopia is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement( SONY PCG-5J1L battery), G-77 and the Organisation of African Unity. Addis Ababa is currently the headquarters of the African Union, the Pan African Chamber of Commerce, UNECA and the African Standby Force. The ancient Ge'ez script is widely used in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The country is a multilingual and multiethnic society of around 80 groups, with the two largest being the Oromo and the Amhara( SONY PCG-5J2L battery), both of which speak Afro-Asiatic languages. The majority of the population is Christian while a third of it is Muslim. Ethiopia is the site of the first Hijra in Islamic history and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s. The country is also the spiritual homeland of the Rastafari movement. There are 9 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia( SONY PCG-5K2L battery). Despite being the major source of the Nile, Ethiopia underwent a series of famines in the 1980s, exacerbated by adverse geopolitics and civil wars. The country has begun to recover, and it now has the biggest economy by GDP in East Africa and Central Africa. Ethiopia follows a federal republic political system and EPRDF has been the ruling party since 1991( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). Names The Greek name Αἰθιοπία (from Αἰθίοψ, Aithiops, 'an Ethiopian') appears twice in the Iliad and three times in the Odyssey.[17] The Greek historian Herodotus specifically uses it for all the lands south of Egypt,[18] including Sudan and modern Ethiopia. Pliny the Elder says the country's name comes from a son of Hephaestus (aka Vulcan) named Aethiops. ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery) Similarly, in the 15th century Ge'ez Book of Aksum, the name is ascribed to a legendary individual called Ityopp'is, an extrabiblical son of Cush, son of Ham, said to have founded the city of Axum. In addition to this Cushite figure, two of the earliest Semitic kings are also said to have born the name Ityopp'is according to traditional Ethiopian king lists. Modern European scholars beginning c. 1600[20] have considered the name to be derived from the Greek words aitho "I burn" + ops "face"( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). The name Ethiopia also occurs in many translations of the Old Testament, but the Hebrew texts have Kush, which refers foremost to Nubia / Sudan.[23] In the (Greek) New Testament, however, the Greek term Aithiops, ‘an Ethiopian’, does occur,[24] referring to a servant of Candace or Kentakes, possibly an inhabitant of Meroe which was later conquered and destroyed by the Kingdom of Axum( SONY PCG-6V1L battery). The earliest attested use of the name Ityopya in the region itself is as a name for the Kingdom of Aksum in the 4th century, in stone inscriptions of King Ezana,[25] who first Christianized the entire apparatus of the kingdom. In English, and generally outside Ethiopia, the country was also once historically known as Abyssinia, derived from Habesh, an early Arabic form of the Ethiosemitic name "Ḥabaśāt" (unvocalized "ḤBŚT")( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). The modern form Habesha is the native name for the country's inhabitants (while the country has been called "Ityopp'ya"). In a few languages, Ethiopia is still referred to by names cognate with "Abyssinia," e.g., modern Arabic Al-Ḥabashah. Main article: History of Ethiopia East Africa, and more specifically the general area of Ethiopia, is widely considered the site of the emergence of early Homo sapiens in the Middle Paleolithic 400,000 years ago. Homo sapiens idaltu, found at site Middle Awash in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago. ( SONY PCG-7111L battery) Coins of the Axumite king Endybis, 227–235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads in Greek "AΧWMITW BACIΛEYC", "King of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis". Around the 8th century BC, a kingdom known as Dʿmt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. Its capital was around the current town of Yeha, situated in northern Ethiopia( SONY PCG-71511M battery). Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native African one, although Sabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea,[11] while others view Dʿmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaeans of southern Arabia and indigenous peoples. However, Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is now thought not to have derived from Sabaean (also South Semitic) ( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). There is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence in Ethiopia and Eritrea at least as early as 2000 BC. Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Aksumite state. ( SONY PCG-7113L battery) After the fall of Dʿmt in the 4th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century BC, the Aksumite Empire, ancestor of medieval and modern Ethiopia, which was able to reunite the area.[30] The Aksumites established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau, and from there expanded southward( SONY PCG-7133L battery). The Persian religious figure Mani listed Aksum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time.[31] In 316 AD, a Christian philosopher from Tyre, Meropius, embarked on a voyage of exploration along the coast of Africa. He was accompanied by, among others, two Syro-Greeks, Frumentius and his brother Aedesius( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery). The vessel was stranded on the coast, and the natives killed all the travelers except the two brothers, who were taken to the court and given positions of trust by the monarch. They both practiced the Christian faith in private, and soon converted the queen and several other members of the royal court. Lebna Dengel, nəgusä nägäst (Emperor) of Ethiopia and a member of the Solomonic dynasty( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) . The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty is derived from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 AD onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.[32] In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip. ( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father. King Fasilides' Castle. This proved to be an important development, for when the Empire was subjected to the attacks of the Adal General and Imam, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (called "Grañ", or "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. ( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery)This Ethiopian–Adal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire and Portugal took sides in the conflict. When Emperor Susenyos I converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.[36] The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians, and on 25 June 1632 Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides, declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery). Aussa Sultanate Main articles: Aussa Sultanate and Mudaito Dynasty State flag of the Aussa Sultanate. The Aussa Sultanate or Afar Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Aussa. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Harari city-state. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined and temporarily came to an end in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne. ( SONY PCG-7112L battery) The Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafu around the year 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty.[40] The primary symbol of the Sultan was a silver baton, which was considered to have magical properties.[41] Zemene Mesafint Emperor Yohannes IV led Ethiopian troops in the Battle of Gundet, among other campaigns. Between 1755 to 1855, Ethiopia experienced a period of isolation referred to as the Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes"( SONY PCG-6W2L battery). The Emperors became figureheads, controlled by warlords like Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and by the Oromo Yejju dynasty, such as Ras Gugsa of Begemder, which later led to 17th century Oromo rule of Gondar, changing the language of the court from Amharic to Afaan Oromo.[42][43] Emperor Tewodros II's rule is often placed as the beginning of modern Ethiopia, ending the decentralized Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes) ( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded an alliance between the two nations; however, it was not until 1855 that Ethiopia was completely united and the power in the Emperor restored, beginning with the reign of Emperor Tewodros II. Upon his ascent, despite still large centrifugal forces, he began modernizing Ethiopia and recentralizing power in the Emperor, and Ethiopia began to take part in world affairs once again( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery). But Tewodros suffered several rebellions inside his empire. Northern Oromo militias, Tigrayan rebellion and the constant incursion of Ottoman Empire and Egyptian forces near the Red Sea brought the weakening and the final downfall of Emperor Tewodros II, who committed suicide in 1868 after his last battle with a British expeditionary force( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery). After Tewodros' death, Tekle Giyorgis II was proclaimed Emperor. However, he was later defeated in the Battles of Zulawu (21 June 1871) and Adua (11 July 1871) by Dejazmach Kassai with the aid of John Kirkham, a British advisor who had trained his troops with modern weapons. Tekle Giyorgis was captured and deposed and Kassai was declared Emperor Yohannes IV on 21 January 1872( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). In 1875 and 1876, Turkish/Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American 'advisors', twice invaded Abyssinia but were initially defeated at the Battle of Gundet losing 800 men, and then following the second invasion, decisively defeated by Emperor Yohannes IV at the Battle of Gura on 7 March 1875, losing at least 3000 killed or captured. ( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery)From 1885 to 1889 Ethiopia joined the Mahdist War allied to Britain, Turkey and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. On 10 March 1889 Yonannes IV was killed whilst leading his army in the Battle of Gallabat (also called Battle of Metemma). From Menelik to Adwa Ethiopia as we currently know it began under the reign of Menelik II who was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate ‘the lands and people of the South( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery), East and West into an empire’;[45] the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups.[46] He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmed Gragn, and other areas that had never been under his rule( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery), resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.[47] At the same time there were also advances in road construction, electricity and education, development of a central taxation system, and the foundation and building of the city of Addis Ababa – which became capital of Shoa province in 1881 which Menelik then ruled as Ras, and subsequently became the new capital of Abyssinia on his accession to the throne in 1889( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery). Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889 in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia’s sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area north of Ethiopia (part of modern Eritrea). In return Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). This conflict erupted in the battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896 in which Italy’s colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[46][48] The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888 to 1892 cost it roughly one-third of its population.[49][50] Haile Selassie era Ethiopian Lion of Judah flag Haile Selassie was crowned 2 November 1930 with the titles King of Kings, Lord of Lords, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God and Power of the Trinity. He is seen by the Rastafari as Jah incarnate( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery). The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. It was he who undertook the modernization of Ethiopia, from 1916, when he was made a Ras and Regent (Inderase) for Zewditu I and became the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death he was made Emperor on 2 November 1930( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). Haile Selassie was born from parents of three Ethiopian ethnicities: the Oromo and Amhara, which are the country's two main ethnic groups, as well as the Gurage. The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Italian occupation (1936–1941).[51] During this time of attack, Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations in 1935( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery), delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure, and the 1935 Time magazine Man of the Year.[52] Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, officially liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African Campaign in 1941, while an Italian guerrilla campaign continued until 1943( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery). This was followed by British recognition of full sovereignty, (i.e. without any special British privileges), with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944.[53] On 26 August 1942 Haile Selassie I issued a proclamation outlawing slavery. Ethiopia had between two and four million slaves in early 20th century out of a total population of about eleven million. ( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery) In 1952 Haile Selassie orchestrated the federation with Eritrea which he dissolved in 1962. This annexation sparked the Eritrean War of Independence. Although Haile Selassie was seen as a national hero, opinion within Ethiopia turned against him owing to the worldwide oil crisis of 1973, food shortages, uncertainty regarding the succession, border wars, and discontent in the middle class created through modernization. ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) He played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta, the "Derg" led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, deposed him, and established a one-party communist state which was called People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). [edit]Mengistu era See also: Ethiopia–Russia relations The ensuing regime suffered several coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and a huge refugee problem. In 1977, there was the Ogaden War, when Somalia captured part of the Ogaden region, but Ethiopia was able to recapture the Ogaden after receiving military aid from the USSR, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany[58] and North Korea, including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. Logo of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) ( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). Hundreds of thousands were killed as a result of the Red Terror, forced deportations, or from the use of hunger as a weapon under Mengistu's rule.[57] The Red Terror was carried out in response to what the government termed "White Terror", supposedly a chain of violent events, assassinations and killings carried out by the opposition.[59] In 2006, after a trial that lasted 12 years( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), Ethiopia's Federal High Court in Addis Ababa found Mengistu guilty in absentia of genocide.[60] In the beginning of 1980s, a series of famines hit Ethiopia that affected around 8 million people, leaving 1 million dead. Insurrections against Communist rule sprang up particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) ( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Concurrently the Soviet Union began to retreat from building world communism under Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika policies, marking a dramatic reduction in aid to Ethiopia from Socialist Bloc countries. This resulted in even more economic hardship and the collapse of the military in the face of determined onslaughts by guerrilla forces in the north( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). The collapse of communism in general, and in Eastern Europe during the Revolutions of 1989, coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990. The strategic outlook for Mengistu quickly deteriorated. In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa and the Soviet Union did not intervene to save the government side. Mengistu fled the country to asylum in Zimbabwe, where he still resides( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery). The Transitional Government of Ethiopia, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was set up. In June 1992, the Oromo Liberation Front withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition also left the government( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). In 1994, a new constitution was written that formed a bicameral legislature and a judicial system. The first formally multi-party election took place in May 1995 in which Meles Zenawi was elected the Prime Minister and Negasso Gidada was elected President. Prime Minister of Ethiopia Meles Zenawi in July, 2008 In 1994, a constitution was adopted that led to Ethiopia's first multiparty election the following year( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $1 million a day.[61] This hurt Ethiopia's economy, but strengthened the ruling coalition. On 15 May 2005, Ethiopia held a third multiparty election, which was highly disputed, with some opposition groups claiming fraud( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). Though the Carter Center approved the pre-election conditions, it expressed its dissatisfaction with post-election matters. European Union election observers continued to accuse the ruling party of vote rigging. The opposition parties gained more than 200 parliamentary seats, compared with just 12 in the 2000 elections. Despite most opposition representatives joining the parliament( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery), certain leaders of the CUD party, some of which refused to take up their parliamentary seats, were accused of inciting the post-election violence that ensued and were imprisoned. Amnesty International considered them "prisoners of conscience" and they were subsequently released. The coalition of opposition parties and some individuals that was established in 2009 to oust at the general election in 2010 the regime of the EPRDF, Meles Zenawi’s party that has been in power since 1991, published its 65-page manifesto in Addis Ababa on 10 October 2009( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery). Some of the eight member parties of this Ethiopian Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD or Medrek in Amharic) include the Oromo Federalist Congress (organized by the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement and the Oromo People’s Congress), the Arena Tigray (organized by former members of the ruling party TPLF), the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ, whose leader is imprisoned), and the Coalition of Somali Democratic Forces( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). In mid 2011, two consecutive missed rainy seasons precipitated the worst drought in East Africa seen in 60 years. Full recovery from the drought's effects are not expected until 2012, with long-term strategies by the national government in conjunction with development agencies believed to offer the most sustainable results. ( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery) Prime Minister Meles Zenawi died in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified illness, on 20 August 2012. Deputy Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn was appointed as a new prime minister.[63] Hailemariam will remain in the position until new elections in 2015.[64] Main article: Politics of Ethiopia See also: Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia, Foreign relations of Ethiopia, and Ethiopian National Defense Force( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) The politics of Ethiopia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the Judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). The current realities of this provision are questioned in a report prepared by Freedom House. According to the Democracy Index published by the Economist Intelligence Unit in late 2010, Ethiopia is an "authoritarian regime", ranking 118th out of 167 countries (with the larger number being less democratic). Ethiopia has dropped 12 places on the list since 2006, and the latest report attributes the drop to the regime's crackdown on opposition activities( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery), media and civil society before the 2010 parliamentary election, which the report argues has made Ethiopia a de facto one-party state. Governance The election of Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery) . Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections. There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so. The city hall in Addis Ababa( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). The current government of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery), some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are circumscribed. Citizens have little access to media other than the state-owned networks, and most private newspapers struggle to remain open and suffer periodic harassment from the government. At least 18 journalists who had written articles critical of the government were arrested following the 2005 elections on genocide and treason charges( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery). The government uses press laws governing libel to intimidate journalists who are critical of its policies. Zenawi's government was elected in 2000 in Ethiopia's first-ever multiparty elections; however, the results were heavily criticized by international observers and denounced by the opposition as fraudulent. The EPRDF also won the 2005 election returning Zenawi to power( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery). Although the opposition vote increased in the election, both the opposition and observers from the European Union and elsewhere stated that the vote did not meet international standards for fair and free elections. Ethiopian police are said to have massacred 193 protesters, mostly in the capital Addis Ababa, in the violence following the May 2005 elections in the Ethiopian police massacre( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). The government initiated a crackdown in the provinces as well; in Oromia state the authorities used concerns over insurgency and terrorism to use torture, imprisonment, and other repressive methods to silence critics following the election, particularly people sympathetic to the registered opposition party Oromo National Congress (ONC). ( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery) The government has been engaged in a conflict with rebels in the Ogaden region since 2007. The biggest opposition party in 2005 was the Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD). After various internal divisions, most of the CUD party leaders have established the new Unity for Democracy and Justice party led by Judge Birtukan Mideksa. A member of the country's Oromo ethnic group, Ms. Birtukan Mideksa is the first woman to lead a political party in Ethiopia( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). As of 2008, the top five opposition parties are the Unity for Democracy and Justice led by Judge Birtukan Mideksa, United Ethiopian Democratic Forces led by Dr.Beyene Petros, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement led by Dr. Bulcha Demeksa, Oromo People's Congress led by Dr. Merera Gudina, and United Ethiopian Democratic Party-Medhin Party led by Lidetu Ayalew( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). Human rights Main article: Human rights in Ethiopia According to surveys in 2003 by the National Committee on Traditional Practices in Ethiopia, marriage by abduction accounts for 69% of the nation's marriages, with around 80% in the largest region, Oromiya, and as high as 92% in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). Regions, zones, and districts Before 1996, Ethiopia was divided into 13 provinces, many derived from historical regions. Ethiopia now has a tiered government system consisting of a federal government overseeing ethnically based regional countries, zones, districts (woredas), and neighborhoods (kebele). Since 1996( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery), Ethiopia has been divided into nine ethnically-based and politically autonomous regional states (kililoch, singular kilil) and two chartered cities (astedader akababiwoch, singular astedader akababi), the latter being Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa (subdivisions 1 and 5 in the map, respectively). The kililoch are subdivided into sixty-eight zones, and then further into 550 woredas and several special woredas( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). The constitution assigns extensive power to regional states that can establish their own government and democracy according to the federal government's constitution. Each region has at its apex a regional council where members are directly elected to represent the districts and the council has legislative and executive power to direct internal affairs of the regions( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Article 39 of the Ethiopian Constitution further gives every regional state the right to secede from Ethiopia. There is debate, however, as to how much of the power guaranteed in the constitution is actually given to the states. The councils implement their mandate through an executive committee and regional sectoral bureaus. Such elaborate structure of council, executive, and sectoral public institutions is replicated to the next level (woreda) ( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/W battery). Geography Main article: Geography of Ethiopia Map of Ethiopia. At 435,071 square miles (1,126,829 km2),[72] Ethiopia is the world's 27th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Bolivia. It lies between latitudes 3° and 15°N, and longitudes 33° and 48°E. The major portion of Ethiopia lies on the Horn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. Bordering Ethiopia are Sudan and South Sudan to the west( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/R battery), Djibouti and Eritrea to the north, Somalia to the east, and Kenya to the south. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands, steppes, or semi-desert. The great diversity of terrain determines wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation, and settlement patterns( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/P battery). Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern parts. Lake Tana in the north is the source of the Blue Nile. It also has a large number of endemic species, notably the Gelada Baboon, the Walia Ibex and the Ethiopian wolf (or Simien fox) ( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120E/L battery). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation. Main article: Climate of Ethiopia Semien Mountains The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands cover most of the country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator( SONY Vaio VGN-CR120 battery). Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital Addis Ababa is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 m (7,874 ft), and experiences a healthy and pleasant climate year round( SONY Vaio VGN-CR11H/B battery). With fairly uniform year round temperatures, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall, with a dry season from October–February, a light rainy season from March–May, and a heavy rainy season from June–September. The average annual rainfall is around 1,200 mm (47.2 in). There are on average 7 hours of sunshine per day( SONY Vaio VGN-CR116E battery), meaning it is sunny for around 60% of the available time. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) throughout the year( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery), and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41–50 °F). Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of the country, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier. Dallol, in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery). Several spotted hyenas in the Harar night. Ethiopia has 31 endemic species of mammals.[73] The African Wild Dog prehistorically had widespread distribution in the territory. However, with last sightings at Fincha, this canid is thought to be potentially extirpated within Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Wolf is perhaps the most researched of all the endangered species within Ethiopia( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). Historically, throughout the African continent, wildlife populations have been rapidly declining owing to logging, civil wars, pollution, poaching and other human interference.[74] A 17-year-long civil war along with severe drought, negatively impacted Ethiopia's environmental conditions leading to even greater habitat degradation.[75] Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to endangerment( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery). When changes to a habitat occur rapidly, animals do not have time to adjust. Human impact threatens many species, with greater threats expected as a result of climate change induced by greenhouse gas emissions.[76] Ethiopia has a large number of species listed as critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. The threatened species in Ethiopia can be broken down into three categories (based on IUCN ratings) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery); Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable. Deforestation Main articles: Deforestation in Ethiopia and Environmental issues in Ethiopia Deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century around 420 000 km² or 35% of Ethiopia’s land was covered by trees but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery) Ethiopia is one of the seven fundamental and independent centers of origin of cultivated plants of the world. Ethiopia loses an estimated 1 410 km² of natural forests each year. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21 000 km². Current government programs to control deforestation consist of education, promoting reforestation programs and providing alternate raw material to timber( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). In rural areas the government also provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without destroying forest habitat. Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local governments to create a system of forest management.[79] Working with a grant of approximately 2.3 million euros the Ethiopian government recently( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery)began training people on reducing erosion and using proper irrigation techniques that do not contribute to deforestation. This project is assisting more than 80 communities. Main article: Economy of Ethiopia See also: Foreign aid to Ethiopia Ethiopia was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African economy in the years 2007 and 2008.[80] In spite of fast growth in recent years( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery), GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the economy faces a number of serious structural problems. There have been efforts for reform since 1991, but the scope of reform is modest. Agricultural productivity remains low, and frequent droughts still beset the country.[81] The effectiveness of these policies is reflected in the 10% yearly economic growth from 2003–2008( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery). Despite these economic improvements, urban and rural poverty remains an issue in the country. The Ethiopian Commercial Bank in Addis Abeba. Ethiopia is often ironically referred to as the "water tower" of Eastern Africa because of the many (14 major) rivers that pour off the high tableland, including the Nile. It also has the greatest water reserves in Africa, but few irrigation systems in place to use it. Just 1% is used for power production and 1.5% for irrigation( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E battery). Provision of telecommunications services is left to a state-owned monopoly. It is the view of the current government that maintaining state ownership in this vital sector is essential to ensure that telecommunication infrastructures and services are extended to rural Ethiopia, which would not be attractive to private enterprises( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160 battery). The Ethiopian constitution defines the right to own land as belonging only to "the state and the people", but citizens may only lease land (up to 99 years), and are unable to mortgage or sell. Renting of land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that land goes to the most productive user( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E battery). Agriculture accounts for almost 41% of the gross domestic product (GDP), 80% of exports, and 80% of the labor force.[citation needed] Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee, pulses ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E battery) (e.g., beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables. Recently, Ethiopia has had a fast-growing annual GDP and it was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African nation in 2007. Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities, and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize producer.[85] According to a UN report the GNP per capita of Ethiopia has reached $1541 as of 2009. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery)The same report indicated that the life expectancy had improved substantially in recent years. The life expectancy of men is reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years. Ethiopia produces more coffee than any other country in Africa.[86] Ethiopia is also the 10th largest producer of livestock in the world. Other main export commodities are khat, gold, leather products, and oilseeds. Recent development of the floriculture sector means Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery) Coffee farmer filling cups with coffee. Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009/2010 financial year totaled $US1.4 billion. Neighboring Kenya with half of Ethiopia's population exported goods worth US$5 billion during the same period.[88] Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery). However, in East Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure). This trade helps lower food prices( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery), increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.[89] However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[89] Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery). With the private sector growing slowly, designer leather products like bags are becoming a big export business, with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the country.[90] Additional small-scale export products include cereals, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, potatoes and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power projects around the country, Ethiopia also plans to export electric power to its neighbors. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery) However, coffee remains its most important export product and with new trademark deals around the world, including recent deals with Starbucks, the country plans to increase its revenue from coffee.[93] Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee resources as "black gold".( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery) The country also has large mineral resources and oil potential in some of the less inhabited regions. Political instability in those regions, however, has inhibited development. Ethiopian geologists were implicated in a major gold swindle in 2008. Four chemists and geologists from the Ethiopian Geological Survey were arrested in connection with a fake gold scandal( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery), following complaints from buyers in South Africa. Gold bars from the National Bank of Ethiopia were found to be gilded metal by police, costing the state around US$17 million, according to the Science and Development Network website.[96] Transportation Main article: Transport in Ethiopia Ethiopia has 681 km of railway, which mainly consists of the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway, with a 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) narrow gauge. At present the railway is under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia, but negotiations are underway to privatize this transport utility( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). As the first part of a 10-year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (Federal and Regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel. [edit]Demographics( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery) Ethiopia's population has grown from 33.5 million in 1983 to 84.32 million in 2012.[98] The population was only about 9 million in the 19th century.[99] The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007, down from 2.8% during the period 1983–1994. Currently( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery), the population growth rate is among the top ten countries in the world. The population is forecast to grow to over 210 million by 2060, which would be an increase from 2011 estimates by a factor of about 2.5. A Habesha baby in the northern Tigray Region. The country's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups. Most people in Ethiopia speak Afro-Asiatic languages, mainly of the Semitic or Cushitic branches. The former include Amharic, spoken by the Amhara people( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery); and Tigrinya, spoken by the Tigray-Tigrinya people. The latter include Oromo, spoken by the Oromo people; and Somali, spoken by the Somali people. Those four peoples make up about three-quarters of the population in Ethiopia. Ethiopians and Eritreans, especially Semitic-speaking ones, collectively refer to themselves as Habesha or Abesha, though others reject these names on the basis that they refer only to certain ethnicities. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery) The Arabic form of this term (Al-Habasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia," the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.[102] Woman from the Mursi ethnic group, a Nilotic people inhabiting the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region. Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities also inhabit the southern regions of the country, particularly in areas bordering South Sudan. Among these are the Mursi and Anuak. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery) According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.49% of the nation's population. The Amhara represent 26.89% of the country's inhabitants, while the Somali and Tigray represent 6.20% and 6.07% of the population, respectively. Other prominent ethnic groups are as follows: Sidama 4.01%, Gurage 2.53%, Wolayta 2.31%, Afar 1.73%, Hadiya 1.74%, Gamo 1.50%, Kefficho 1.18% and others 11%( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery). In 2009, Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 135,200. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 64,300 persons), Eritrea (41,700) and Sudan (25,900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to live in refugee camps( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). Languages Main article: Languages of Ethiopia Sign in Amharic at the Ethiopian millennium celebration. According to Ethnologue, there are 90 individual languages spoken in Ethiopia.[106] Most belong to the Afro-Asiatic language family, mainly of the Cushitic and Semitic branches. Languages from the Nilo-Saharan phylum are also spoken by the nation's Nilotic ethnic minorities( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is the medium of instruction in secondary schools. Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by regional languages such as Somali, Oromifa and Tigrinya. In terms of writing system, Ethiopia's principal orthography is Ge'ez or Ethiopic (ግዕዝ). Used as an abugida for several of the country's languages( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery), it first came into use in the 5th–6th centuries BC as an abjad to transcribe the Semitic Ge'ez language. Ge'ez now serves as the liturgical language of the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Churches. Other writing systems have also been used over the years by different Ethiopian communities. The latter include Sheikh Bakri Sapalo's script for Oromo( Sony VAIO VGN-SZ battery). Ethiopia has close historical ties with all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. It was one of the first areas of the world to have officially adopted Christianity as the state religion, in the 4th century. While Christianity remains the majority religion, there is also a substantial Muslim demographic, representing about a third of the population( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). Ethiopia is the site of the first Hijra in Islamic history and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. Until the 1980s, a substantial population of Ethiopian Jews resided in Ethiopia. According to the 2007 National Census, Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population (43.5% Ethiopian Orthodox, 19.3% other denominations), Muslims 33.9%, practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6%, and other religions 0.6%( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery) This is in agreement with the updated CIA World Factbook, which states that Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in Ethiopia. According to the latest CIA factbook figure Muslims constitute 33.9% of the population.[107] The Kingdom of Aksum was one of the first nations to officially accept Christianity, when St. Frumentius of Tyre, called Fremnatos or Abba Selama ("Father of Peace") in Ethiopia, converted King Ezana during the 4th century AD( Sony VGN-NR260E/S Battery). Many believe that the Gospel had entered Ethiopia even earlier, with the royal official described as being baptized by Philip the Evangelist in chapter eight of the Acts of the Apostles. (Acts 8:26–39) Today, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, part of Oriental Orthodoxy, is by far the largest denomination, though a number of Protestant (Pentay) churches and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tehadeso Church have recently gained ground( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery). Since the 18th century there has existed a relatively small (uniate) Ethiopian Catholic Church in full communion with Rome, with adherents making up less than 1% of the total population.[103] A mosque in Bahir Dar. Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion; in 615, when a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea, which was ruled by Ashama ibn Abjar, a pious Christian king( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). Moreover, Bilal ibn Ribah, the first Muezzin, the person chosen to call the faithful to prayer, and one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia (Eritrea, Ethiopia etc.). Also, the largest single ethnic group of non-Arab Companions of Muhammad was that of the Ethiopians. A small ancient group of Jews, the Beta Israel, live in northwestern Ethiopia, though most emigrated to Israel in the last decades of the 20th century as part of the rescue missions undertaken by the Israeli government, Operation Moses and Operation Solomon. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery) Some Israeli and Jewish scholars consider these Ethiopian Jews as a historical Lost Tribe of Israel. There are numerous indigenous African religions in Ethiopia, mainly located in the far southwest and western borderlands. In general, most of the (largely members of the non-Chalcedonian Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions tend to inhabit more lowland regions in the east and south of the country( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). Main article: Ethiopian calendar Ethiopia has several local calendars. The most widely known is the Ethiopian calendar, also known as the Ge'ez calendar. It is based on the older Alexandrian or Coptic calendar, which in turn derives from the Egyptian calendar. However, like the Julian calendar, the Ethiopian calendar adds a leap day every four years without exception( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery), and begins the year on 29 August or 30 August in the Julian calendar. A seven to eight-year gap between the Ethiopian and Gregorian calendars results from alternate calculations. Another prominent calendar system was developed by the Oromo around 300 BC. A lunar-stellar calendar, it relies on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven particular stars or constellations. Oromo months (stars/lunar phases) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery) are Bittottessa (Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (full moon), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent). ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery) Urbanization View of the capital Addis Ababa from the Sheraton Hotel. Population growth, migration, and urbanization are all straining both governments' and ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.[110] Urbanization has steadily been increasing in Ethiopia, with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First, in 1936–1941 during the Italian occupation of Mussolini’s fascist regime, and from 1967 to 1975 when the populations of urban centers tripled( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery). In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, building infrastructure to connect major cities, and a dam providing power and water. This along with the influx of Italians and laborers was the major cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975 when rural populations migrated to urban centers seeking work and better living conditions( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery). This pattern slowed after to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the cities, there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over the period of 1970–1983( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery). This program proliferated the formation of peasant associations, large villages based on agriculture. The act did lead to an increase in food production, although there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform act. Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery). Rural and urban life Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia are living on less than 1 dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume the World Health Organization's minimum standard of food per day (2,200 kilocalories) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery), with 42% of children under 5 years old being underweight. Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock, and 40% of children sleep on the floor, where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.[115] The average family size is six or seven, living in a 30-square-meter mud and thatch hut, with less than two hectares of land to cultivate. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery) These living conditions are deplorable, but are the daily lives of peasant associations. Street scene on Bole Road in Addis Ababa The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small, farmers cannot allow the land to lie fallow, which reduces soil fertility. This land degradation reduces the production of fodder for livestock, which causes low milk yields. Since the community burns livestock manure as fuel( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery), rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land, the crop production is reduced. The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for farmers, hunger, malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have a hard time working the land and the productivity drops further.[115] Although conditions are drastically better in cities, all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty, and poor sanitation. In the capital city of Addis Ababa( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery), 55% of the population lives in slums.[112] Although there are some wealthy neighborhoods with mansions, most people make their houses using whatever materials are available, with walls made of mud or wood. Only 12% of homes have cement tiles or floors. Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city, with most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the spread of illness through unhealthy water( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). Despite the living conditions in the cities, the people of Addis Ababa are much better off than people living in the peasant associations owing to their educational opportunities. Unlike rural children, 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school, and 35% of those eligible for secondary school attend. Addis Ababa has its own university as well as many other secondary schools. The literacy rate is 82%( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). Many NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are working to solve this problem; however, most are far apart, uncoordinated, and working in isolation. The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts. Main article: Health in Ethiopia According to the head of the World Bank's Global HIV/AIDS Program, Ethiopia has only 1 medical doctor per 100,000 people.[116] However, the World Health Organization's 2006 World Health Report gives a figure of 1936 physicians (for 2003), ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery) which comes to about 2.6 per 100,000. Globalization is said to affect the country, with many educated professionals leaving Ethiopia for a better economic opportunity in the West. The Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in the capital Addis Ababa. Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable diseases caused by poor sanitation and malnutrition. These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of trained manpower and health facilities. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery) Health is much greater in the cities. Birth rates, infant mortality rates, and death rates are lower in the city than in rural areas owing to better access to education and hospitals.[112] Life expectancy is higher at 53, compared to 48 in rural areas.[112] Despite sanitation being a problem, use of improved water sources is also greater; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery) This encourages more people to migrate to the cities in hopes of better living conditions. There are 119 hospitals (12 in Addis Ababa alone) and 412 health centers in Ethiopia.[119] Ethiopia has a relatively low average life expectancy of 58 years.[120] Infant mortality rates are relatively very high, as over 8% of infants die during or shortly after childbirth,[120] (although this is a dramatic decrease from 16% in 1965) while birth-related complications such as obstetric fistula affect many of the nation's women( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery). The other major health problem in Ethiopia is spread of AIDS. AIDS has mainly affected poor communities and women, due to lack of health education, empowerment, awareness and lack of social well-being. The government of Ethiopia and many private organizations like World health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery), are launching campaigns and are working aggressively to improve Ethiopia’s health conditions and promote health awareness on AIDS and other communicable diseases (Dugassa, 2005). Many believe that sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea result from touching a stone after a female dog urinates on it and there is a general belief that these diseases are caused by bad spirits and supernatural causes( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery). Others believe that eating the reproductive organs of a black goat will help expel the diseases from those same organ in their body (Kater, 2000). Ethiopia has high infant and maternal mortality rate. Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals; most of them are born in rural households. Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives assist with the delivery (Kater, 2000) ( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery)The increase in infant and maternal mortality rate is believed to be due to lack of women’s involvement in household decision- making, immunization and social capital (Fantahun, Berhane, Wall, Byass, & Hogberg, 2007). On the other hand, the “WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centers, with adequately trained staff” (Dorman et al., 2009, p. 622) ( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery). A man being tested for HIV at an Ethiopian medical clinic. The low availability of health care professionals with modern medical training, together with lack of funds for medical services, leads to the preponderancy of less reliable traditional healers that use home-based therapies to heal common ailments. One medical practice that is commonly practiced irrespective of religion or economic status is female genital cutting( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery) (FGC) or female circumcision, a procedure by which some of a woman's external genital tissue, such as the clitoral hood, the clitoris or labia, are removed. According to a study performed by the Population Reference Bureau, Ethiopia has a prevalence rate of 81% among women ages 35 to 39 and 62% among women ages 15–19.[121] Ethiopia’s 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) ( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery) noted that the national prevalence rate is 74% among women ages 15–49.[122] The practice is almost universal in the regions of Dire Dawa, Somali and Afar; in the Oromo and Harari regions, more than 80% of girls and women undergo the procedure. FGC is least prevalent in the regions of Tigray and Gambela, where 29% and 27% of girls and women, respectively, are affected. ( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery) In 2004, the Ethiopian Government enacted a law against FGC. Female circumcision is a pre-marital custom mainly endemic to Northeast Africa and parts of the Near East that has its ultimate origins in Ancient Egypt. Encouraged by women in the community, it is primarily intended to deter promiscuity and to offer protection from assault.[126] About 76% of Ethiopia's male population is also reportedly circumcised( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery). The Government of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia is signatory to various international conventions and treaties that protect the rights of women and children. Its constitution provides for the fundamental rights and freedoms for women. There is an attempt being made to raise the social and economic status of women through eliminating all legal and customary practices, which hinder women’s equal participation in society and undermine their social status( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery). Main article: Education in Ethiopia See also: List of universities and colleges in Ethiopia Entrance to the Addis Ababa University. Education in Ethiopia had been dominated by the Orthodox Church for many centuries until secular education was adopted in the early 1900s.The current system follows very similar school expansion schemes to the rural areas as the previous 1980s system with an addition of deeper regionalization giving rural education in their own languages starting at the elementary level and with more budget allocated to the education sector( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery). The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of primary school, four years of lower secondary school and two years of higher secondary school.[128] In 2004 school enrollment was more than that of many other African countries. According to the 1994 census the literacy rate in Ethiopia is 23.4% [129], though a 2004 UNESCO education report may suggest that this rate is now higher. ( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery) Main article: Culture of Ethiopia Typical Ethiopian cuisine: Injera (pancake-like bread) and several kinds of wat (stew). Main article: Ethiopian cuisine The best-known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrées, usually a wat, or thick stew, served atop injera, a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Chachabsa, Marka[disambiguation needed], Chukko and Dhanga are the most popular dishes among the Oromos( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). Kitfo being originated from Gurage is one of the widely accepted and favorite foods in Ethiopia. Tihlo prepared from roasted barley flour is very popular in Amhara, Agame, and Awlaelo (Tigrai). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Islamic, Jewish, and Ethiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). Main article: Music of Ethiopia Mahmoud Ahmed, an Ethiopian singer of Gurage ancestry, in 2005 The music of Ethiopia is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct modal system that is pentatonic, with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighboring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti and Sudan. ( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery) Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of polyphony (heterophony, drone, imitation and counterpoint). Main article: Sport in Ethiopia The main sports in Ethiopia are athletics and football. Ethiopian athletes have won many Olympic gold medals in track and field, particularly distance running. Haile Gebrselassie is a world-renowned marathon runner, having set the world record several times. Another sportsman( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery), Kenenisa Bekele, is also a dominant runner, particularly in the 5,000 and 10,000 meters in which he holds the world records. Other notable Ethiopian athletes are Abebe Bikila, Mamo Wolde, Miruts Yifter, Derartu Tulu, Tirunesh Dibaba, Meseret Defar, Birhane Adere, Firehiwot Dado, Tiki Gelana, and Gelete Burka( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery). Addis Ababa—sometimes spelled Addis Abeba (the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority)—is the capital city of Ethiopia. It is the largest city in Ethiopia, with a population of 3,384,569 according to the 2007 population census. This datum has been increased from the originally published 2,738,248 figure and appears possibly largely underestimated still( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery). As a chartered city (ras gez astedader), Addis Ababa has the status of both a city and a state. It is where the African Union and its predecessor the OAU are based. It also hosts the headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and numerous other continental and international organizations( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery). Addis Ababa is therefore often referred to as "the political capital of Africa", due to its historical, diplomatic and political significance for the continent.[6] The city is populated by people from different regions of Ethiopia – the country has as many as 80 nationalities speaking 80 languages and belonging to a wide variety of religious communities. It is home to Addis Ababa University. The Federation of African Societies of Chemistry (FASC) and Horn of Africa Press Institute (HAPI) are also headquartered in Addis Ababa( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery). Main article: History of Addis Ababa The site of Addis Ababa was chosen by Empress Taytu Betul and the city was founded in 1886 by her husband, Emperor Menelik II. The name of the city (ኣዲስ ኣበባ) was taken from parts of the city called hora Finfinnee ("hot springs") in Oromo. Another Oromo name of the city is Sheger. Menelik, as initially a King of the Shewa province, had found Mount Entoto a useful base for military operations in the south of his realm( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery), and in 1879 visited the reputed ruins of a medieval town, and an unfinished rock church that showed proof of an Ethiopian presence in the area prior to the campaigns of Ahmad Gragn. His interest in the area grew when his wife Taytu began work on a church on Entoto, and Menelik endowed a second church in the area( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). However the immediate area did not encourage the founding of a town due to the lack of firewood and water, so settlement actually began in the valley south of the mountain in 1886. Initially, Taytu built a house for herself near the "Filwoha" hot mineral springs, where she and members of the Showan Royal Court liked to take mineral baths( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). Other nobility and their staffs and households settled the vicinity, and Menelik expanded his wife's house to become the Imperial Palace which remains the seat of government in Addis Ababa today. The name changed to Addis Ababa and became Ethiopia's capital when Menelik II became Emperor of Ethiopia. The town grew by leaps and bounds. One of Emperor Menelik's contributions that is still visible today is the planting of numerous eucalyptus trees along the city streets. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery) On 5 May 1936, Italian troops invaded Addis Ababa during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, making it the capital of Italian East Africa from 1936 to 1941, and calling it by the Italian rendition of its name, Addis Abeba. After the Italian army in Ethiopia was defeated by the British forces during the East African Campaign, Emperor Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery)—five years to the very day after he had departed—and immediately began the work of re-establishing his capital. Emperor Haile Selassie helped form the Organization of African Unity in 1963, and invited the new organization to keep its headquarters in the city. The OAU was dissolved in 2002 and replaced by the African Union (AU), also headquartered in Addis Ababa( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery). The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa also has its headquarters in Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa was also the site of the Council of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in 1965. Ethiopia has often been called the original home of mankind due to various humanoid fossil discoveries like the Australopithecine Lucy.[8] North eastern Africa, and the Afar region in particular was the central focus of these claims until recent DNA evidence suggested origins in south central Ethiopian regions like present-day Addis Ababa( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery). After analysing the DNA of almost 1,000 people around the world, geneticists and other scientists claimed people spread from what is now Addis Ababa 100,000 years ago. The research indicated that genetic diversity declines steadily the farther one's ancestors traveled from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Addis-Ababa and vicinities (false colors satellite image): it is an urbanization strip connecting Addis Ababa and Debre Zeyit city (at image right bottom corner) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery) Addis Ababa seen from SPOT satellite Addis Ababa lies at an altitude of 7,546 feet (2,300 metres) and is a grassland biome, located at 9°1′48″N 38°44′24″ECoordinates: 9°1′48″N 38°44′24″E.[15] The city lies at the foot of Mount Entoto. From its lowest point, around Bole International Airport, at 2,326 metres (7,631 ft) above sea level in the southern periphery, the city rises to over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) in the Entoto Mountains to the north( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery). Addis Ababa has a Subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb). The city has a complex mix of highland climate zones, with temperature differences of up to 10°C, depending on elevation and prevailing wind patterns. The high elevation moderates temperatures year-round, and the city's position near the equator means that temperatures are very constant from month to month( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery). Mid-November to January is the winter season. The Highland Climate regions are characterized by dry winters, and this is the dry season in Addis Ababa. During this season the daily maximum temperatures are usually not more that 23°C, and the night-time minimum temperatures can get to freezing. The short rainy season is from February to May( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). During this period, the difference between the daytime maximum temperatures and the night-time minimum temperatures are not as great as during other times of the year, with minimum temperatures in the range of 10–15°C. At this time of the year the city experiences warm temperature and a pleasant rainfall. The long wet season is from June to mid-September. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery) This peroid is also the summer season, but the temperatures are much more lower that at other times of year because of the frequent rain and hail and the high amount of cloud cover and fewer hours of sunshine. This time of the year is characterized by dark, chilly and wet days and nights. After that comes the spring season, a transitional period between the wet season and the dry season( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery). Demographics Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Addis Ababa has a total population of 2,739,551, of whom 1,305,387 are men and 1,434,164 women; all of the population are urban inhabitants. For the capital city 662,728 households were counted living in 628,984 housing units, which results in an average of 4.1 persons to a household( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery). Although all Ethiopian ethnic groups are represented in Addis Ababa due to its position as capital of the country, the largest groups include the Amhara (47.04%), Oromo (19.51%), Gurage (16.34%), Tigray (6.18%), Silt'e (2.94%), and Gamo (1.68%). Languages spoken include Amharic (71.0%), Oromiffa (10.7%), Gurage (8.37%), Tigrinya (3.60%), Silt'e (1.82%) and Gamo (1.03%)( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery). The religion with the most believers in Addis Ababa is Ethiopian Orthodox with 74.7% of the population, while 16.2% are Muslim, 7.77% Protestant, and 0.48% Catholic.[18] In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the city's population was reported to be 2,112,737, of whom 1,023,452 were men and 1,089,285 were women. At that time not all of the population were urban inhabitants; only 2,084,588 or 98.7% were( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery). For the entire administrative council there were 404,783 households in 376,568 housing units with an average of 5.2 persons per household. The major ethnic groups included the Amhara (48.3%), Oromo (19.2%), Gurage (13.5%; 2.3% Sebat Bet, and 0.8% Sodo), Tigray 7.64%, Silt'e 3.98%, and foreigners from Eritrea 1.33%. Languages spoken included Amharic (72.6%)( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery), Oromiffa (10.0%), Gurage (6.54%), Tigrinya (5.41%), and Silt'e 2.29%. In 1994 the predominant religion was also Ethiopian Orthodox with 82.0% of the population, while 12.7% were Muslim, 3.87% Protestant, and 0.78% Catholic.[19] According to the 2007 national census, 98.64% of the housing units of Addis Ababa had access to safe drinking water, while 14.9% had flush toilets, 70.7% pit toilets (both ventilated and unventilated), and 14.3% had no toilet facilities. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery)Values for other reported common indicators of the standard of living for Addis Ababa as of 2005 include the following: 0.1% of the inhabitants fall into the lowest wealth quintile; adult literacy for men is 93.6% and for women 79.95%, the highest in the nation for both sexes; and the civic infant mortality rate is 45 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, which is less than the nationwide average of 77; at least half of these deaths occurred in the infants’ first month of life. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery) The City is partially powered by water at the Koka Reservoir Koka Dam Power Plant. Bole Dembel Shopping Center. The economic activities in Addis Ababa are diverse. According to official statistics from the federal government, some 119,197 people in the city are engaged in trade and commerce; 113,977 in manufacturing and industry; 80,391 homemakers of different variety; 71,186 in civil administration; 50,538 in transport and communication; 42,514 in education( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery), health and social services; 32,685 in hotel and catering services; and 16,602 in agriculture. In addition to the residents of rural parts of Addis Ababa, the city dwellers also participate in animal husbandry and cultivation of gardens. 677 hectares (1,670 acres) of land is irrigated annually, on which 129,880 quintals of vegetables are cultivated.[citation needed] It is a relatively clean and safe city( Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery), with the most common crimes being pickpocketing, scams and minor burglary.[22] The city has recently been in a construction boom with tall buildings rising in many places. Various luxury services have also become available and the construction of shopping malls has recently increased. According to Tia Goldenberg of IOL, area spa professionals said that some people have labelled the city, "the spa capital of Africa." ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery) Ethiopian Airlines has its headquarters on the grounds of Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa.[24] Arkebe Oqubay was a Mayor of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He held office from early 2003 to May 2005. On 31 March 2005, Arkebe Oqubay was named "African Mayor of 2005" by Broadcasting Network of Africa. Mayor Oqubay lost the mayorship of Addis Ababa in May 2005 to Berhanu Nega( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery), but after boycotting the parliament Berhanu Nega's C.U.D. or Kinijit party did not take control of the city government. The leaders of the CUD, his opposition party which swept the election in the capital, were later imprisoned and not permitted to assume control of the city. They were pardoned and released after two years in prison( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery). Though most of the CUD refused to join the parliament, factions of CUD and all the rest of opposition parties joined parliament in 2005. The government has appointed a provisional city government with Berhanu Deresa the acting Mayor. Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the African Union. The fossilized skeleton, and a plaster replica of the early hominid Lucy (known in Ethiopia as Dinkinesh) is preserved at the Ethiopian National Museum in Addis Ababa( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery). Meskel Square is one of the noted squares in the city and is the site for the annual Meskel at the end of September annually when thousands gather in celebration. The city is home to the Ethiopian National Library, the Ethiopian Ethnological Museum (and former Guenete Leul Palace), the Addis Ababa Museum, the Ethiopian Natural History Museum, the Ethiopian Railway Museum and the National Postal Museum( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery). Notable buildings include St George's Cathedral (founded in 1896 and also home to a museum), Holy Trinity Cathedral (once the largest Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral and the location of Sylvia Pankhurst's tomb) as well as the burial place of Emperor Haile Selassie and the Imperial family, and those who fought the Italians during the war. There is also Menelik's old Imperial palace which remains the official seat of government( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery), and the National Palace formerly known as the Jubilee Palace (built to mark Emperor Haile Selassie's Silver Jubilee in 1955) which is the residence of the President of Ethiopia. Africa Hall is located across Menelik II avenue from this Palace and is where the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa is headquartered as well as most UN offices in Ethiopia. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery) It is also the site of the founding of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) which eventually became the African Union. The African Union is now housed in a new headquarters built on the site of the demolished Akaki prison, on land donated by Ethiopia for this purpose in the south western part of the city. The Hager Fikir Theatre, the oldest theatre in Ethiopia, is located at the Piazza district( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery). Near Holy Trinity Cathedral is the art deco Parliament building, built during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, with its clock tower. It continues to serve as the seat of Parliament today. Across from the Parliament is the Shengo Hall, built by the Derg regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam as its new parliament hall. The Shengo Hall was the world's largest pre-fabricated building, which was constructed in Finland before being assembled in Addis Ababa. It is used for large meetings and conventions( Sony Vaio VGN-CR220E/R Battery). In the Mercato district, which happens to be the largest open market in Africa, is the impressive The Grand Anwar Mosque, the biggest mosque in Ethiopia built during the Italian occupation. A few meters to the southwest of the Anwar Mosque is the Raguel Church built after the liberation by Empress Menen( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery). The proximity of the mosque and the church has symbolized the long peaceful relations between Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of the Holy Family is also in the Mercato district. Near Bole International Airport is the new Medhane Alem (Savior of the World) Orthodox Cathedral, which is the second largest in Africa( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery). Other features of the city include the large Mercato market, the Jan Meda racecourse, Bihere Tsige Recreation Centre and a railway line to Djibouti. Sport facilities include Addis Ababa and Nyala Stadiums. The 2008 African Championships in Athletics were held in Addis Ababa. The Entoto Mountains start among the northern suburbs. Suburbs of the city include Shiro Meda and Entoto in the north, Urael and Bole (home to Bole International Airport) in the east( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery), Nifas Silk in the south-east, Mekanisa in the south, and Keraniyo and Kolfe in the west. The city hosts the We Are the Future center, a child care center that provides children with a higher standard of living. The center is managed under the direction of the mayor’s office, and the international NGO Glocal Forum serves as the fundraiser and program planner and coordinator for the WAF child center in each city( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery). Each WAF city is linked to several peer cities and public and private partners to create a unique international coalition. Launched in 2004, the program is the result of a strategic partnership between the Glocal Forum, the Quincy Jones Listen Up Foundation and Mr. Hani Masri, with the support of the World Bank, UN agencies and major companies( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery). Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa University was founded in 1950 and was originally named "University College of Addis Ababa", then renamed in 1962 for the former Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I who had donated his Genete Leul Palace to be the University main campus in the previous year. It received its current name in 1975 after the Emperor was deposed. Although the university has six of its seven campuses within Addis Ababa ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery) (the seventh is located in Debre Zeit, about 45 km/28 mi away), it also maintains branches in many cities throughout Ethiopia. It is the home of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and the Ethnological Museum. The city also has numerous private colleges including Admas College, Ethiopian Civil Service College and Unity University( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery). The distinctive Addis Ababa blue taxis Public transportation is through public buses from Anbessa City Bus Service Enterprise or blue and white share taxis. The taxis are usually minibuses that can seat at most twelve people. Two people are responsible for each taxi, the driver and a weyala who collects fares and calls out the taxi's destination( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery). The construction of the Addis Ababa Ring Road was initiated in 1998 to implement the city master plan and enhance peripheral development. The Ring Road was divided into three major phases that connect all the five main gates in and out of Addis Ababa with all other Regions (Jimma, Debre Zeit, Asmara, Gojjam and Ambo). For this project, China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC) was the partner of Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA) ( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery). The Ring Road has greatly helped to decongest and alleviate city car traffic. Intercity bus service is provided by the Selam Bus Line Share Company. The city is served by Bole International Airport, where a new terminal opened in 2003. The old Lideta Airport in the western "Old Airport" district is used mostly by small craft and military planes and helicopters.[dubious – discuss] Addis Ababa also has had a railway connection with Djibouti City, with a picturesque French style railway station, but the railway no longer operates pending the construction of a new modern rail line to be built in the near future( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery). A light rail system is planned; in September 2010, Ethiopian Railway Corp reached a funding agreement with Export and Import Bank of China. Plans include a 30 km network with two lines; an east-west line from Ayat to the Torhailoch ringroad, and from Menelik Square to Mercato Bus Station, Meskel Square and Akaki( Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery).
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All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic sony vgp-bps4 battery; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President. About 79.5% of the South African population is of black African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, nine of which have official status. South Africa also contains the largest communities of European, Asian, and racially mixed ancestry in Africa sony vgp-bps5 battery. South Africa is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank. It has the largest economy in Africa, and the 28th-largest in the world. By purchasing power parity, South Africa has the 5th highest per capita income in Africa. It is considered a newly industrialised country. However, about a quarter of the population is unemployed and lives on less than US $1.25 a day. Main article: History of South Africa sony vgp-bps7 batteryPrehistoric finds South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world. Extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has been termed the Cradle of Humankind. The sites include Sterkfontein, which is one of the richest hominin fossil sites in the world sony vgp-bpl7 battery. Other sites include Swartkrans, Gondolin Cave Kromdraai, Coopers Cave and Malapa. The first hominin fossil discovered in Africa, the Taung Child was found near Taung in 1924. Further hominin remains have been recovered from the sites of Makapansgat in Limpopo, Cornelia and Florisbad in the Free State, Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal, Klasies River Mouth in eastern Cape and Pinnacle Point sony vgp-bps8 battery, Elandsfontein and Die Kelders Cave in Western Cape. These sites suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa from about three million years ago starting with Australopithecus africanus. These were succeeded by various species, including Australopithecus sediba, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo helmei and modern humans, Homo sapiens sony vgp-bps8a battery. Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples, who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River (now the northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe) by the fourth or fifth century CE. (See Bantu expansion.) They displaced, conquered and absorbed the original Khoisan speakers, the Khoikhoi and San peoples sony vgp-bps8b battery. The Bantu slowly moved south. The earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached the Great Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger Iron Age populations displaced or assimilated earlier peoples sony vgp-bpl8 battery. In Mpumalanga, several stone circles have been found along with the stone arrangement that has been named Adam's Calendar. Modern humans have inhabited Southern Africa for at least 170,000 years. At the time of European contact, the dominant indigenous peoples were Bantu-speaking peoples who had migrated from other parts of Africa about one thousand years before. The two major historic groups were the Xhosa and Zulu peoples sony vgp-bps9 battery. In 1487, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa.[21] On 4 December, he landed at Walfisch Bay (now known as Walvis Bay in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão (Cape Cross, north of the bay) sony vgp-bps9/s battery. Dias continued down the western cost of southern Africa. After 8 January 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called, Rio do Infante, probably the present-day Groot River, in May 1488 sony vgp-bps9a/s battery, but on his return he saw the Cape, which he first named Cabo das Tormentas (Cape of Storms). His King, John II, renamed the point Cabo da Boa Esperança, or Cape of Good Hope, as it led to the riches of the East Indies.[22] Dias' feat of navigation was later memorialised in Luís de Camões' epic Portuguese poem, The Lusiads (1572). The arrival of Jan van Riebeeck, the first European to settle in South Africa, with Devil's Peak in the background sony vgp-bps9/b batteryIn 1652, a century and a half after the discovery of the Cape Sea Route, Jan van Riebeeck established a refreshment station at the Cape of Good Hope, at what would become Cape Town, on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch transported slaves from Indonesia, Madagascar, and India as labour for the colonists in Cape Town sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. As they expanded east, the Dutch settlers met the southwesterly migrating Xhosa people in the region of the Fish River. A series of wars, called the Cape Frontier Wars, were fought over conflicting land and livestock interests. The discovery of diamonds, and later gold, was one of the catalysts that triggered the 19th-century conflict known as the Anglo-Boer War, as the Boers (original Dutch, Flemish, German, and French settlers) sony vgp-bps9a battery and the British fought for the control of the South African mineral wealth. Cape Town became a British colony in 1806. European settlement expanded during the 1820s as the Boers and the British 1820 Settlers claimed land in the north and east of the country. Conflicts arose among the Xhosa, Zulu, and Afrikaner groups who competed for territory sony vgp-bps9b battery. Great Britain took over the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, to prevent it from falling under control of the French First Republic, which had invaded the Dutch Republic. Given its standing interests in Australia and India, Great Britain wanted to use Cape Town as an interim port for its merchants' long voyages. The British returned Cape Town to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803, the Dutch East India Company having effectively gone bankrupt by 1795 sony vgp-bpl9 battery. Depiction of a Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838. The British finally annexed the Cape Colony in 1806 and continued the frontier wars against the Xhosa; the British pushed the eastern frontier through a line of forts established along the Fish River. They consolidated the territory by encouraging British settlement. Due to pressure of abolitionist societies in Britain sony vgp-bps10 battery, the British parliament stopped its global slave trade with the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 and then abolished slavery in all its colonies with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. In the first two decades of the 19th century, the Zulu people grew in power and expanded their territory under their leader, Shaka. Shaka's warfare led indirectly to the Mfecane ("crushing") that devastated and depopulated the inland plateau in the early 1820s. Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery An offshoot of the Zulu, the Matabele people created a larger empire that included large parts of the highveld under their king Mzilikazi. During the 1830s, approximately 12,000 Boers (later known as Voortrekkers), departed from the Cape Colony, where they had been subjected to British control. They migrated to the future Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal regions. The Boers founded the Boer Republics: the South African Republic (now Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces) and the Orange Free State (Free State) Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery. The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started the Mineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration. This intensified the European-South African subjugation of the indigenous people. The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery. Boers in combat (1881) The Boer Republics successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880–1881) using guerrilla warfare tactics, which were well suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the Second Boer War (1899–1902) but suffered heavy casualties through attrition; in spite of which they were ultimately successful Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery. Within the country, anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of native people, including the Native Location Act of 1879 and the system of pass laws. Power was held by the ethnic European colonists Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. After four years of negotiating, the South Africa Act 1909 created the Union of South Africa from the Cape and Natal colonies, as well as the republics of Orange Free State and Transvaal, on 31 May 1910, eight years after the end of the Second Boer War. The newly created Union of South Africa was a British dominion Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery. The Natives' Land Act of 1913 severely restricted the ownership of land by blacks; at that stage natives controlled only seven per cent of the country. The amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased. In the Boer republics,[32] from as early as the Pretoria Convention (chapter XXVI). In 1931 the union was effectively granted independence from the United Kingdom with the passage of the Statute of Westminster. In 1934, the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking "Whites". In 1939 the party split over the entry of the Union into World War II as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which the National Party followers strongly opposed. "For use by white persons" – sign from the apartheid era In 1948, the National Party was elected to power. It strengthened the racial segregation begun under Dutch and British colonial rule Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. The Nationalist Government classified all peoples into three races and developed rights and limitations for each. The white minority controlled the vastly larger black majority. The legally institutionalised segregation became known as apartheid. While the White minority enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, comparable to First World Western nations, the Black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy. On 31 May 1961, following a whites-only referendum, the country became a republic and left the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth II ceased to be head of state, and the last Governor-General became State President. Despite opposition both within and outside the country, the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid. The government harshly oppressed resistance movements, and violence became widespread, with anti-apartheid activists using strikes Sony VGP-BPS13A battery, marches, protests, and sabotage by bombing and other means. The African National Congress (ANC) was a major resistance movement. Apartheid became increasingly controversial, and some Western nations and institutions began to boycott doing business with South Africa because of its racial policies and oppression of civil rights. International sanctions, divestment of holdings by investors accompanied growing unrest and oppression within South Africa Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery. F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela shake hands in January 1992 In the late 1970s, South Africa began a programme of nuclear weapons development. In the following decade, it produced six deliverable nuclear weapons. The Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith, signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, the first of such agreements by acknowledged black and white political leaders in South Africa Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery. Ultimately, F. W. de Klerk negotiated with Nelson Mandela in 1993 for a transition of policies and government. In 1990 the National Party government took the first step towards dismantling discrimination when it lifted the ban on the African National Congress and other political organizations. It released Nelson Mandela from prison after twenty-seven years' serving a sentence for sabotage. A negotiation process followed Sony VGP-BPS13S battery. The government repealed apartheid legislation. South Africa destroyed its nuclear arsenal and acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994, which the ANC won by an overwhelming majority. It has been in power ever since. The country rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery. In post-apartheid South Africa, unemployment has been extremely high as the country has struggled with many changes. While many blacks have risen to middle or upper classes, the overall unemployment rate of blacks worsened between 1994 and 2003.[36] Poverty among whites, previously rare, increased. In addition Sony VGP-BPS13B battery, the current government has struggled to achieve the monetary and fiscal discipline to ensure both redistribution of wealth and economic growth. Since the ANC-led government took power, the United Nations Human Development Index of South Africa has fallen, while it was steadily rising until the mid-1990s.[38] Some may be attributed to the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the failure of the government to take steps to address it in the early years Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery. In May 2008, riots left over sixty people dead. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions estimates over 100,000 people were driven from their homes. Migrants and refugees seeking asylum were the targets, but a third of the victims were South African citizens.[40] In a 2006 survey, the South African Migration Project concluded that South Africans are more opposed to immigration than anywhere else in the world Sony VGP-BPL21 battery. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2008 over 200,000 refugees applied for asylum in South Africa, almost four times as many as the year before. These people were mainly from Zimbabwe, though many also come from Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.[43] Competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing has led to tension between refugees and host communities Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. While xenophobia is still a problem, recent violence has not been as widespread as initially feared. Main articles: Government of South Africa, Politics of South Africa, Law of South Africa, and Human rights in South Africa The Union Buildings in Pretoria, seat of the executive The Houses of Parliament in Cape Town, seat of the legislature South Africa is a parliamentary republic, although unlike most such republics the President is both head of state and head of government, and depends for his tenure on the confidence of Parliament Sony VGP-BPS21A battery. The executive, legislature and judiciary are all subject to the supremacy of the Constitution, and the superior courts have the power to strike down executive actions and acts of Parliament if they are unconstitutional. The National Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, consists of 400 members and is elected every five years by a system of party-list proportional representation. In the most recent election, held on 22 April 2009 Sony VGP-BPS21B battery, the African National Congress (ANC) won 65.9 per cent of the vote and 264 seats, while the main opposition, the Democratic Alliance (DA) won 16.7 per cent of the vote and 67 seats. The National Council of Provinces, the upper house, consists of ninety members, with each of the nine provincial legislatures electing ten members. After each parliamentary election, the National Assembly elects one of its members as President Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery; hence the President serves a term of office the same as that of the Assembly, normally five years. No President may serve more than two terms in office. The President appoints a Deputy President and Ministers, who form the Cabinet. The President and the Cabinet may be removed by the National Assembly by a motion of no confidence. South Africa has three capital cities: Cape Town, as the seat of Parliament, is the legislative capital Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery; Pretoria, as the seat of the President and Cabinet, is the administrative capital; and Bloemfontein, as the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeal, is the judicial capital. Since the end of apartheid in 1994, South African politics have been dominated by the ANC, which has been the dominant party with 60–70 per cent of the vote. The main challenger to the rule of the ANC is the Democratic Alliance Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. The National Party, which ruled from 1948 to 1994, renamed itself in 1997 to the New National Party, and chose to merge with the ANC in 2005. Other major political parties represented in Parliament are the Congress of the People, which split from the ANC and won 7.4 per cent of the vote in 2009, and the Inkatha Freedom Party, which mainly represents Zulu voters and took 4.6 per cent of the vote in the 2009 election Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. Since 2004, the country has had many thousands of popular protests, some violent, making it, according to one academic, the "most protest-rich country in the world".[44] Many of these protests have been organised from the growing shanty towns that surround South African cities. In 2008, South Africa placed 5th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery. South Africa scored well in the categories of Rule of Law, Transparency & Corruption and Participation & Human Rights, but was let down by its relatively poor performance in Safety & Security. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African governance, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery. In November 2006, South Africa became the first African country to legalize gay marriage. The Constitutional Court in Johannesburg The primary sources of South African law are Roman-Dutch mercantile law and personal law with English Common law, as imports of Dutch settlements and British colonialism.[47] The first European based law in South Africa was brought by the Dutch East India Company and is called Roman-Dutch law Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery. It was imported before the codification of European law into the Napoleonic Code and is comparable in many ways to Scots law. This was followed in the 19th century by English law, both common and statutory. Starting in 1910 with unification, South Africa had its own parliament which passed laws specific for South Africa, building on those previously passed for the individual member colonies Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. During the years of apartheid, the country's political scene was dominated by figures like B. J. Vorster and P. W. Botha, as well as opposition figures such as Harry Schwarz, Joe Slovo and Helen Suzman. The judicial system consists of the magistrates' courts, which hear lesser criminal cases and smaller civil cases; the High Courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction for specific areas; the Supreme Court of Appeal Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery, which is the highest court in all but constitutional matters; and the Constitutional Court, which hears only constitutional matters. According to a survey for the period 1998–2000 compiled by the United Nations, South Africa was ranked second for murder and first for assaults and rapes per capita.[48] Nearly 50 murders are committed each day in South Africa Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery. Total crime per capita is 10th out of the 60 countries in the data set. Middle-class South Africans seek security in gated communities. Many emigrants from South Africa also state that crime was a big motivator for them to leave. Crime against the farming community has continued to be a major problem. It is estimated that 500,000 women are raped in South Africa every year[52] with the average woman more likely to be raped than complete secondary school. Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery A 2009 survey found one in four South African men admitted to raping someone[54] and another survey found one in three women out of 4000 surveyed women said they had been raped in the past year.[55] Rapes are also perpetrated by children (some as young as ten).[56] Child and baby rape incidences are some of the highest in the world and a number of high profile cases have outraged the nation Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of South Africa As the Union of South Africa, the country was a founding member of the United Nations. The then Prime Minister Jan Smuts wrote the preamble to the United Nations Charter. The country is one of the founding members of the African Union (AU), and has the largest economy of all the members Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. It is also a founding member of the AU's New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD). South Africa has played a key role as a mediator in African conflicts over the last decade, such as in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Comoros, and Zimbabwe. After apartheid ended, South Africa was readmitted to the Commonwealth of Nations. The country is a member of the Group of 77 and chaired the organisation in 2006 Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. South Africa is also a member of the Southern African Development Community, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Southern African Customs Union, Antarctic Treaty System, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, G20 and G8+5. South African President Jacob Zuma and Chinese President Hu Jintao upgraded bilateral ties between the two countries on 24 August 2010, when they signed the Beijing Agreement Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery, which elevated South Africa's earlier "strategic partnership" with China to the higher level of "comprehensive strategic partnership" in both economic and political affairs, including the strengthening of exchanges between their respective ruling parties and legislatures. In April 2011, South Africa formally joined the Brazil-Russia-India-China (BRICS) grouping of countries, identified by President Zuma as the country's largest trading partners SONY VGN-FZ11E battery, and also the largest trading partners with Africa as a whole. All five BRICS member countries are currently on the UN Security Council; Brazil, India and South Africa as non-permanent members. Zuma asserted that BRICS member countries would also work with each other through the UN, the Group of Twenty (G20) and the India, Brazil South Africa (IBSA) forum SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. South African Denel AH-2 Rooivalk attack helicopter Main articles: South African National Defence Force and South Africa and weapons of mass destruction The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) was created in 1994, as an all volunteer force composed of the former South African Defence Force, the forces of the African nationalist groups (Umkhonto we Sizwe and Azanian People's Liberation Army), and the former Bantustan defence forces.[63] The SANDF is subdivided into four branches SONY VGN-FZ11M battery, the South African Army, the South African Air Force, the South African Navy, and the South African Medical Service.[65] In recent years, the SANDF has become a major peacekeeping force in Africa,[66] and has been involved in operations in Lesotho, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,[66] and Burundi,[66] amongst others. It has also served in multi-national UN peacekeeping forces SONY VGN-FZ11S battery. South Africa is the only African country to have successfully developed nuclear weapons. It became the first country (followed by Ukraine) with nuclear capability to voluntarily renounce and dismantle its programme and in the process signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.[67] South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons programme in the 1970s SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery According to former state president FW de Klerk, the decision to build a "nuclear deterrent" was taken "as early as 1974 against a backdrop of a Soviet expansionist threat."[68] South Africa may have conducted a nuclear test over the Atlantic in 1979,[69] though De Klerk asserted that South Africa had "never conducted a clandestine nuclear test." SONY VGN-FZ15G battery Six nuclear devices were completed between 1980 and 1990, but all were destroyed before South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991. Main article: Provinces of South Africa Provinces of South Africa At the end of apartheid in 1994, the "independent" and "semi-independent" Bantustans were abolished, as were the four original provinces (Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal), and nine new provinces were created SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. Each province is governed by a unicameral legislature, which is elected every five years by party-list proportional representation. The legislature elects a Premier as head of government, and the Premier appoints an Executive Council as a provincial cabinet. The powers of provincial governments are limited to topics listed in the Constitution; these topics include such fields as health, education, public housing and transport SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further subdivided into 226 local municipalities. The metropolitan municipalities, which govern the largest urban agglomerations, perform the functions of both district and local municipalities SONY VGN-FZ15S battery. Main article: Geography of South Africa Satellite picture of South Africa The Drakensberg mountains, the highest mountain range in South Africa South Africa is located at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that stretches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[72] South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is comparable in size to Colombia. Mafadi in the Drakensberg at 3,450 m (11,320 ft) is the highest peak in South Africa SONY VGN-FZ15T battery. Excluding the Prince Edward Islands, the country lies between latitudes 22° and 35°S, and longitudes 16° and 33°E. The interior of South Africa is a vast, flat, and sparsely populated scrubland, the Karoo, which is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. In contrast, the eastern coastline is lush and well-watered, which produces a climate similar to the tropics SONY VGN-FZ17G battery. To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld, and turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and an abundance of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld stretches towards the Indian Ocean. It has particularly high temperatures, and is also the location of extended subtropical agriculture SONY VGN-FZ17L battery. South Africa also has one possession, the small sub-Antarctic archipelago of the Prince Edward Islands, consisting of Marion Island (290 km2/110 sq mi) and Prince Edward Island (45 km2/17 sq mi) (not to be confused with the Canadian province of the same name). Main article: Climate of South Africa South Africa has a generally temperate climate, due in part to being surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides SONY VGN-FZ18 battery, by its location in the climatically milder southern hemisphere and due to the average elevation rising steadily towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Due to this varied topography and oceanic influence, a great variety of climatic zones exist. The climatic zones range from the extreme desert of the southern Namib in the farthest northwest to the lush subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian ocean SONY VGN-FZ18E battery. Winters in South Africa occur between June and August. The extreme southwest has a climate remarkably similar to that of the Mediterranean with wet winters and hot, dry summers, hosting the famous Fynbos biome of shrubland and thicket. This area also produces much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also particularly known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year SONY VGN-FZ18G battery. The severity of this wind made passing around the Cape of Good Hope particularly treacherous for sailors, causing many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. The Free State is particularly flat because it lies centrally on the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and receives an annual rainfall of 760 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. The high Drakensberg mountains, which form the south-eastern escarpment of the Highveld, offer limited skiing opportunities in winter. The coldest place in South Africa is Sutherland in the western Roggeveld Mountains, where midwinter temperatures can reach as low as −15 °C (5 °F). The deep interior has the hottest temperatures: a temperature of 51.7 °C (125.06 °F) was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari near Upington., SONY VGN-FZ18T battery but this temperature is unofficial and was not recorded with standard equipment, the official highest temperature is 48.8C at Vioolsdrif in January 1993. Flora and fauna See also: Wildlife of South Africa and Protected areas of South Africa South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries,[75] with more than 20,000 different plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it particularly rich in plant biodiversity SONY VGN-FZ20 battery. The most prevalent biome in South Africa is the grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mainly camel-thorn and whitethorn. Vegetation becomes even more sparse towards the northwest due to low rainfall. There are several species of water-storing succulents like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area SONY VGN-FZ21E battery. The grass and thorn savannah turns slowly into a bush savannah towards the north-east of the country, with denser growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park. The Fynbos biome, which makes up the majority of the area and plant life in the Cape floristic region, one of the six floral kingdoms SONY VGN-FZ21J battery, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, making it among the richest regions on earth in terms of floral biodiversity. The majority of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African plant is the protea genus of flowering plants. There are around 130 different species of protea in South Africa SONY VGN-FZ21M battery. South African giraffe, Kruger National Park While South Africa has a great wealth of flowering plants, only 1% of South Africa is forest, almost exclusively in the humid coastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal, where there are also areas of Southern Africa mangroves in river mouths. There are even smaller reserves of forests that are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests SONY VGN-FZ21S battery. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine. South Africa has lost a large area of natural habitat in the last four decades, primarily due to overpopulation, sprawling development patterns and deforestation during the nineteenth century. South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion by alien species with many (e.g. Black Wattle, Port Jackson SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery, Hakea, Lantana and Jacaranda) posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. The original temperate forest found by the first European settlers was exploited ruthlessly until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African Black Ironwood (Olea laurifolia) are under government protection SONY VGN-FZ31B battery. Numerous mammals are found in the bushveld including lions, leopards, white rhinos, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyenas, hippopotamus and giraffes. A significant extent of the bushveld exists in the north-east including Kruger National Park and the Mala Mala Reserve, as well as in the far north in the Waterberg Biosphere. Statistics from South African National Parks show a record 333 rhinos have been killed in 2010 SONY VGN-FZ31E battery. Climate change is expected to bring considerable warming and drying to much of this already semi-arid region, with greater frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, flooding and drought. According to computer generated climate modelling produced by the South African National Biodiversity Institute parts of southern Africa will see an increase SONY VGN-FZ31J battery in temperature by about one degree Celsius along the coast to more than four degrees Celsius in the already hot hinterland such as the Northern Cape in late spring and summertime by 2050. The Cape Floral Kingdom has been identified as one of the global biodiversity hotspots since it will be hit very hard by climate change and has such a great diversity of life. Drought, increased intensity and frequency of fire and climbing temperatures are expected to push many of these rare species towards extinction SONY VGN-FZ31M battery. South Africa houses many endemic species, among them the critically endangered Riverine Rabbit (Bunolagus monticullaris) in the Karoo. Main article: Economy of South Africa JSE is the largest stock exchange on the African continent South Africa has a mixed economy with a high rate of poverty and low GDP per capita. Unemployment is high and South Africa is ranked in the top 10 countries in the world for income inequality, measured by the Gini coefficient. Unlike most of the world's poor countries, South Africa does not have a thriving informal economy; according to OECD estimates SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery, only 15 per cent of South African jobs are in the shadow economy, compared with around half in Brazil and India and nearly three-quarters in Indonesia. The OECD attributes this difference to South Africa's widespread welfare system. World Bank research shows that South Africa has one of the widest gaps between per capita GNP versus its Human Development Index ranking, with only Botswana showing a larger gap Sony PCG-5G2L battery. After 1994 government policy brought down inflation, stabilised public finances, and some foreign capital was attracted, however growth was still subpar. From 2004 onward economic growth picked up significantly; both employment and capital formation increased. South Africa is a popular tourist destination, and a substantial amount of revenue comes from tourism. Illegal immigrants are involved in informal trading. Sony PCG-5G3L batteryMany immigrants to South Africa continue to live in poor conditions, and the immigration policy has become increasingly restrictive since 1994. Principal international trading partners of South Africa—besides other African countries—include Germany, the United States, China, Japan, the United Kingdom and Spain.[88] The South African agricultural industry contributes around 10% of formal employment, relatively low compared to other parts of Africa, as well as providing work for casual labourers and contributing around 2.6 per cent of GDP for the nation. Sony PCG-5J1L battery Due to the aridity of the land, only 13.5 per cent can be used for crop production, and only 3 per cent is considered high potential land.[90] Workers packing pears for export in a packing house in the Ceres valley. During 1995–2003, the number of formal jobs decreased and informal jobs increased; overall unemployment worsened. The government's Black Economic Empowerment policies have drawn criticism from Neva Makgetla, lead economist for research and information at the Development Bank of Southern Africa Sony PCG-5J2L battery, for focusing "almost exclusively on promoting individual ownership by black people (which) does little to address broader economic disparities, though the rich may become more diverse." Official affirmative action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth and an emerging black middle class. Other problems include state ownership and interference, which impose high barriers to entry in many areas. Restrictive labour regulations have contributed to the unemployment malaise Sony PCG-5K1L battery. Along with many African nations, South Africa has been experiencing a "brain drain" in the past 20 years. This is believed to be potentially damaging for the regional economy, and is almost certainly detrimental for the well-being of those reliant on the healthcare infrastructure. The skills drain in South Africa tends to demonstrate racial contours given the skills distribution legacy of South Africa and has thus resulted in large white South African communities abroad Sony PCG-5K2L battery. However, the statistics which purport to show a brain drain are disputed and also do not account for repatriation and expiry of foreign work contracts. According to several surveys there has been a reverse in brain drain following the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 and expiration of foreign work contracts. In the first quarter of 2011, confidence levels for graduate professionals were recorded at a level of 84 per cent in a PPS survey Sony PCG-5L1L battery. Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in South Africa Mark Shuttleworth in space Several important scientific and technological developments have originated in South Africa. The first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in December 1967. Max Theiler developed a vaccine against Yellow Fever, Allan McLeod Cormack pioneered x-ray Computed tomography, and Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques Sony PCG-6S2L battery. These advancements were all (with the exception of that of Barnard) recognised with Nobel Prizes. Sydney Brenner won most recently, in 2002, for his pioneering work in molecular biology. Mark Shuttleworth founded an early Internet security company Thawte, that was subsequently bought out by world-leader VeriSign. Despite government efforts to encourage entrepreneurship in biotechnology, IT and other high technology fields Sony PCG-6S3L battery, no other notable groundbreaking companies have been founded in South Africa. It is the expressed objective of the government to transition the economy to be more reliant on high technology, based on the realisation that South Africa cannot compete with Far Eastern economies in manufacturing, nor can the republic rely on its mineral wealth in perpetuity Sony PCG-6V1L battery. South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. It hosts the Southern African Large Telescope, the largest optical telescope in the southern hemisphere. South Africa is currently building the Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for the €1.5 billion Square Kilometer Array project.[100] On 25 May 2012 it was announced that hosting of the Square Kilometer Array Telescope will be split over both the South African and the Australia/New Zealand sites. Sony PCG-6W1L batteryDemographics South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2011. Even though the population of South Africa has increased in the past decade, the country had an annual population growth rate of −0.412% in 2012 (CIA est.), where the birth rate is higher than the death rate Sony PCG-6W2L battery but there is a net emigration rate. South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, including some 3 million Zimbabweans. A series of anti-immigrant riots occurred in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008. Statistics South Africa provided five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew negligible responses, and these results were omitted. The 2010 midyear estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.4% Sony PCG-6W3L battery, White at 9.2%, Coloured at 8.8%, and Indian or Asian at 2.6%.[111] The first census in South Africa in 1911 showed that whites made up 22% of the population; it declined to 16% in 1980. By far the major part of the population classified itself as African or black, but it is not culturally or linguistically homogeneous. Major ethnic groups include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho (South Sotho), Bapedi (North Sotho), Venda, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi and Ndebele, all of which speak Bantu languages Sony PCG-7111L battery. The Coloured population is mainly concentrated in the Cape region, and come from a combination of ethnic backgrounds including White, Khoi, San, Griqua, Chinese and Malay. White South Africans are descendants of Dutch, German, French Huguenots, English and other European and Jewish settlers. Culturally and linguistically, they are divided into the Afrikaners, who speak Afrikaans, and English-speaking groups Sony PCG-7112L battery. The white population has been on the decrease due to a low birth rate and emigration; as a factor in their decision to emigrate, many cite the high crime rate and the affirmative action policies of the government. Since 1994, approximately 440,000 white South Africans have permanently emigrated. Despite high emigration levels Sony PCG-7113L battery, a few immigrants from Europe have settled in the country. By 2005, an estimated 212,000 British citizens were residing in South Africa. By 2011, this number may have grown to 500,000.[117] Some white Zimbabwean emigrated to South Africa. Some of the more nostalgic members of the community are known in popular culture as "Whenwes", because of their nostalgia for their lives in Rhodesia "when we were in Rhodesia" Sony PCG-7133L battery. The Indian population came to South Africa as indentured labourers to work in the sugar plantations in Natal in the late 19th and early 20th century. They came from different parts of the Indian subcontinent, adhered to different religions and spoke different languages. Serious riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in 1949 Sony PCG-7Z1L battery. There is also a significant group of Chinese South Africans (approximately 100,000 individuals) and Vietnamese South Africans (approximately 50,000 individuals). In 2008, the Pretoria High Court has ruled that Chinese South Africans who arrived before 1994 are to be reclassified as Coloureds. As a result of this ruling, about 12,000–15,000 ethnically Chinese citizens who arrived before 1994 Sony PCG-7Z2L battery, numbering 3%–5% of the total Chinese population in the country, will be able to benefit from government BEE policies. South Africa hosts a sizeable refugee and asylum seeker population. According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, this population numbered approximately 144,700 in 2007 Sony PCG-8Y1L battery. Groups of refugees and asylum seekers numbering over 10,000 included people from Zimbabwe (48,400), The Democratic Republic of the Congo (24,800), and Somalia (12,900). These populations mainly lived in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Cape Town, and Port Elizabeth. Many refugees have now also started to work and live in rural areas in provinces such as Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape Sony PCG-8Y2L battery. Religion Main article: Religion in South Africa Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk in Wolmaransstad According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This includes Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk; 6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population Sony PCG-8Z1L battery. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hindus about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified. Sangoma/Inyanga performing a traditional baptism on a baby in Alexandra, Johannesburg African Indigenous Churches were the largest of the Christian groups. It was believed that many of these persons who claimed no affiliation with any organised religion adhered to traditional indigenous religions Sony PCG-8Z2L battery. There are an estimated 200 000 indigenous traditional healers in South Africa, and up to 60% of South Africans consult these healers,[125] generally called sangomas or inyangas. These healers use a combination of ancestral spiritual beliefs and a belief in the spiritual and medicinal properties of local fauna and flora, commonly known as muti, in order to facilitate healing in clients. Many peoples have syncretic religious practices combining Christian and indigenous influences Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery. South African Muslims constitute mostly of those who are described as Coloureds and those who are described as Indians. They have been joined by black or white South African converts as well as others from other parts of Africa.[127] South African Muslims claim that their faith is the fastest-growing religion of conversion in the country, with the number of black Muslims growing sixfold, from 12,000 in 1991 to 74,700 in 2004 Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B batteryThere is also a Hindu minority from India. South Africa has eleven official languages:[129] Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana, Tsonga, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu. In this regard it is third only to Bolivia and India in number. While all the languages are formally equal, some languages are spoken more than others. According to the 2001 National Census, the three most spoken first home languages are Zulu (23.8%), Xhosa (17.6%), and Afrikaans (13.3%). Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery Despite the fact that English is recognised as the language of commerce and science, it was spoken by only 8.2% of South Africans at home in 2001, an even lower percentage than in 1996 (8.6%). The country also recognises several unofficial languages, including Fanagalo, Khoe, Lobedu, Nama, Northern Ndebele, Phuthi, San, and South African Sign Language.[130] These unofficial languages may be used in certain official uses in limited areas where it has been determined that these languages are prevalent Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery. Nevertheless, their populations are not such that they require nationwide recognition. Many of the "unofficial languages" of the San and Khoikhoi people contain regional dialects stretching northwards into Namibia and Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct population from other Africans, have their own cultural identity based on their hunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised to a great extent, and many of their languages are in danger of becoming extinct Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery. Many white South Africans also speak other European languages, such as Portuguese (also spoken by black Angolans and Mozambicans), German, and Greek, while some Asians and Indians in South Africa speak South Asian languages, such as Tamil, Hindi, Gujarati, Urdu, and Telugu. French is spoken in South Africa by migrants from Francophone Africa Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery. The spread of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is an alarming problem in South Africa, with up to 31% of pregnant women found to be HIV infected in 2005 and the infection rate among adults estimated at 20%.[131] The link between HIV, a virus spread primarily by sexual contact, and AIDS was long denied by prior president Thabo Mbeki and then health minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery, who insisted that the many deaths in the country are due to malnutrition, and hence poverty, and not HIV.[132] According to the South African Institute of Race Relations, the life expectancy in 2009 was 71 years for a white South African and 48 years for a black South African. In 2007, in response to international pressure, the government made efforts to fight AIDS.[134] In September 2008 Thabo Mbeki was recalled by the ANC and chose to resign and Kgalema Motlanthe was appointed for the interim Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery. One of Motlanthe's first actions was to replace Minister Tshabalala-Msimang with Barbara Hogan who immediately started working to improve the Government's approach to AIDS. After the 2009 General Elections, President Jacob Zuma appointed Dr Aaron Motsoaledi as the new minister and committed his government to increasing funding for and widening the scope of AIDS treatment. Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B batteryAIDS affects mainly those who are sexually active and is far more prevalent in the black population. Most deaths are people who are also economically active, resulting in many families losing their primary wage earners. This has resulted in many 'AIDS orphans' who in many cases depend on the state for care and financial support.[136] It is estimated that there are 1,200,000 orphans in South Africa. Many elderly people also lose the support from lost younger members of their family Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, South Africa has an estimated 5.6 million people living with HIV - more than any other country in the world. Society and culture South African culture is diverse; foods from many cultures are enjoyed by all and especially marketed to tourists who wish to sample the large variety of South African cuisine. In addition to food, music and dance feature prominently. South African cuisine is heavily meat-based and has spawned the distinctively South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery. South Africa has also developed into a major wine producer, with some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale. Different lifestyles Decorated houses, Drakensberg Mountains The South African black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people that cultural traditions survive most strongly; as blacks have become increasingly urbanised and Westernised Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Urban blacks usually speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still significant groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not included in the eleven official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognised languages. There are small groups of speakers of endangered languages Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery, most of which are from the Khoi-San family, that receive no official status; some groups within South Africa are attempting to promote their use and revival. Members of the middle class, who are predominantly white but whose ranks include growing numbers of black, coloured and Indian people,[139] have lifestyles similar in many respects to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work abroad for greater exposure to the markets of the world Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery. Asians, predominantly of Indian origin, preserve their own cultural heritage, languages and religious beliefs, being either Christian, Hindu or Sunni Muslim and speaking English, with Indian languages like Hindi, Telugu, Tamil or Gujarati being spoken less frequently, but the majority of Indians being able to understand their mother tongue. The first Indians arrived on the famous Truro ship as indentured labourers in Natal to work the Sugar Cane Fields Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery. There is a much smaller Chinese community in South Africa, although its numbers have increased due to immigration from Republic of China (Taiwan). South Africa has also had a large influence in the Scouting movement, with many Scouting traditions and ceremonies coming from the experiences of Robert Baden-Powell (the founder of Scouting) during his time in South Africa as a military officer in the 1890s Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery. The South African Scout Association was one of the first youth organisations to open its doors to youth and adults of all races in South Africa. This happened on 2 July 1977 at a conference known as Quo Vadis. In 2006, South Africa became the fifth country in the world, and the first in Africa, to legalise same-sex marriage. Eland, rock painting, Drakensberg, South Africa The oldest art objects in the world were discovered in a South African cave. Dating from 75,000 years ago, Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery these small drilled snail shells could have no other function than to have been strung on a string as a necklace. South Africa was one of the cradles of the human species. One of the defining characteristics of our species is the making of art (from Latin 'ars' meaning worked or formed from basic material). The scattered tribes of Khoisan peoples moving into South Africa from around 10000 BC had their own fluent art styles seen today in a multitude of cave paintings Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery. They were superseded by Bantu/Nguni peoples with their own vocabularies of art forms. In the 20th century, traditional tribal forms of art were scattered and re-melded by the divisive policies of apartheid. New forms of art evolved in the mines and townships: a dynamic art using everything from plastic strips to bicycle spokes. The Dutch-influenced folk art of the Afrikaner Trekboers and the urban white artists earnestly following changing European traditions from the 1850s onwards also contributed to this eclectic mix, which continues to evolve today Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. Main article: South African literature South Africa's unique social and political history have generated a strong group of local writers, with themes that span the days of apartheid to the lives of people in the "new South Africa". Many of the first black South African authors were missionary-educated, and the majority thus wrote in either English or Afrikaans. One of the first well known novels written by a black author in an African language was Solomon Thekiso Plaatje's Mhudi, written in 1930 Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. Notable white South African authors include Nadine Gordimer who was, in Seamus Heaney's words, one of "the guerrillas of the imagination", and who became the first South African and the seventh woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Her most famous novel, July's People, was released in 1981, depicting the collapse of white-minority rule Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. J.M. Coetzee was the second South African to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, in 2003. When awarding the prize, the Swedish Academy stated that Coetzee "in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider". The press release for the award also cited his "well-crafted composition, pregnant dialogue and analytical brilliance", while focusing on the moral nature of his work Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery. Athol Fugard, whose plays have been regularly premiered in fringe theatres in South Africa, London (The Royal Court Theatre) and New York. Olive Schreiner's The Story of an African Farm (1883) was a revelation in Victorian literature: it is heralded by many as introducing feminism into the novel form Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery. Alan Paton published the acclaimed novel Cry, the Beloved Country in 1948. He told the tale of a black priest who comes to Johannesburg to find his son, which became an international best-seller. During the 1950s, Drum magazine became a hotbed of political satire, fiction, and essays, giving a voice to urban black culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Afrikaans-language writers also began to write controversial material. Breyten Breytenbach was jailed for his involvement with the guerrilla movement against apartheid. Andre Brink was the first Afrikaner writer to be banned by the government after he released the novel A Dry White Season about a white South African who discovers the truth about a black friend who dies in police custody Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery. J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, was born in Bloemfontein in 1892. Main article: Cinema of South Africa While many foreign films have been produced about South Africa (usually involving race relations), few local productions are known outside South Africa itself. One exception was the film The Gods Must Be Crazy in 1980, set in the Kalahari. This is about how life in a traditional community of Bushmen is changed when a Coke bottle Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery, thrown out of an aeroplane, suddenly lands from the sky. The late Jamie Uys, who wrote and directed The Gods Must Be Crazy, also had success overseas in the 1970s with his films Funny People and Funny People II, similar to the TV series Candid Camera in the US. Leon Schuster's You Must Be Joking! films are in the same genre, and hugely popular among South Africans Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery. Arguably, the most high-profile film portraying South Africa in recent years was District 9. Directed by Neill Blomkamp, a native South African, and produced by Peter Jackson, the action/science-fiction film depicts a sub-class of alien refugees forced to live in the slums of Johannesburg in what many saw as a creative allegory for apartheid Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The film was a critical and commercial success worldwide, and was nominated for Best Picture at the 82nd Academy Awards. Other notable exceptions are the film Tsotsi, which won the Academy Award for Foreign Language Film at the 78th Academy Awards in 2006 as well as U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha, which won the Golden Bear at the 2005 Berlin International Film Festival Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. Main article: Media of South Africa South Africa has a large mass media sector and is one of Africa's major media centres. While South Africa's many broadcasters and publications reflect the diversity of the population as a whole, the most commonly used language is English. However, all ten other official languages are represented to some extent or another Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Main article: Music of South Africa There is great diversity in music from South Africa. Many black musicians who sang in Afrikaans or English during apartheid have since begun to sing in traditional African languages, and have developed a unique style called Kwaito. Of note is Brenda Fassie, who launched to fame with her song "Weekend Special", which was sung in English Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R battery. More famous traditional musicians include Ladysmith Black Mambazo, while the Soweto String Quartet performs classic music with an African flavour. White and Coloured South African singers are historically influenced by European musical styles. South Africa has produced world-famous jazz musicians, notably Hugh Masekela, Jonas Gwangwa, Abdullah Ibrahim, Miriam Makeba, Jonathan Butler, Chris McGregor, and Sathima Bea Benjamin Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery. Afrikaans music covers multiple genres, such as the contemporary Steve Hofmeyr and the punk rock band Fokofpolisiekar. Crossover artists such as Verity (internationally recognised for innovation in the music industry) and Johnny Clegg and his bands Juluka and Savuka have enjoyed various success underground, publicly, and abroad Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery. The South African music scene includes Kwaito, a new music genre that had developed in the mid 80s and has since developed to become the most popular social economical form of representation among the populace. Though some may argue that the political aspects of Kwaito has since diminished after Apartheid, and the relative interest in politics has become a minor aspect of daily life Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery. Some argue that in a sense, Kwaito is in fact a political force that shows activism in its apolitical actions. Today, major corporations like Sony, BMG, and EMI have appeared on the South African scene to produce and distribute Kwaito music. Due to its overwhelming popularity, as well as the general influence of DJs, who are among the top 5 most influential types of people within the country, Kwaito has taken over radio, television, and magazines. Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W batteryThe Springboks in a bus parade after winning the 2007 Rugby World Cup South Africa's most popular sports are soccer, rugby and cricket.[144] Other sports with significant support are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Although soccer commands the greatest following among the youth, other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding are increasingly popular Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery. Soccer players who have played for major foreign clubs include Steven Pienaar (Tottenham), Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both formerly of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atlético Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto, Blackburn Rovers and West Ham United), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth) Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery, and Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund). Famous boxing personalities include Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. Durban Surfer Jordy Smith won the 2010 Billabong J-Bay competition making him the no 1 ranked surfer in the world. South Africa produced Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery. Famous current cricket players include Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy, etc. Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League. South Africa has also produced numerous world class rugby players, including Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup and won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery, with the national team going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship, and it was the host nation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which was the first time the tournament was held in Africa. FIFA president Sepp Blatter awarded South Africa a grade 9 out of 10 for successfully hosting the event. Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P batteryIn 2004, the swimming team of Roland Schoeman, Lyndon Ferns, Darian Townsend and Ryk Neethling won the gold medal at the Olympic Games in Athens, simultaneously breaking the world record in the 4x100 freestyle relay. Penny Heyns won Olympic Gold in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games. In 2012 Oscar Pistorius became the first double amputee sprinter to compete at the Olympic Games in London Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery. Pistorius also won two gold medals at the 2012 Paralympic Games and is the T44 world record holder for the 200 and 400 metres events. The South African team of Pistorius, Arnu Fourie, Zivan Smith and Samkelo Radebe won a gold medal and set a Paralympic record in the 4x100m relay. Fourie also set a world record in the heats of the T44 200 m event and won a bronze medal in the 100 meter event Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. In golf, Gary Player is generally regarded as one of the greatest golfers of all time, having won the Career Grand Slam, one of five golfers to have done so. Other South African golfers to have won major tournaments include Bobby Locke, Ernie Els, Retief Goosen, Trevor Immelman, Louis Oosthuizen and Charl Schwartzel Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery . Main article: Education in South Africa School children in Mitchell's Plain South Africa has a 3 tier system of education starting with primary school, followed by high school and tertiary education in the form of (academic) universities and universities of technology. Learners have twelve years of formal schooling, from grade 1 to 12. Grade R is a pre-primary foundation year. [146] Primary schools span the first seven years of schooling. Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery High School education spans a further five years. The Senior Certificate examination takes place at the end of grade 12 and is necessary for tertiary studies at a South African university.[146] Public universities in South Africa are divided into three types: traditional universities, which offer theoretically oriented university degrees; universities of technology ("Technikons"), which offer vocational oriented diplomas and degrees Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery; and comprehensive universities, which offer both types of qualification. There are 23 public universities in South Africa: 11 traditional universities, 6 universities of technology and 6 comprehensive universities. Public institutions are usually English medium, although instruction may take place in Afrikaans as well. There are also a large number of other educational institutions in South Africa – some are local campuses of foreign universities Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery, some conduct classes for students who write their exams at the distance-education University of South Africa and some offer unaccredited or non-accredited diplomas. Both public and private universities and colleges register with the Department of Higher Education and Training and are accredited by the Council on Higher Education (CHE) Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery. Rankings of universities and business schools in South Africa are largely based on international university rankings, because there have not as yet been published any specifically South African rankings. Under apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to discrimination through inadequate funding and a separate syllabus called Bantu Education which was only designed to give them sufficient skills to work as labourers Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery. In 2004 South Africa started reforming its higher education system, merging and incorporating small universities into larger institutions, and renaming all higher education institutions "university" in order to redressing these imbalances. Public expenditure on education was at 5.4% of the 2002–05 GDP. Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the country's three capital cities, serving as the executive (administrative) and de facto national capital Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery; the others are Cape Town, the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital. Pretoria is contained within the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality as one of several constituent former administrations (among which also Centurion and Soshanguve). Pretoria itself is sometimes referred to as "Tshwane" due to a long-running and controversial proposed change of name, which has yet to be decided, as of 2012 Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery. Pretoria is named after Andries Pretorius. Pretoria in South Africa is popularly known as The Jacaranda City due to the thousands of Jacaranda trees planted in its streets, parks and gardens. The Southern Transvaal Ndebele occupied the river valley, which was to become the location of the city of Pretoria, by around 1600. During the difaqane in Natal, another band of refugees arrived in this area under the leadership of Mzilikazi Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery. However, they were forced to abandon their villages in their flight from a regiment of Zulu raiders in 1832. Pretoria itself was founded in 1855 by Marthinus Pretorius, a leader of the Voortrekkers, who named it after his father Andries Pretorius. The elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. Andries Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention (1852) Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery, in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal. It became the capital of the South African Republic (ZAR) on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers' settlement movements of the Great Trek Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery. See also: Pretoria Forts During the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty which ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention. The Second Boer War (1899 to 1902) resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic and start of British hegemony in South Africa. During the war, Winston Churchill was imprisoned in the Staats Model School in Pretoria but escaped to Mozambique Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery. The city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. A number of forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War. Though some of these forts are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery. Main article: Union of South Africa The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange Free State were united with the Cape Colony and Natal Colony in 1910 to become the Union of South Africa. Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital. Between 1860 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, superseding Potchefstroom in that role Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery. On 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital. This section does not cite any references or sources. (March 2010) After the creation of new municipal structures across South Africa in 2000, the name Tshwane was adopted for the Metropolitan Municipality that includes Pretoria and surrounding towns. Pretoria is "the capital of Apartheid South Africa" Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery. However, Pretoria's political reputation was changed with the inauguration of Nelson Mandela on the 10th May 1994 as the country's first non-apartheid President at the Union Buildings close to Pretoria CBD. Beginning in 2005, portions of the African National Congress wished to change the name of the city to match the name of the Tshwane municipality, however this met with stiff opposition, particularly from Afrikaner civil rights groups and political parties since it denies the history of the city as founded by Pretorius Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery. In 1994 Peter Holmes Maluleka was elected as transitional mayor of Pretoria, until the first democratic election held later that year, making him the first black mayor of this capital of South Africa. Maluleka later became the chairman of the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan City Council (later City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality) Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery, then was elected Speaker of the Tshwane Metro Council and in 2004 was chosen to be a member of the South African Parliament for the Soshanguve constituency. Pretoria is situated approximately 55 km (34 mi) north-northeast of Johannesburg in the north-east of South Africa, in a transitional belt between the plateau of the Highveld to the south and the lower-lying Bushveld to the north. It lies at an altitude of about 1,350 m (4,500 ft) above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery. The city has a moderately dry subtropical climate, specifically a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cwa), with long hot and rainy summers and short cool and dry winters. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C (65.7 °F).[7] This is rather high considering its relatively high altitude of about 1350 metres and is due mainly to its sheltered valley position Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery, which acts as a heat trap and cuts it off from cool southerly and south-easterly air masses for much of the year. Rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is an extremely rare event; snowflakes were spotted in 1959, 1968 and 2012 in the city, but the city has never experienced an accumulation in its history Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery. During a countrywide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C (102 °F), extraordinarily unusual for that time of the year. Depending on the extent of the area understood to constitute "Pretoria", the population ranges from 500,000 to 2.5 million. The main languages spoken in the Tshwane municipality are Pedi, Afrikaans, Tswana, Tsonga, Zulu and English Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. Ndebele and Sotho are also widely spoken. The whole Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality had a population of 1,985,997 at the 2001 census. The city of Pretoria has the largest white population of anywhere on the African continent. Since its founding it has been a major Afrikaner population centre, and currently there are roughly 400,000 Afrikaners living in or around the city Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery. Even since the end of Apartheid, Pretoria itself still has a white majority, albeit an ever increasing black middle-class. However in the townships of Soshanguve and Atteridgeville blacks make up close to all of the population. The largest white ethnic group are the Afrikaners and the largest black ethnic group are the Northern Sothos Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery. If one considers the lower estimate for the population of Pretoria, this includes largely former-white designated areas and there is therefore a white majority. However if one includes the geographically separate townships, this increases Pretoria's population beyond a million and makes whites a minority Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery. Pretoria's Indians mostly live in the Indian township of Laudium and surrounding areas, or in Media related to Buildings in Pretoria at Wikimedia Commons Pretoria has over the years had very diverse cultural influences and this is reflected in the architectural styles that can be found in the city. It ranges from British Colonial Architecture to Art Deco with a good mix of uniquely South African style mixed in Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery. Some of the notable structures in Pretoria include the Union Buildings, Voortrekker Monument, the main campus of the University of South Africa, Mahlamba Ndlopfu (the President's House), Reserve Bank of South Africa (Office Tower) and the Telkom Lukas Rand Transmission Tower. Other known structures and buildings include the Loftus Versfeld Stadium Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery, The South African State Theatre, University of Pretoria, and Head Quarters of the Department of International Relations and Co-Operation (modern architecture). Central Business District The Central Business District (CBD) of Pretoria has been the traditional centre of government and commerce, although today many corporate offices, small businesses, shops and government departments are situated in the sprawling suburbs of the city rather than the CBD Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. However to bring service delivery back to the people, various Government departments are returning to the CBD. National Departments with their Head Office in the CBD include: Department of Health, Basic Education, Transport, Higher Education and Training, Sport and Recreation, Justice and Constitutional Development, Water and Environmental Affairs and the National Treasury Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. Parks and gardens Pretoria is home to the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa as well as the Pretoria National Botanical Garden, one of the National Botanical Gardens in South Africa. There are also a number of smaller parks and gardens located throughout the city, including the Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery.. Commuter rail services around Pretoria are operated by Metrorail. The routes, originating from the city centre, extend south to Germiston and Johannesburg, west to Atteridgeville, northwest to Ga-Rankuwa, north to Soshanguve and east to Mamelodi. The Gautrain high-speed railway line runs from the eastern suburb of Hatfield to Pretoria Station and then southwards to Centurion, Sandton, OR Tambo International Airport and Johannesburg. Pretoria Station is a departure point for the Blue Train luxury train. Rovos Rail, Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery a luxury mainline train safari service operates from the colonial-style railway station at Capital Park.[13] The South African Friends of the Rail have recently moved their vintage train trip operations from the Capital Park station to the Hercules station. Various bus companies exist in Pretoria, of which Putco is one of the oldest and most recognised. Tshwane(Pretoria) municipality provides for the rest of the bus transport and to view the time table please visit them at Tshwane Bus Booklet. Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q batteryThe N1 is the major freeway that runs through Pretoria. The N1 Eastern Bypass bisects the large expanse of the eastern suburbs, routing traffic from Johannesburg to Polokwane and the north of the country. The N4 Platinum Highway forms the Northern Bypass and routes traffic from Witbank to Rustenburg. The N4 runs east-west through South Africa Sony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery, connecting Maputo to Gaborone. Other major freeways include the N14 which links Pretoria with Johannesburg's West Rand, and the R21 which links the city with OR Tambo International Airport. For scheduled air services, Pretoria is served by Johannesburg's airports: OR Tambo International, 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of central Pretoria; and Lanseria, 35 kilometres (22 mi) south-west of the city Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery. Wonderboom Airport in the suburb of Wonderboom in the north of Pretoria services light commercial and private aircraft. There are two military air bases to the south of the city, Swartkop and Waterkloof. Music A number of popular South African bands and musicians are originally from Pretoria. These include Desmond and the Tutus, Seether, Zebra & Giraffe, popular mostwako rapper JR, and DJ Mujava who was raised in the town of Attridgeville Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery. The song "Marching to Pretoria" refers to this city. The opening line of The Beatles' song I Am the Walrus, "I am he as you are he as you are me and we are all together", is based on the song "Marching to Pretoria", which contains the lyric "I'm with you and you're with me and we are all together" Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery. Loftus Versfeld Stadium One of the most popular sports in Pretoria is rugby union. Loftus Versfeld is home to the Blue Bulls, who compete in the domestic Currie Cup, and also to the Bulls franchise in the international Super Rugby competition. The Bulls Super Rugby team, which is operated by the Blue Bulls, won the competition in 2007, 2009 and 2010. Loftus Versfeld also hosts the soccer side Mamelodi Sundowns Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. Pretoria also hosted matches during the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Loftus Versfeld was used for matches of soccer in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. There are three soccer teams in the city campaigning in South Africa's top flight football League, the Premier Soccer League. They are Mamelodi Sundowns and Supersport United. Supersport United were the 2008–09 PSL Champions Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery. Following the 2011/2012 season the University of Pretoria F.C. will gain promotion to the South African Premier Soccer League (PSL), the top domestic league.[16][17] Cricket is also popular game in the city. As there is no international cricket stadium in the city, it does not host any major cricket tournament, although the nearby situated Centurion has Supersport Park which is an international cricket stadium and has hosted many important tournaments such as 2003 Cricket World Cup, 2007 ICC World Twenty20 Sony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery, 2009 IPL and 2009 ICC As the national administrative (executive) capital of South Africa, Pretoria is the seat of government and houses the headquarters of the main government departments and ministries. As the de facto capital city, it also hosts the foreign embassies and diplomatic missions. The city is a major commercial centre and an important industrial centre Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery. Its main industries are iron and steel works, copper casting, and the manufacture of automobiles, railway carriages and heavy machinery. Pretoria has a number of industrial areas, business districts and small home businesses. A number of chambers of commerce exist for Pretoria and it's business community including Pretoriaweb a business networking group that meets once a month to discuss the issues of doing business in Pretoria Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery. The members of Pretoriaweb also discuss issues in various social media environments and on the website. See also: List of universities in South Africa Pretoria is one of South Africa's leading academic cities and is home to both the largest residential university, largest distance education university and a research intensive university. The Tshwane University of Technology (commonly referred to as TUT) is a higher education institution, offering vocational oriented diplomas and degrees Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery, and came into being through a merger of Technikon Northern Gauteng, Technikon North-West and Technikon Pretoria. TUT caters for approximately 60,000 students and it has become the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa. The University of South Africa (commonly referred to as Unisa), founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, is the largest university on the African continent and attracts a third of all higher education students in South Africa Sony VAIO VGN-CS36H/Q battery. It spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. In 1946 it was given a new role as a distance education university and in 2012 it had a student headcount of over 300 000 students, including African and international students in 130 countries worldwide Sony VAIO VGN-CS36H/R battery, making it one of the world's mega universities. Unisa is a dedicated open distance education institution and offers both vocational and academic programmes. The University of Pretoria (commonly referred to as UP, Tuks, or Tukkies) is a multi campus public research university.[18] The university was established in 1908 as the Pretoria campus of the Johannesburg based Transvaal University College and is the fourth South African institution in continuous operation to be awarded university status Sony VAIO VGN-CS36H battery. Established in 1920, the University of Pretoria Faculty of Veterinary Science is the second oldest veterinary school in Africa and the only veterinary school in South Africa. In 1949 the university launched the first MBA programme outside of North America. Since 1997, the university has produced more research outputs every year than any other institution of higher learning in South Africa, as measured by the Department of Education's accreditation benchmark Sony VAIO VGN-FW11E battery. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is South Africa's central scientific research and development organisation. It was established by an act of parliament in 1945 and is situated on its own campus in the city.[23] It is the largest research and development organisation in Africa and accounts for about 10% of the entire African R&D budget Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery. It has a staff of approximately 3,000 technical and scientific researchers, often working in multi-disciplinary teams. On 26 May 2005 the South African Geographical Names Council (SAGNC), which is linked to the Directorate of Heritage in the Department of Arts and Culture, approved changing the name of Pretoria to Tshwane, which is already the name of the Metropolitan Municipality[24] in which Pretoria, and a number of surrounding towns are located Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery. Although the name change was approved by the SAGNC, it has not yet been approved by the Minister of Arts and Culture. The matter is currently under consideration while he has requested further research on the matter. Should the Minister approve the name change, the name will be published in the Government Gazette, giving the public opportunity to comment on the matter Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery. The Minister can then refer that public response back to the SAGNC, before presenting his recommendation before parliament, who will vote on the change. Various public interest groups have warned that the name change will be challenged in court, should the minister approve the renaming. The long process involved made it unlikely the name would change anytime soon, if ever, even assuming the Minister had approved the change in early 2006 Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery. The Tshwane Metro Council has advertised Tshwane as "Africa's leading capital city" since the name change was approved by the SAGNC in 2005. This has led to further controversy, however, as the name of the city had not yet been changed officially, and the council was, at best, acting prematurely. Following a complaint lodged with the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery, it was ruled that such advertisements are deliberately misleading and should be withdrawn from all media.[25] Despite the rulings of the ASA, Tshwane Metro Council failed to discontinue their "City of Tshwane" advertisements. As a result, the ASA requested that Tshwane Metro pay for advertisements in which it admits that it has misled the public. Refusing to abide by the ASA's request Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery, the Metro Council was banned consequently from placing any advertisements in the South African media that refer to Tshwane as the capital. ASA may still place additional sanctions on the Metro Council that would prevent it from placing any advertisements in the South African media, including council notices and employment vacancies Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery. After the ruling, the Metro Council continued to place Tshwane advertisements, but placed them on council-owned advertising boards and busstops throughout the municipal area. In August 2007, an internal memo was leaked to the media in which the Tshwane mayor sought advice from the premier of Gauteng on whether the municipality could be called the "City of Tshwane" instead of just "Tshwane" Sony VAIO VGN-FW25T/B battery. This could increase confusion about the distinction between the city of Pretoria and the municipality of Tshwane. In early 2010 it was again rumoured that the South African government would make a decision regarding the name, however, a media briefing regarding name changes, where it may have been discussed, was cancelled shortly before taking place Sony VAIO VGN-FW26T/B battery. Rumours of the name change provoked outrage from Afrikaner civil rights and political groups. It later emerged that the registration of the municipality as a geographic place had been published in the government gazette as it had been too late to withdraw the name from the publication, but it was announced that the name had been withdrawn, pending "further work" by officials Sony VAIO VGN-FW27/B battery. The following week, the registration of "Tshwane" was officially withdrawn in the Government Gazette., The retraction had reportedly been ordered at the behest of the Deputy President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe, acting on behalf of President Jacob Zuma, as minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana had acted contrary to the position of the ANC, which is that Pretoria Sony VAIO VGN-FW27/W battery, and the municipality are separate entities, which was subsequently articulated by ANC secretary general Gwede Mantashe. In March 2010, the "Tshwane Royal House Committee", claiming to be descendents of Chief Tshwane, called for the name to be changed, and for the descendents of Chief Tshwane to be recognised, and to be made part of the administration of the municipality Sony VAIO VGN-FW27T/H battery. According to comments made by Mayor Kgosientso Ramokgopa in late 2011, the change will occur in 2012.[38][39] However there remained considerable uncertainty about the issue.
Puerto Rico officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico,—literally, "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"), is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands Sony PCG-71313M battery. Puerto Rico (Spanish for "rich port") comprises an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands, the largest of which are Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is the smallest by land area of the Greater Antilles. However, it ranks third in population among that group of four islands Sony PCG-71212M battery, which also include Cuba, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), and Jamaica. Due to its location, Puerto Rico enjoys a tropical climate and also experiences the Atlantic hurricane season. Originally populated for centuries by indigenous aboriginal peoples known as Taínos, the island was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas on November 19, 1493. Under Spanish rule Sony PCG-71311M battery, the island was colonized and the indigenous population was forced into slavery and nearly wiped out due to, among other things, European infectious diseases. The remaining population was emancipated by King Charles I in 1520. Spain possessed Puerto Rico for over 400 years, despite attempts at capture of the island by the French, Dutch, and British. The Spanish Crown, in an attempt to keep Puerto Rico from gaining its independence Sony PCG-71213M battery, revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in three languages — Spanish, English and French — and it fostered the immigration of hundreds of non-Spanish European families.[13] The relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States dates back to the Spanish-American War, in which Spain, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ceded the island to the United States. Puerto Ricans became U.S. citizens in 1917 Sony PCG-61211M battery, and the United States Congress legislates many aspects of Puerto Rican life.[14] However, the islanders may not vote in U.S. presidential elections. Since 1947, Puerto Ricans have been able to elect their own governor. Its official languages are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. The island's current political status, including the possibility of statehood or independence, is widely debated in Puerto Rico Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. A referendum on statehood, independence, or continuance of the status quo will be held on November 6, 2012. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen, from Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord". The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment". Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as "Puerto Rico", and "San Juan" became the name of the main trading/shipping port. The ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico before the arrival of Columbus is not well known Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery. Unlike other larger more advanced indigenous communities in the New World (Aztec, Inca) that left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, the indigenous population of Puerto Rico left scant records. What is known today about them comes from scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Today, there are few and rare cave drawings, rock carvings and ancient recreational activity sites that have been identified with some degree of speculation as to who left them behind. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, almost three centuries after the first Spaniards arrived on the island Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. Taíno Village at the Tibes Ceremonial Center The first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Arcaico (Archaic) man (named "Puerto Ferro Man") dated to around 2000 BCE. Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery The Igneri, a tribe from the region of the Orinoco river, in northern South America, arrived between 120 and 400 CE. The Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries, and perhaps clashed. Between the 7th and 11th centuries the Taíno culture developed on the island, and by approximately 1000 CE had become dominant Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery. At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord". The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493 Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. However, Puerto Rican culture today exhibits many Taíno influences within its music and vocabulary. Spanish colony Further information: Military history of Puerto Rico#Europeans fight over Puerto Rico and Military history of Puerto Rico#Revolt against Spain When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taínos. Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery They called it "Borikén", or "Borinquen".[note 2] Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first Spanish settlement, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who later became the first governor of the island.[note 3] Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery, and San Juan became the name of the main trading/shipping port. Garita at fort San Felipe del Morro Soon thereafter, the Spanish began to colonize the island. The indigenous population (Taínos) came to be exploited and forced into slavery. Within 50 years they were reduced to near extinction by the harsh conditions of work and by European infectious diseases to which they had no natural immunity Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery. For example, the smallpox outbreak in 1518–1519 wiped out much of the Island's indigenous population. In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. Essentially, the Taíno presence while not completely extinct had almost vanished.[28] The importation of Sub-Saharan African slaves was introduced to provide the new manual work force for the Spanish colonists and merchants Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands.[29] African slavery was primarily restricted to coastal ports and cities, while the interior of the island continued to be essentially unexplored and undeveloped Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Spanish and other European colonists were concentrated in island's seaports. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and a significant port for Spanish Main colonial expansion. Various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal, were built to protect the strategic port of San Juan from numerous European invasion attempts Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. San Juan served as an important port-of-call for ships of all European nations for purposes of taking on water, food and other commercial provisions and mercantile exchange. Marker in Puerto Rico which traces the routes taken by the Godspeed, Susan Constant and the Discovery and which commemorates their stopping in Puerto Rico from April 6 to 10, 1607 on their way to Virginia Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI batteryIn 1607, Puerto Rico served as a port provisioning the English ships Godspeed, Susan Constant and Discovery, which were on their way to establish Jamestown, Virginia, the first successful English settlement in the New World. The Netherlands and England made several attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest it from the long-term possession by Spain, which held tenaciously onto its increasingly prized island colony Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Spanish colonial emphasis continued to be focussed on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. This continued distraction on the part of the Spanish Crown left the island of Puerto Rico virtually unexplored, undeveloped, and (excepting coastal outposts) largely unsettled before the nineteenth century Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. But as independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies grew successful, Spain began to pay attention to Puerto Rico as one of its last remaining maritime colonies. Amidst the attacks, Puerto Rican culture began to flourish. In 1786, the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico—Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra—was published in Madrid Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus' landing in 1493 until 1783. The book also presents a first-hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality. In 1779, citizens of the still-Spanish colony of Puerto Rico fought in the American Revolutionary War under the command of Bernardo de Gálvez, named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. Puerto Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola, the capital of the British colony of West Florida, and the cities of Baton Rouge, St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops, under the leadership of Brigadier General Ramón de Castro,[33] helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2,500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola. Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E batteryIn 1809, in a further move to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament with equal representation to Mainland Iberian Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands). The first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, Ramon Power y Giralt, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms, which were in force from 1810 to 1814 and again from 1820 to 1823 Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E battery, were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by Ferdinand VII. Nineteenth-century immigration and commercial trade reforms further augmented the island's European population and economy, and expanded Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island. Royal Decree of Graces, 1815, which allowed foreigners to enter Puerto Rico Minor slave revolts had occurred in the island during this period; however, the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821, was the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico's folklore. Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E batteryIn the early 19th century, Puerto Rico had an Independence movement which, due to the harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, met in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar of establishing a United Provinces of New Granada which included Puerto Rico and Cuba Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery. Among the influential members of this movement was Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabe, a Puerto Rican military leader known in Latin America as the "Liberator from Puerto Rico" who fought alongside Bolivar and María de las Mercedes Barbudo, a businesswoman also known as the "first Puerto Rican female freedom fighter". The movement was discovered and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled. Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E batteryWith the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba continued to grow in strategic importance to the Spanish Crown. In a very deliberate move to increase its hold on its last two new world colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. This time the decree was printed in three languages: Spanish, English and French. Its primary intent was to attract Europeans of who were not of Spanish origin, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with increase of new loyalist settlers with strong sympathies to Spain. As a consequence, hundreds of families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, immigrated to the island. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H batteryIn 1858, Samuel Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico. Morse's oldest daughter, Susan Walker Morse (1821–1885), would often visit her uncle Charles Pickering Walker, who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. Morse often spent winters at the Hacienda with his daughter and son-in-law Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery, who lived and owned the Habienda Henriqueta, and he set a two-mile telegraph line connecting his son-in-law's hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859 in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. The first lines transmitted by Morse that day in Puerto Rico were: "Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace of the world's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!" Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E batteryAs an incentive to immigrate and colonize, free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the two islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.[13] It was very successful and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico today still receives Spanish and European immigration Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery. The Original Lares Revolutionary Flag Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "Grito de Lares." It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. Flag flown by Fidel Vélez and his men during the "Intentona de Yauco" revolt Leaders of "El Grito de Lares", who were in exile in New York City, joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco organized another uprising Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery, which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco". This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican flag was unfurled on Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions, which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for (colonial) autonomy, opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly Sony VAIO PCG-31112M batteryand put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.[39] In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province" of Spain. This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, which held the power to annul any legislative decision, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on July 17, 1898 Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. United States colony Main article: Puerto Rican Campaign First Company of native Puerto Ricans enlisted in the American Army, 1899 In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. This idea was not new, since William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars that the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba. Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea[44] Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. This prewar planning did not contemplate major territorial acquisitions. Except for one 1895 plan which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud) SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain's forces in and around Cuba. However, Jorge Rodriguez Beruf, recognized as a foremost researcher on United States militarism in Puerto Rico, writes that not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in sugar – a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. Children in a company housing settlement, San Juan, 1941 On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was invaded by the United States with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, that were under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S. SONY VAIO PCG-51112M batteryThe United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule of the U.S. with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, also a judicial system following the American legal system that includes both state courts and federal courts establishing a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court; and a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner". In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable" to Puerto Rico, specifying specific exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws. SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery The act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable", including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature. During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. In 1917, Puerto Ricans were made U.S. citizens[52] via the Jones Act. The same Act also provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, a bill of rights and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner to a four-year term. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship, many Puerto Ricans were drafted into World War I and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation in which a national military draft was in effect SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941 Natural disasters, including a major earthquake, a tsunami and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.[53] Some political leaders, like Pedro Albizu Campos who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change. On March 21, 1937 SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery, a march was organized in the southern city of Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. This march turned bloody when the Insular Police, "a force somewhat resembling the National Guard which answered to the U.S.-appointed governor",[54] opened fire upon unarmed and defenseless cadets and bystanders alike, as reported by a U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and the "Hays Commission" led by Arthur Garfield Hays SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. Nineteen were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in their backs while running away. An American Civil Liberties Union report declared it a massacre and it has since been known as the Ponce Massacre. On April 2, 1943, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated. SONY VAIO PCG-7194M batteryThe internal governance changed during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise led by Luis Muñoz Marín and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesús T. Piñero SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. Commonwealth In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to elect democratically their own governor. Luis Muñoz Marín was elected during the 1948 general elections, becoming the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico. A Bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the PPD, and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín. SONY PCG-8113M batteryThe Bill, also known as the Gag Law (Ley de la Mordaza in Spanish) was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a patriotic tune, to talk of independence, or to fight for the liberation of the island. The Bill, which resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States, was signed and made into law on June 10 SONY PCG-8112M battery, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, and became known as "Law 53" (Ley 53 in Spanish).[58] In accordance to the new law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison SONY PCG-7134M battery, be fined $10,000 dollars (US), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive, and was in violation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He pointed out that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The infamous law was repealed in 1957 SONY PCG-7131M battery . Painting depiction of the U.S. 65th Infantry Regiment's bayonet charge against a Chinese division during the Korean War. In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81-600), which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution.[60] This act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact" SONY PCG-7122M battery . It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were then entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. Then U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs SONY PCG-7121M battery, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner, "The bill (to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own constitution and to organize a local government...The bill under consideration would not change Puerto Rico's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States SONY PCG-7113M battery." View newsreel scenes in Spanish of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the United States declared martial law SONY PCG-7112M battery, and attacked Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers. The Utuado Uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, being released in 1979 SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. Don Pedro Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, Georgia, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.[65] The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952, on the anniversary of the July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish-American War SONY PCG-8Z2M battery , until then an annual Puerto Rico holiday. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally "Free Associated State", officially translated into English as Commonwealth), for its body politic. The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, currency, postal service, foreign affairs, military defense, communications, labor relations, the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others SONY PCG-8Z1M battery. During the 1950s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal, which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.[69] Yet it still struggles to define its political status SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. Three plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status, but no changes have been attained. Support for the pro-statehood party, Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP), and the pro-commonwealth party, Partido Popular Democrático (PPD), remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party, the Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño (PIP), usually receives 3–5% of the electoral votes SONY PCG-8Y2M battery . Government and politics Main articles: Government of Puerto Rico and Politics of Puerto Rico See also: Municipalities of Puerto Rico, List of political parties in Puerto Rico, and Political party strength in Puerto Rico The Capitol of Puerto Rico, home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico Puerto Rico has a republican form of government, subject to U.S. jurisdiction and sovereignty.[3] Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico's head of state is the President of the United States SONY PCG-7Z1M battery . The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch is headed by the Governor, currently Luis Fortuño. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Legislative Assembly made up of a Senate upper chamber and a House of Representatives lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House SONY PCG-6W2M battery. The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate SONY PCG-5J5M battery. Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, formally called a Resident Commissioner (currently Pedro Pierluisi). Current legislation has returned the Commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but not on matters where the vote would represent a decisive participation. Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico SONY PCG-5K2M battery. While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections. Puerto Rico is not an independent country and, as such, it hosts no embassies. It is host, however, to consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe.[75] Most consulates are located in San Juan SONY PCG-5K1M battery . As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez. Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four year term SONY PCG-5J4M battery. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town"), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971 SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Since 1952 Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), the New Progressive Party (PNP) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). These three parties stood for three distinct future political status scenarios: the PPD seeks to maintain the island's "association" status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over the last six decades SONY PCG-5G2M battery , the PNP seeks to have Puerto Rico become a U.S. state, and the PIP seeks the establishment of a sovereign and independent republic. In 2007, a fourth party, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR), was registered. The PPR claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. However, it ceased to remain a registered political party when it failed to obtain the requisite number of votes in the 2008 general election Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. Non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, the Hostosian National Independence Movement. Political status Main article: Political status of Puerto Rico The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Estado Libre Asociado In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes" or "no", on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth, meaning a "politically organized community" or "state", which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA). Literally translated into English the phrase Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State." The preamble of the Commonwealth constitution in part reads: "We, the people of Puerto Rico, in order to organise ourselves politically on a fully democratic basis Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery, ...do ordain and establish this Constitution for the commonwealth which, in the exercise of our natural rights, we now create within our union with the United States of America. In so doing, we declare: ... We consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective enjoyment of its rights and privileges Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery; our loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution;..." While the approval of the Commonwealth constitution by the people of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Congress and the U.S. President, marked a historic change in the civil government of Puerto Rico, neither it nor the public laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952 revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of Puerto Rico to the United States. Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The statutory provisions that set forth the conditions of the relationship are commonly referred to as the Federal Relations Act (FRA). Inclusive by Resolution number 34, approved by the Constitutional Convention and ratified in the Referendum held on November 4, 1952, the following new sentence was added to section 3 of article VII of the commonwealth constitution Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery: "Any amendment or revision of this constitution shall be consistent with the resolution enacted by the applicable provisions of the Constitution of the United States, with the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and with Public Law 600, Eighty-first Congress, adopted in the nature of a compact".[82] The provisions of the Federal Relations Act as codified on the U.S. Code Title 48, Chapter 4 shall apply to the island of Puerto Rico and to the adjacent islands belonging to the United States and waters of those islands Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery; and the name Puerto Rico, as used in the chapter, shall be held to include not only the island of that name, but all the adjacent islands as aforesaid.[83] While specified subsections of the FRA were "adopted in the nature of a compact", other provisions, by comparison, are excluded from the compact reference. Matters still subject to congressional authority and established pursuant to legislation include the citizenship status of residents Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery, tax provisions, civil rights, trade and commerce, public finance, the administration of public lands controlled by the federal government, the application of federal law over navigable waters, congressional representation, and the judicial process, among others. In 1967, Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). Claiming "foul play" and dubbing the process as illegitimate and contrary to norms of international law regarding decolonization procedures, the plebiscite was boycotted by the major pro-statehood and pro-independence parties of the time Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican Independence Party, respectively. The Commonwealth option, represented by the PDP, won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in U.S. Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by only a plurality of votes (48.6% versus 46.3% for statehood), while the "none of the above" option, which was the Popular Democratic Party-sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3% of the votes (versus 46.5% for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above" Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. Within the United States Puerto Rico, U.S. quarter, reverse side, 2009 Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress's plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution.[89] U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the American Union and their residents have no voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Like the States of the American Union, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation," for example Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations," which was retained by the Federal Government. The Supreme Court has indicated that once the Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the Courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is.". Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M batteryPuerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the Jones-Shafroth Act.[91] However, U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democrat, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M batteryenfranchise US citizens residing in Puerto Rico.[71][92](See also: "Voting rights in Puerto Rico"). Despite their American citizenship, however, only the "fundamental rights" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S Supreme Court decisions have been held opinions on which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. armed forces and Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect. Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay most U.S. federal taxes, with the major exception being the federal personal income tax, but only under certain circumstances. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the US Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. However, they are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a small fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state.[102] Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L batteryIn 1992, President George H. W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a federal district court in Puerto Rico Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, and Puerto Rican judges have served in that Court and in other federal courts on the mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Puerto Ricans are also regularly appointed to high-level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors. International status On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748 Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, removing Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self-governing status of Puerto Rico Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.[106] It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause[107] of the U.S. Constitution. Sony VAIO PCG-8131L batteryIn 1993, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery, "Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government under Resolution 1541" (the three established forms of full self-government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico " Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery... remains an unincorporated territory and does not have the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice", that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases. In 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence", Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader Filiberto Ojeda Rios Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. Recent developments In 2005 and 2007, two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status.[49][106] Both reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress.[106] Reactions from Puerto Rico's two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) challenged the task force's report Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery and committed to validating the current status in all international forums, including the United Nations. It also rejected[citation needed] any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vowed to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998, which included sovereignty, an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery The New Progressive Party or New Party for Progress (PNP) supported[citation needed] the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters. A 2009 CRS report suggested that action might be taken in the 111th Congress. The reports issued in 2007 and 2005 by the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status may be the basis for reconsideration of the existing commonwealth status Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, as legislative developments during the 109th and 110th Congresses suggested. Agreement on the process to be used in considering the status proposals has been as elusive as agreement on the end result. Congress would have a determinative role in any resolution of the issue. The four options that appear to be most frequently discussed include continuation of the commonwealth, modification of the current commonwealth agreement, statehood, or independence Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery. If independence, or separate national sovereignty, were selected, Puerto Rican officials might seek to negotiate a compact of free association with the United States. On June 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223–169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico's self-determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth political status or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans vote to continue to have their present form of political status, the Government of Puerto Rico is authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite are certified Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery; if Puerto Ricans vote to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (status quo) political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. A Senate hearing was held on May 19, 2010, for the purpose of gathering testimony on the bill. Among those offering testimony were Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, Pedro Pierluisi Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery; Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Fortuño; President of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico, Héctor Ferrer; and President of the Puerto Rican Independence Party, Rubén Berríos. According to the Senate Energy & Natural Resources Committee leadership, the four options are the continuation of the current commonwealth status, subject to the territorial clause (under Article IV of the Constitution) Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery, statehood, independence, and free association. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R.2499, killing the bill. The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggests a two-plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth." [126] The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba's delegate on June 20, 2011 Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence." In October 2011, Governor Luis Fortuño set August 12, 2012 to hold the first part of a two-step status plebiscite. If a second status vote is required, it will take place on the same day as the general election in November 6, 2012, he added. A bill was brought before the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico in 2011 to effect the governor's proposal Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. The bill passed on December 28, 2011. Rather than hold two referendums for both questions, however, one referendum posing both questions will be held on a single ballot on November 6, 2012, simultaneous with the general elections. The first referendum will ask voters whether they want to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution or whether they prefer a nonterritorial option. A second question on the same ballot will simultaneously give people three status options Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery: statehood, independence or free association (this last one translated as "Estado Libre Asociado Soberano" or a state of sovereign free association) .[129] Both President Barack Obama and 2012 Presidential candidate Mitt Romney have promised to support Puerto Rican statehood if that option is chosen by the voters in Puerto Rico. Main article: Geography of Puerto Rico Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L batterySee also: Geology of Puerto Rico and Fauna of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these last five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other even smaller islands including Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra and is connected to the main island by bridges. Map of Puerto Rico The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km2 (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km2 (1,900 sq mi) is water.[133] The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi) Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery. Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of Jamaica,[135] just over 18% of the size of Hispaniola and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles. Puerto Rico is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,339 meters (4,393 ft) Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery, is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft). Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central.[138] Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Coast scene at Patillas, Puerto Rico Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks.[139] Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla and was accompanied by a tsunami. The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 280 km (170 mi) long. At its deepest point Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep, or about 5.2 miles. Located in the tropics, Puerto Rico has an average temperature of 82.4 °F (28 °C) throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 °F (19 °C) and maximum of 85.4 °F (30 °C). Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. The hurricane season spans from June to November. The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been 39 °F (4 °C), registered in Aibonito.[143] The average yearly precipitation is 1687mm.[144] Species endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. Sony VAIO PCG-51312L batteryThe most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, and from which it gets its name. Most Coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km2 (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve[146] contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico. Administrative divisions Sony VAIO PCG-51211L batteryAs an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. Government, but there are 78 municipalities at the secondary level which function as counties. Municipalities are further subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for four year terms Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. The first municipality (previously called "town") of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century two more municipalities were established, San Germán (1570) and Coamo (1579). Three more municipalities were established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614), Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692) Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. The 18th and 19th century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico with 30 municipalities being established in the 18th century and 34 more in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century with the last, Florida, being founded in 1971. Milla de Oro is a major financial center in Puerto Rico. In the early 20th century the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. In the late 1940s a series of projects codenamed Operation Bootstrap encouraged a significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto Rico is classified as a "high income country" by the World Bank. Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression because of external investment in capital-intensive industries such as petrochemicals Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery, pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930–1940, 31,000 for 1946–1950, 45,000 for 1951–1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953 Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico. On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery, and 95,762 people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history.[151] On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15, 2006, a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7% Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. View of the La Concha, one of the newly refurbished hotels, from the beach in Condado Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999, an estimated 5 million tourists visited the island, most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these are cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism projects Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery, such as the Puerto Rico Convention Center, indicate the current strength of the tourism industry. In 2009, tourism accounted for nearly 7% of the islands' gross national product.[153] Puerto Ricans had median household income of $18,314 for 2009, which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent nations of Latvia or Poland. Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery By comparison, the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi, had median household income of $36,646 in 2009.[154] Nevertheless, Puerto Rico's GDP per capita compares favorably to other independent Caribbean nations, and is one of the highest in North America. See List of North American countries by GDP per capita Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery. Puerto Rico's public debt has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.[155] In January 2009, Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit,[156] including laying off 12,505 government employees. Puerto Rico's unemployment rate was 15.9 percent in January 2010. Some analysts said they expect the government's layoffs to propel that rate to 17 percent Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. In November 2010, Gov. Fortuño proposed a tax reform plan that would be implemented in a six-year period, retroactive to January 1, 2010. The first phase, applicable to year 2010, reduces taxes to all individual taxpayers by 7–15%. By year 2016, average relief for individual taxpayers will represent a 50% tax cut and a 30% cut for corporate taxpayers, whose tax rate will be lowered from 41 to 30% Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. Businesses and consumers in Puerto Rico are subjected to economic discrimination by many U.S. and multinational companies that limit access to products or offer them at higher prices to businesses and consumers located in Puerto Rico. For example, Apple does not include K-12 or post-secondary educational institutions in their national pricing program offering discounts to teachers and students and special pricing for institutional purchases. Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery Likewise, Minneapolis-based Best Buy does not allow residents of Puerto Rico to purchase goods on their website, which may be purchased from the 50 states, Guam and the United States Virgin Islands, but invites potential customers to skirt their own rules: "Now you can order items online and ship them to a U.S. address* Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery– or pick them up at a U.S. store. International orders may be shipped to street addresses in the U.S., U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, along with AFO/FPO mailing address." At the same time, the latest report by the President Task Force on Puerto Rico Status recognizes that the status question and the economy are intimately linked. Many participants in the forums conducted by the Task Force argued that uncertainty about status is holding Puerto Rico back in economic areas Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. And although there are a number of economic actions that should be taken immediately or in the short term, regardless of the ultimate outcome of the status question, identifying the most effective means of assisting the Puerto Rican economy depends on resolving the ultimate question of status. In short, the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. Demographics The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and Puerto Rico's status as unincorporated territory of the United States. Population and racial makeup The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Puerto Rico was 3,706,690 on July 1, 2011, a 0.51% decrease since the 2010 United States Census Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. Continuous European immigration during the 19th century helped the population grow from 155,000 in 1800 to almost a million at the close of the century. A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858 gives the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 341,015 as Free colored; 300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves. Sony VAIO PCG-7173L batteryDuring the 19th century hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese, and Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery. Other settlers included Irish, Scots, Germans, Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815"), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they agreed to pay taxes and continue to support the Catholic Church Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color. However, the 2000 United States Census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans self-identified as White and few declared themselves to be Black or some other race.[165] A recent study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that around 52.6% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA. Sony VAIO PCG-7162L batteryImmigration and emigration Population density, Census 2000 Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only the Dominican Republic, but from other Latin American countries. These include Cuba, Colombia, and Venezuela, as well as surrounding Caribbean islands, Haiti, Barbados, and the U.S. Virgin Islands among them Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfare, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined, and Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration" Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. Distribution The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 395,326 people. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Languages The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. English is taught as a second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and at the university level. Main article: Puerto Rican Spanish The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional impact on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in present-day Canary Islands. As a result of the natural inclusion of indigenous vocabulary in all New World former European colonies (English, French, Spanish, Dutch, etc.) Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery, the Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomenon or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, African-attributed words exist in the contexts of foods, music or dances, developed in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of former Sub-Saharan slaves Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Main article: English in Puerto Rico According to a study by the University of Puerto Rico, nine of every ten Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico do not speak English at an advanced level.[169] More recently, according to the 2005–2009 Population and Housing Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico, among people at least five years old living in Puerto Rico in 2005–2009, 95 percent spoke a language other than English at home Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Of those speaking a language other than English at home, 100 percent spoke Spanish and less than 0.5 percent spoke some other language; 85 percent reported that they did not speak English "very well." Front entrance of the Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Juan Bautista: Many religious beliefs now are represented in the island Sony VPCW21C7E batteryThe Roman Catholic Church has historically been the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including the first diocese of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511.[171] One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center or "plaza" Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery. Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish regime, has spread under American rule, making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional. The first Protestant church, Holy Trinity Church in Ponce, was established by the Anglican diocese of Antigua in 1872. In 1872, German settlers in Ponce founded the Iglesia Santísima Trinidad, an Anglican Church, the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. There is also an Eastern Orthodox community in Puerto Rico, The Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos/ St. Spyridon's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. The congregation represents Greeks, Russians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Americans, Moldavians, and Puerto Ricans. Sony VPCW12S1E/T batteryIn 1940, Juanita Garcia Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin.[176] Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería and/or Ifá Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery, and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form of African traditional religion. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island's first synagogue in the former residence of William Korber, a wealthy Puerto Rican of German descent, which was designed and built by Czech architect Antonin Nechodoma. The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery, hired its first rabbi in 1954.[179] Puerto Rico now is home to the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3,000, and is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented. In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13% of the population There were eight mosques spread throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Rio Piedras Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. In 2011, there were 26,546 Jehovah's Witnesses, representing about 0.72% of the population, with 329 congregations.[185] The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico. Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents, including African, Taíno (Amerindians), Spanish, and more recently, North American Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery. From the Spanish Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial", a smaller organism that was founded in Fajardo three years before Sony VPCYA1S1E/B battery. Kapok tree (Ceiba), the national tree of Puerto Rico Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the country as a whole, Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other cultures with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable. However, the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery. The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the Reinita mora or Puerto Rican Spindalis (a type of bird), the Flor de Maga (a type of flower), and the Ceiba or Kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "jíbaro", the "countryman", and the carite Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals and the Caribbean Series, winning fourteen times. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively. Sony VPCY21S1E/G batteryBoxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, as well as three boxers that finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and its the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others. The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions Sony VPCY11S1E battery, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games. August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92–73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery, Greece.[192] Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top-level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930. Puerto Rico Islanders fans at game Miscellaneous practices of this sport have experienced some success, including the "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.[193] Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers.[194] Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Sony VPCZ21M9E battery Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, made history in 1995, when he became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.[196] The Puerto Rico Islanders Football Club, founded in 2003, plays in the United Soccer Leagues First Division, which constitutes the second tier of football in North America. Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008 the archipelago's first unified league Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established. Secondary sports include Professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally Sony VPCZ21V9E battery. Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rican athletes have won six medals (one silver, five bronze) in Olympic competition, the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas Sony VPCEH3T9E battery. On March 2006 San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. The Central American and Caribbean Games were held in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez. The first school in Puerto Rico and the first school in the United States after Puerto Rico became a US territory, was the Escuela de Gramatica (Grammer School) Sony VPCEH3N6E battery. The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology. Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels—Primary (elementary school grades 1–6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7–12) Sony VPCEH3N1E battery, and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.[198] According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher Sony VPCEH3D0E battery. Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels, students may attend either public or private schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools Sony VPCEH3B1E battery and 569 private schools in the island.[citation needed] The largest and oldest university system in Puerto Rico is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este Sony VPCEH2Z1E battery, the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and four Law Schools. Tren Urbano at Bayamón Station Main article: Transportation in Puerto Rico Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department Sony VPCEH2S9E battery. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses). The island has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla Sony VPCEH2Q1E battery, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean, and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement.[200] Puerto Rico has 9 ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. Sony VPCEH2P0E battery The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty-foot containers (TEUs) per year. Trinidad and Tobago officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic state[4] in the southern Caribbean, lying just off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and south of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. It shares maritime boundaries with other nations including Barbados to the northeast, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west Sony VPCEH2N1E battery. The country covers an area 5,128 square kilometres (1,980 sq mi)[7] and consists of two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms. Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the main islands, comprising about 94% of the total area and 96% of the total population of the country. The nation lies outside the hurricane belt Sony VPCEH2M9E battery. The island of Trinidad was a Spanish colony from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1498 to the capitulation of the Spanish Governor, Don José Maria Chacón, on the arrival of a British fleet of 18 warships on 18 February 1797.[8] During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers Sony VPCEH2M1E battery. Trinidad and Tobago was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens.[9] The country obtained independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976. Unlike most of the English-speaking Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago's economy is primarily industrial,[10] with an emphasis on petroleum and petrochemicals. Trinidad and Tobago is known for its Carnival and is the birthplace of steelpan,[11] calypso, soca, chutney and limbo Sony VPCEH2L9E battery. Historian E.L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad’s Amerindian name was Iere, derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does. Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island.[citation needed] Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad" Sony VPCEH2J1E battery ("The Island of the Trinity"), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration.[15] Tobago's cigar-like shape may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly its Amerindian names of Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail),[14] although the English pronunciation is /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/, rhyming with plumbago and sago. Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Amerindians of South American origin Sony VPCEH2H1E battery. Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,000 years ago, making it the earliest-settled part of the Caribbean. Ceramic-using agriculturalists settled Trinidad around 250 BC, and then moved further up the Lesser Antillean chain. At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan-speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban-speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi Sony VPCEH2F1E battery. Parlatuvier Bay, a popular tourist destination in Tobago. Christopher Columbus encountered the island of Trinidad on 31 July 1498. Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men in the 1530s as a means of controlling the Orinoco and subduing the Warao.[16] Sedeno and his men fought the native Carib Indians on many occasions Sony VPCEH2E0E battery, and subsequently built a fort. Cacique Wannawanare (Guanaguanare) granted the St Joseph area to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen in 1592, and then withdrew to another part of the island.[14] San José de Oruña (St Joseph) was established by Antonio de Berrío on this land. Sir Walter Raleigh, searching for the long-rumored "City of Gold" in South America, arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595 and soon attacked San José and Sony VPCEH2D0E battery captured and interrogated de Berrío, obtaining much information from him and from the cacique Topiawari.[16] In the 1700s, Trinidad belonged as an island province to the Viceroyalty of New Spain together with Central America, present-day Mexico and Southwestern United States.[17] However, Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with their handful of slaves and a few thousand Amerindians. Sony VPCEH2C0E batterySpanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous. Because Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783. This Cédula de Población was more generous than the first of 1776, and granted free lands to Roman Catholic foreign settlers and their slaves in Trinidad willing to swear allegiance to the Spanish king.[18] The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares/32 acres) for each man Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery, woman and child and half of that for each slave brought. As a result, Scots, Irish, German, Italian and English families arrived. Protestants benefited from Governor Don José María Chacon's generous interpretation of the law.[citation needed] The French Revolution (1789) also had an impact on Trinidad's culture, as it resulted in the emigration of Martiniquan planters and their slaves to Trinidad where they established an agriculture-based economy (sugar and cocoa) for the island Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery. The population of Port of Spain increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in five years, and the inhabitants in 1797 consisted of people of mixed race, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility.[17] The total population of Trinidad in 1797 was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour", 10,009 were slaves and 1,082 Amerindians Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery. In 1797, General Sir Ralph Abercromby and his squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas. The Spanish Governor Chacon decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws.[17] The conquest and formal ceding of Trinidad in 1802 led to an influx of settlers from England or the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean Sony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. The sparse settlement and slow rate of population increase during Spanish rule and even after British rule made Trinidad one of the less-populated colonies of the West Indies with the least developed plantation infrastructure. Under British rule, new estates were created and slave importation increased to facilitate development of the land into highly profitable sugarcane estates Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery, but mass importation of slaves was still limited and hindered, arguably, by abolitionist efforts in Britain. The Abolitionist movement[19] and/or the decreased economic viability of slavery as a means of procuring labour[20] both resulted in the abolition of slavery in 1833 via the Slavery Abolition Act 1845 (citation 3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73), which was followed by its substitution by an "apprenticeship" period Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. This was also abolished in 1838, with full emancipation being granted on 1 August. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having less than 10 slaves each. Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T batteryIn contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.[21] Upon emancipation, therefore, the incipient plantation owners were in severe need of labour, and the British filled this need by instituting a system of indenture. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including Chinese, Portuguese and Indians. Of these Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery, the Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first shipment to Trinidad on the Fatel Rozack, a Muslim-owned vessel[22] Indentureship of the Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, over which more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations. Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P batteryThey added what was initially the second-largest population grouping to the young nation, and their labour developed previously underdeveloped plantation lands. The indenture contract was exploitative, such that historians including Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery". Persons were contracted for a period of five years with a daily wage Sony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery (25 cents in the early 20th century), after which they were guaranteed return passage to India. Coercive means were often used to obtain labourers, however, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years after the planters complained they were losing their labour too early Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery. In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement; however, the numbers of people who did receive land grants is unclear.[24] Indians entering the colony were also subject to particular crown laws which segregated them from the rest of the Trinidad population Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery, such as the requirement that they carry a "Pass" on their person once off the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers" or certificate indicating completion of the indentureship period.[25] Despite this, however, the ex-Indentureds came to constitute a vital and significant section of the population, as did the ex-slaves Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. The cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to the economic earnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After the collapse of the cacao crop (due to disease and the Great Depression), petroleum increasingly came to dominate the economy. The collapse of the sugarcane industry concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery, and encouraged the rise of the Labour movement in the 1920 -1930 period. This was led by Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler, who, in combination with his Indian partners (notably Adrian Cola Rienzi), aimed to unite the working class and agricultural labouring class to achieve a better standard of living for all, as well as to hasten the departure of the British. This effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British-educated Trinidadian elite Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy themselves. They instigated a vicious race politicking in Trinidad that aimed at dividing the class-based movement on race-based lines, and they succeeded, especially since Butler's support collapsed from the top down. The Depression and the rise of the oil economy led to changes in the social structure. By the 1950s Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery, petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population. Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon in 1498, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island.[26] The present name of Tobago is thought to be a corruption of its old name, "Tobaco". Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W batteryA view from Pigeon Point, Tobago over to Nomansland The Dutch and the Courlanders (people from the small duchy of Courland and Semigallia in modern-day Latvia) established themselves in Tobago in the 16th and 17th centuries and produced tobacco and cotton. Over the centuries, Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery. Britain consolidated its hold on both islands during the Napoleonic Wars, and they were combined into the colony of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889. As a result of these colonial struggles, Amerindian, Spanish, French and English place names are all common in the country. African slaves and Chinese, Indian, Tamil and free African indentured labourers, as well as Portuguese from Madeira, arrived to supply labour in the nineteenth and early twentieth century Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery. Emigration from Barbados and the other Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, Syria, and Lebanon also impacted on the ethnic make-up of the country. Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1962. Eric Williams, a noted Caribbean historian, widely regarded as "The Father of The Nation," was the first Prime Minister; he served from 1956, before independence, until his death in 1981 Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery. The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II profoundly changed the character of society. In the post-war period, the wave of decolonisation that swept the British Empire led to the formation of the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence. Chaguaramas was the proposed site for the federal capital. The Federation dissolved after the withdrawal of Jamaica and the government chose to seek independence on its own Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. In 1976, the country severed its links with the British monarchy and became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the British Privy Council as its final Court of Appeal. Between the years 1972 and 1983, the Republic profited greatly from the rising price of oil, as the oil-rich country increased its living standards greatly. In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, formerly known as Lennox Phillip, stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, and held the country's government hostage for six days before surrendering. Since 2003, the country has entered a second oil boom, a driving force which the government hopes to use to turn the country's main export back to sugar and agriculture. Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C batteryGreat concern was raised in August 2007 when it was predicted that this boom would last only until 2018. Petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have begun to diversify the island.[27] The bulk of tourist arrivals on the islands are from Western Europe Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery. Main article: Politics of Trinidad and Tobago The Red House: Trinidad and Tobago's Parliament Chamber 2008 (undergoing renovations). Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two-party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the President, currently George Maxwell Richards Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery. The head of government is the Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar. The President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament. The Prime Minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years. The President is required to appoint the leader of the party who in his opinion has the most support of the members of the House of Representatives to this post Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the previous election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections). Tobago also has its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the Tobago House of Assembly. The Parliament consists of two chambers, the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats). Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery The members of the Senate are appointed by the president. Sixteen Government Senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators are appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post" system Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery. From 24 December 2001 to 24 May 2010, the governing party has been the People's National Movement (PNM) led by Patrick Manning; the Opposition party was the United National Congress (UNC) led by Basdeo Pandey. Another recent party was the Congress of the People, or COP, led by Winston Dookeran Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery. Support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority Afro-Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo-Trinidadian support. COP gained 23% of the votes in the 2007 general elections but failed to win a seat. Prior to 24 May 2010, the PNM held 26 seats in the House of Representatives and the UNC Alliance (UNC-A) held 15 seats, following elections held on 5 November 2007 Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery. Basdeo Panday became the first Indo-Trinidadian prime minister in 1995. After just two and a half years, Prime Minister Patrick Manning dissolved Parliament in April 2010, and called a general election on 24 May 2010. After these general elections, the new governing coalition is the People's Partnership led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar. Persad-Bissessar and “the People’s Partnership” wrested power from the Patrick Manning-led PNM Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery, taking home 29 seats to the PNM’s 12 seats, based on preliminary results. There are 14 municipal corporations (two cities, three boroughs, and nine regions), which have a limited level of autonomy. The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are due to be held every three years, but have not been held since 2003, four extensions having been sought by the government Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. Trinidad and Tobago is a leading member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), of which only the Caribbean Single Market (CSM) is in force. It is also the seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which was inaugurated on 16 April 2005 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery. The CCJ is intended to replace the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final Appellate Court for the member states of the CARICOM. Since its inauguration, only two states, Barbados and Guyana, have acceded to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. The CCJ also serves as an original jurisdiction in the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, to which all members of CARICOM have acceded Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery. Administrative divisions Trinidad is split into 14 regional corporations and municipalities, consisting of 9 regions and 5 municipalities and administered by the Municipal Corporations Act 21 of 1990 and its amendments. The island of Tobago is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly: Military Main article: Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard members during a practice exercise at Staubles Bay in Chaguaramas for the arrival of Prince Charles in 2008 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago's independence from Britain, the TTDF is one of the largest military forces in the English-speaking Caribbean. Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P batteryIts mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfillment of its national and international objectives". The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the 1990 Coup Attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996 Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery. Mayaro Beach in the south-eastern area of Trinidad Trinidad and Tobago are southeasterly islands of the Antilles, situated between 10° 2' and 11° 12' N latitude and 60° 30' and 61° 56' W longitude. At the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) off the Venezuelan coast. Covering an area of 5,128 km2 (1,980 sq mi), the country consists of the two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery – including Chacachacare, Monos, Huevos, Gaspar Grande (or Gasparee), Little Tobago, and St. Giles Island. Trinidad is 4,768 km2 (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0% of the country's total area) with an average length of 80 km (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi). Tobago has an area of about 300 km2 (120 sq mi), or 5.8% of the country's area, is 41 km (25 mi) long and 12 km (7.5 mi) at its greatest width Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America. However, the Caribbean islands are generally considered to be part of North America, and as the language and cultural links of Trinidad and Tobago are not to South America, but to the rest of the English-speaking Caribbean nations, the nation is often treated as part of North America Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery. Although it is located just offshore from South America, Trinidad and Tobago is generally included as part of the West Indies by virtue of its geographical and historical heritage in the Caribbean. Hillside along Diego Martin The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains. The highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery. As the majority of the population live in Trinidad, this is the location of most major towns and cities. There are three major municipalities in Trinidad: Port of Spain, the capital, San Fernando, and Chaguanas. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East-West Corridor are the most fertile Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery. The Chaconia (Warszewiczia coccinea) is the national flower of Trinidad and Tobago. The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (East-West Corridor and Caroni Plains) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift. The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. It consists of several chains of hills, most famous being the Trinity Hills. The rocks consist of sandstones Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery, shales and siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area. The climate is tropical. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first six months of the year, and the wet season in the second half of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike most of the other Caribbean islands Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery, both Trinidad and Tobago have frequently escaped the wrath of major devastating hurricanes, including Hurricane Ivan, the most powerful storm to pass close to the islands in recent history, in September 2004. Record temperatures for Trindad and Tobago are 38°C (100.4°F) for the high in Port of Spain and -15°C (5°F) on El Cerro Del Aripo for the low. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R batteryBeing so close to continental South America, the biological diversity of Trinidad and Tobago is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much in common with Venezuela. That biodiversity is distributed through the following main ecosystems: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds), forest, freshwater (rivers and streams) Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery, karst, man-made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest), and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country's contribution to biodiversity conservation. The importance of biodiversity to the well-being of the country's people through provision of ecosystem services was formally acknowledged. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P batteryInformation about vertebrates is good, with 467 bird species (1 endemic), more than 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (1 endemic), about 30 amphibians (1 endemic), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish. Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies, at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone)[32] and 40 corals[31] have been recorded Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. Although the list is far from complete, 1647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded. The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[36] A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species. Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W batteryInformation about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded.[31] The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher. Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded. Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R batteryTrinidad is one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 High Income countries in the world. It has one of the highest GDP per capita of USD $20,300 (2011) in the Caribbean.[38] In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of Developing Countries. Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery Trinidad's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, although not proportionately as important as in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus, cocoa, and other products Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Recent growth has been fueled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminum, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning. Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food and beverages, as well as cement to the Caribbean region Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery. Graphical depiction of Trinidad and Tobago's product exports in 28 color coded categories. Oil and gas account for about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment. The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus.[7] The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single-sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery. It has become the leading exporter of LNG to the United States, and now supplies some 70% of U.S. LNG imports.[40] Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2007, natural gas production averaged 4 billion cubic feet per day (110,000,000 m3/d), compared with 3.2×106 cu ft/d (91,000 m3/d) in 2005. In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG fourth production module or "train" for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Train 4 has increased Atlantic LNG's overall output capacity by almost 50% and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons/year of LNG. Trinidad and Tobago's infrastructure is good by regional standards.[original research?] The international airport in Trinidad was expanded in 2001. There is an extensive network of paved roads with several good four and six lane highways including one controlled access expressway Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. The Ministry of Works estimates that an average Trinidadian spends about four hours in traffic per day. Emergency services are reliable, but may suffer delays in rural districts. Private hospitals are available and reliable.[citation needed] Utilities are fairly reliable in the cities. Some areas, however, especially rural districts, still suffer from water shortages Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. Telephone service is relatively modern and reliable.[original research?][citation needed] Cellular service is widespread and has been the major area of growth for several years. Telecommunications Services of Trinidad and Tobago Limited (generally known as TSTT) is the largest telephone and Internet service provider in Trinidad and Tobago. The company, which is jointly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago and Cable & Wireless (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery), was formed out of a merger of Telco (Trinidad and Tobago Telephone Company Limited) and Textel (Trinidad and Tobago External Telecommunications Company Limited). TSTT no longer holds a monopoly in fixed-line telephone services due to Flow introducing a fixed-line service of their own, and their cellular monopoly was broken in June 2005 when licences were granted to Digicel and Laqtel. Laqtel however never started business (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). Intersection of Churchill–Roosevelt Highway & Uriah Butler Highway 2009 The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a network of roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and commercial airports on both islands. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery)The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco. It was opened on 8 January 1931. Elevated at 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the 5th Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of[42] 14 second-level aircraft gates with loading bridges from the aircraft to the terminal building for international flights, two ground-level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery). Piarco International Airport was voted the Caribbean’s leading airport for customer satisfaction and operational efficiency at the prestigious World Travel Awards (WTA),[43] held in the Turks and Caicos in 2006.[44] In 2008 the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million. As of December 2006, nineteen international airlines operated out of Piarco and offered flights to twenty-seven international destinations (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US$50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6–12 month transition period to follow. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery)As of 2005, most (96%) of the country's 1.3 million inhabitants reside on the island of Trinidad with the remainder (4%) in Tobago. The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration.[46] Two major ethnic groups, Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians and Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonians, account for almost 80% of the population (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery), while people of mixed race, European, Chinese, Syrian–Lebanese and Amerindian descent make up most of the rest of the population. Many different religions are present in Trinidad and Tobago. Among Christian denominations (65.7%) are Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Seventh-day Adventists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Jehovah's Witnesses and other Evangelical groups. Other religious groups include Hindus (25.6%) and Muslims (6.6%) (2000 census). ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery) Two African syncretic faiths, the Shouter or Spiritual Baptists and the Orisha faith (formerly called Shangos, a less than complimentary term) are among the fastest growing religious groups. Similarly, there is a noticeable increase in numbers of a number of evangelical and fundamentalist churches usually lumped as "Pentecostal" by most Trinidadians (although this designation is often inaccurate) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery). A small Judaic community exists, as well as several other Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism are followed by the Chinese community. There is also a small Baha'i community. English is the country's official language, Spanish is the official secondary language. (the local variety of standard English is known as Trinidadian English), but the main spoken language is either of two English-based creole languages (Trinidadian Creole or Tobagonian Creole) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery) which reflects the Indian, African and European (including Spanish) heritage of the nation. Both creoles contain elements from a variety of African languages; Trinidadian Creole, however, is also influenced by French.[48] Spanish is estimated to be spoken by around 5% of the population. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery) Most of the Indian arrivals spoke Bhojpuri and attempts are being made to preserve this, including the promotion of an Indo-Trinidadian musical form called Pichakaree, which is typically sung in a mixture of English, Hindi and Bhojpuri. Some Indians speak Tamil also in Trinidad. Main article: Education in Trinidad and Tobago Children generally start pre-school at the early age of two and a half years. This level of tuition is not mandatory but most children start school at this stage as children are expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery). Students proceed to a primary school at the age of 5 years. Seven years are spent in primary school. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee. Tertiary education is also free for all, up to the level of the Bachelors degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery), the University of the Southern Caribbean (USC), the College of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidises some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery). Members of a Costume band parade on the streets of Port of Spain during its pre-Lenten Carnival Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan, which is widely claimed in Trinidad and Tobago to be the only acoustic musical instrument invented during the 20th century.[50] Trinidad is also the birthplace of Soca, Chutney, Parang( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery), and Carnival (in the form that has been widely copied in the Caribbean and around the world). The diverse cultural and religious background also allows for many festivities and ceremonies throughout the year. Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize-winning authors, V.S. Naipaul and St Lucian-born Derek Walcott (who founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, working and raising a family in Trinidad for much of his career) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery). Edmundo Ros, the "King of Latin American Music", was born in Port of Spain. Designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes, but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 Football World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). Geoffrey Holder, brother of Boscoe Holder, and Heather Headley are two Trinidad-born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award as well. Recording artists Billy Ocean and Nicki Minaj are also Trinidadian. Interestingly, four actors who appeared on Will Smith's sitcom "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air" are Trinidadian: Tatyana Ali, Alfonso Ribeiro( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery), and Karyn Parsons were series regulars as Will's cousins Ashley, Carlton and Hillary respectively, while Nia Long played Will's girlfriend Lisa. Foxy Brown, Dean Marshall, Sommore, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Gabrielle Reece, pop singer Haddaway, and Tracy Quan are all of Trinidadian descent.[51] Trinidad & Tobago also has the distinction of being the smallest country to have two Miss Universe titleholders: Janelle Commissiong in 1977 and Wendy Fitzwilliam in 1998( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men's 100 m dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948,[52] and most recently, a gold medal by Keshorn Walcott in the men's javelin throw in 2012( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics with eight in total – four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon is the only world champion Trinidad and Tobago has produced to date in athletics. He won the 1997 200 m sprint World Championship in Athens. Swimmer George Bovell III has also won a bronze medal in the Men's 200m IM in 2004( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Also in 2012 Lalonde Gordon competed in the XXX Summer Olympics where he won a Bronze Medal in the 400 meters, being surpassed by Luguelin Santos of the Dominican Republic and Kirani James of Grenada. Keshorn Walcott ( as stated above ) came first in javelin and obtained a Gold medal making him the second Trinidadian in all of Trinidad and Tobago's history to obtain one( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery), this also makes him the first western athlete since about 40 years ago to obtain Gold in the javelin sport, and the first athlete from the country to win a gold medal in a field event in the Olympics. See also: Cricket in the West Indies and Trinidad and Tobago national cricket team Cricket is one of the most popular sports of Trinidad and Tobago, with intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery), One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first-class level in regional competitions. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings and other records, was born in a small town of Santa Cruz( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery), Trinidad and Tobago and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded as one of the best batsmen ever to have played the game, and is one of the most famous sporting icons in the country. Main article: Football in Trinidad and Tobago The national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the smallest country ever (in terms of population) to qualify( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery). The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian-born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game – against Sweden in Dortmund, 0–0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0–2. They were eliminated after losing 2–0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group Stage. Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery), T&T came agonisingly close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions.[53] Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1–0. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery)Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup. Other sports Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery). Rugby Union is played in Trinidad and Tobago. Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Rugby continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country. There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball/Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize.[6] The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea( Dell N3010 battery). Honduras was home to several important indigenous cultures, most notably the Maya. Much of the country was conquered by Spain which introduced its now predominant language and many of its customs in the sixteenth century. It became independent in 1821 and has been a republic since the end of Spanish rule( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery). The area of Honduras is about 112,492 km² and the population exceeds eight million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone. Honduras is most notable for production of minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, sugar cane and recently for export of clothing in the international market( Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery). Higueras – a reference to the gourds that come from the Jicaro tree, many of which were found floating in the waters off the northwest coast of Honduras. Honduras – literally "depths" in Spanish. Columbus is traditionally quoted as having written "Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras" (English: "Thank God we have come out of those depths") while along the northeastern coast.[7] However, William Davidson notes that there is no form of this quotation in the primary documents of Columbus's voyage( Dell Inspiron 1200 battery), and that it in fact comes from accounts over a century later. Honduras from fondura, a Leonese language word meaning anchorage which is one of the first words for the region to appear on a map in the second decade of the 16th century applied to the bay of Trujillo. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province. Prior to 1580, Honduras referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. ( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery) Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the political dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. Mayan Stelae, an emblematic symbol of the Honduran Mayan civilization at Copan. Pre-colonial period In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Honduras's borders was that based in Copán( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery). Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic, the early 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Ch'orti', isolated from their Choltian linguistic peers to the west. Remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. Archaeologists have studied sites such as Naco and La Sierra in the Naco Valley, Los Naranjos on Lake Yojoa, Yarumela in the Comayagua Valley, La Ceiba and Salitron Viejo ( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery) (both now under the Cajon Dam reservoir), Selin Farm and Cuyamel in the Aguan valley, Cerro Palenque, Travesia, Curruste, Ticamaya, Despoloncal in the lower Ulua river valley, and many others. Conquest period On his fourth and the final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European to visit the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras.[10] Columbus landed near the modern town of Trujillo, in the vicinity of the Guaimoreto Lagoon( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery). In 1524 the Spanish arrived on Honduras led by Hernan Cortes, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the following two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo but most particularly by those following Alvarado. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans and Mexica armies of thousands who lived on in the region as garrisons( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery). Resistance to conquest was led in particularly by Lempira,and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spain's vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala. Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals. The Spanish ruled the region for approximately three centuries( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery). Colonial period Honduras was organized as a province of the "Kingdom of Guatemala" and the capital was fixed, first at Trujillo on the Atlantic coast, and later at Comayagua, and finally at Tegucigalpa in the central part of the country. Silver mining was a key factor in the Spanish conquest and settlement of Honduras.[11] Initially the mines were worked by local people through the encomienda system( Dell inspiron 1525 battery), but as disease and resistance made this less available, slaves from other parts of Central America were brought in, and following the end of the local slave trading period at the end of the sixteenth century, African slaves, mostly from Angola were obtained.[12] After about 1650, very few slaves or other outside workers arrived in Honduras( Dell inspiron 1526 battery). Although the Spanish conquered the southern or Pacific portion of Honduras fairly quickly they were less successful in the northern or Atlantic side. They managed to found a few towns along the coast, at Puerto Caballos and Trujillo in particular, but failed to conquer the eastern portion of the region and many pockets of independent indigenous people as well( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery). The Miskito Kingdom, located in the northeast was particularly effective in resisting conquest. The Miskitos, in turn found support from northern European privateers, pirates and especially the English colony of Jamaica, which placed much of it under their protection after 1740. Fortaleza de San Fernando de Omoa was built by the Spanish to protect the coast of Honduras from English pirates( Dell Inspiron 2000 battery). Independence and the nineteenth century Honduras became independent from Spain in 1821 and was for a time under the Mexican Empire. After 1838 it was an independent republic and held regular elections. Comayagua was the capital of Honduras until 1880, when it was transferred to Tegucigalpa. In the decades of 1840 and 1850 Honduras participated in several failed attempts to restore Central American unity, such as the Confederation of Central America (1842–1845) ( Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery), the covenant of Guatemala (1842), the Diet of Sonsonate (1846), the Diet of Nacaome (1847) and National Representation in Central America (1849–1852). Although Honduras eventually adopted the name Republic of Honduras, the unionist ideal never waned, and Honduras was one of the Central American countries that pushed hardest for the policy of regional unity. Since independence, nearly 300 small internal rebellions and civil wars have occurred in the country, including some changes of government( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery). Liberal policies favoring international trade and investment began in the 1870s, and soon foreign interests became involved first in shipping, especially tropical fruit (most notably bananas) from the north coast, and then in railway building. In 1888, a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, Tegucigalpa, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula, resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery). International influence in the 20th century In the late nineteenth century United States-based infrastructure and fruit growing companies were granted substantial land and exemptions to develop the northern regions. As a result, thousands of workers came to the north coast to work in the banana plantations and the other industries that grew up around the export industry. The banana exporting companies( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery), dominated by Cuyamel Fruit Company (until 1930), United Fruit Company, and Standard Fruit Company, built an enclave economy in northern Honduras, controlling infrastructure and creating self-sufficient, tax exempt sectors that contributed relatively little to economic growth. In addition to drawing many Central American workers to the north, the fruit companies also encouraged immigration of workers from the English-speaking Caribbean, notably Jamaica and Belize( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery), who introduced an African descended, English speaking and largely Protestant population into the country, though many left after changes in the immigration law in 1939.[13] Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Honduras joined the Allied Nations on 8 December 1941. Along with twenty-five other governments, Honduras signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery). Constitutional crises in the 1940s led to reforms in the 1950s, and as a result of one such reform, workers were given permission to organize, which led to a general strike in 1954 that paralyzed the northern part of the country for more than two months, but which led to more general reforms( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery). In 1969, Honduras and El Salvador fought what would become known as the Football War.[14] There had been border tensions between the two countries after Oswaldo López Arellano, a former president of Honduras, blamed the deteriorating economy on the large number of immigrants from El Salvador. From that point on, the relationship between the two countries grew acrimonious and reached a low when El Salvador met Honduras( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery) for a three-round football elimination match as a preliminary to the World Cup. Tensions escalated, and on 14 March 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack on the Honduras army. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire, which took effect on 20 July and brought about a withdrawal of Salvadoran troops in early August.[14] Contributing factors to the conflict were a boundary dispute and the presence of thousands of Salvadorans living in Honduras illegally( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery). After the week-long football war, as many as 130,000 Salvadoran immigrants were expelled.[15] El Salvador had agreed on a truce to settle the boundary issue, but Honduras later paid war damage costs for expelled refugees.[14] Hurricane Fifi caused severe damage while skimming the northern coast of Honduras on 18 and 19 September 1974. Melgar Castro (1975–78) and Paz Garcia (1978–82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery). In 1979, the country returned to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo assumed power. Roberto Suazo won the elections with a promise to carry out an ambitious program of economic and social development in Honduras in order to tackle the country's recession( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery). President Roberto Suazo Cordoba launched ambitious social and economic development projects, sponsored by American development aid. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. ( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery) During the early 1980s, the United States established a continuing military presence in Honduras with the purpose of supporting the Contra guerillas fighting the Nicaraguan government and also developed an air strip and a modern port in Honduras. Though spared the bloody civil wars wracking its neighbors, the Honduran army quietly waged a campaign against Marxist-Leninist militias such as Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement( Dell Inspiron 710m battery), notorious for kidnappings and bombings,[17] and many non-militants. The operation included a CIA-backed campaign of extrajudicial killings by government-backed units, most notably Battalion 316.[18] Beach at Roatán. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused such massive and widespread destruction that former Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed that fifty years of progress in the country were reversed( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). Mitch obliterated about 70% of the crops and an estimated 70–80% of the transportation infrastructure, including nearly all bridges and secondary roads. Across the country, 33,000 houses were destroyed, an additional 50,000 damaged, some 5,000 people killed, 12,000 injured – for a total loss estimated at $3 billion USD. 21st century The 2008 Honduran floods were severe and around half the country's roads were damaged or destroyed as a result( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery). In 2009, a constitutional crisis culminated in a transfer of power from the president to the head of Congress.[23] Countries all over the world, the OAS, and the UN formally and unanimously condemned the action as a coup d'état[21] and refused to recognize the de facto[24] government, though a document submitted to the United States Congress declared the ouster to be legal according to the opinion of the lawyers consulted by the Library of Congress. ( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery) In any event the Honduran Supreme Court also ruled the proceedings to be legal.The government that followed the De Facto Regime, set up a Truth Commission, Comision de la Verdad y Reconciliacion, which after more than a year of research and debate[26] concluded the ousting to be a Coup D'État "to the executive power", illegal in their opinion. ( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery) Honduras has had many leaders from several parties since gaining its independence from Spain and from Mexico; nineteen have served as president during the period when Honduras was a part of the Federal Republic of Central America. Sixty-seven men have served as president of the Republic of Honduras. The current Honduras president is President Porfirio Lobo. In addition there have been several joint governments( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery). Contemporary politics Honduras has five registered political parties: National Party (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH); Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH); Social Democrats (Partido Innovación y Unidad-Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano de Honduras: DCH); and Democratic Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last years, Honduras has had six Liberal presidents( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery): Roberto Suazo Córdova, José Azcona del Hoyo, Carlos Roberto Reina, Carlos Roberto Flores, Manuel Zelaya and Roberto Micheletti, and three Nationalists: Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero, Ricardo Maduro and Porfirio Lobo Sosa. The elections have been full of controversies, including questions about whether Azcona was born in Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand, given he was born in Panama( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery). In 1963, a military coup was mounted against the democratically elected president Ramón Villeda Morales. This event started a string of Military Governments which held power almost uninterrupted until 1981 when Suazo Córdova (LPH) was elected president and Honduras changed from a military authoritarian regime( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery). In 1986, there were five Liberal candidates and four Nationalists running for president. Because no one candidate obtained a clear majority, the so-called "Formula B" was invoked and Azcona del Hoyo became president. In 1990, Callejas won the election under the slogan "Llegó el momento del Cambio" (English: "The time for change has arrived")( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador's "ARENAs" political campaign.[citation needed] Once in office, Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment, and has been the subject of several scandals and accusations.[citation needed] It was during Flores Facusse's mandate that Hurricane Mitch hit the country and decades of economic growth were eradicated in less than a week( Dell Latitude D400 battery). Government ministries are often incapable of carrying out their mandate due to budgetary constraints. In an interview with Rodolfo Pastor Fasquelle, Minister of Sports & Culture and one of three 'super ministers' responsible for coordinating the ministries related to public services (security and economic being the other two), published in Honduras This Week on 31 July 2006, it was related that 94% of the department budget was spent on bureaucracy and only 6% went to support activities and organizations covered by the mandate( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery). Wages within that ministry were identified as the largest budget consumer. President Maduro's administration "de-nationalized" the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of these services to the Honduran population. As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecommunications companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies. As of mid 2007, the issue of tele-communications continues to be very damaging to the current government. ( Dell Vostro 1400 battery) The country's main newspapers are La Prensa, El Heraldo, La Tribuna and Diario Tiempo. The official newspaper is La Gaceta. A Presidential and General Election was held on 27 November 2005. Manuel Zelaya of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won, with Porfirio Pepe Lobo of the National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until 7 December. ( Dell Vostro 1500 battery) Towards the end of December, the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory. Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras' new president on 27 January 2006. Zelaya precipitated a national crisis by trying to hold a non-binding national referendum to ask the Honduran people: "Do you agree that, during the general elections of November 2009 there should be a fourth ballot to decide whether to hold a Constituent National Assembly that will approve a new political constitution?" ( Dell XPS M1210 battery) This possible Assembly then might not or more likely might have proposed constitutional changes to term-limits – as the military and the Supreme Court deemed possible – and other more likely, unrelated and legal constitutional changes.[33] 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis The 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis[34] resulted in an event the international community almost universally refers to as a coup d'état. The coup lasted from 28 June 2009 to 27 January 2010. President Manuel Zelaya attempted to hold a "non-binding referendum" on 28 June asking voters if the upcoming November elections should include an additional ballot box( Dell XPS M1330 battery). The ballot box would ask if the Honduran people wished to form a Constitutional Assembly in the term of the newly elected president.[35] The Supreme Court upheld a lower court ruling that found a prior referendum based on the same issue unconstitutional and prohibited it. ( Dell XPS 1340 battery) Referendum Zelaya ignored the Supreme Court and decided to proceed on the referendum, basing his decision on the Law of Citizen Participation, passed in 2006. Zelaya dismissed the head of the military command, General Romeo Vásquez Velásquez, for disobeying an order to hold the poll, but the Supreme Court ordered his reinstatement. The Supreme Court then ordered the military (who as a non-civilian force had no jurisdiction over the matter) to detain Zelaya( Dell XPS M1530 battery). The vote on the referendum was scheduled for 28 June 2009. In the early morning on that day, the army[38] arrested Zelaya at his home. Zelaya was held in a U.S. airbase outside Tegucigalpa[39] before being forcibly sent to San José, Costa Rica.[40] Zelaya attempted reentry into the country on several occasions. According to the constitution, it is illegal to expatriate any Honduran citizen.[41] Roberto Micheletti, the former President of the Honduran Congress and a member of the same party as Zelaya( Dell XPS M170 battery), was sworn in as President by the National Congress on the afternoon of Sunday 28 June[42] for a term that ended on 27 January 2010.[43] No country recognised the de facto government as legitimate; all members of the UN condemned the removal of Zelaya as a coup d'état. Some Republican Party members of the U.S. Congress voiced support at the time for the new government. ( Dell XPS M1710 battery) On 21 September 2009, Zelaya returned to Honduras and entered the Brazilian embassy. From its roof, he attempted to incite his supporters in a rebellion. The government disrupted utility services to the embassy and imposed a curfew in an attempt to maintain order in the area when Zelaya's supporters protested around the embassy( Dell XPS M1730 battery). The following day, in Decree PCM-M-016-2009, the government suspended five Constitutional rights: personal liberty (Article 69), freedom of expression (Article 72), freedom of movement (Article 81), habeas corpus (Article 84) and freedom of association and assembly. It closed a leftist radio and a television station. The decree suspending human rights was officially revoked on 19 October 2009 in La Gaceta. ( Dell XPS M2010 battery) 2009 election The presidential election on 29 November 2009 was held under a tense state of political turmoil and ongoing coup. Porfirio Lobo Sosa of the National Party of Honduras defeated the candidate of the Liberal Party of Honduras, civil engineer Elvin Ernesto Santos Ordoñez. Sosa was sworn into office as president in 2010, and declared his wish to bring order to the country and reapply for membership in the Organization of American States( Dell Latitude E5400 battery). Departments and municipalities Departmental division of Honduras See also: Departments of Honduras and Municipalities of Honduras Honduras is divided into 18 departments. The capital city is Tegucigalpa in the Central District within the department of Francisco Morazán. Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea on the north coast and the Pacific Ocean on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. It mostly lies between latitudes 13° and 17°N (a small area lies south of 13°, and the Swan Islands are north of 17°), and longitudes 83° and 90°W. The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). The Honduran territory consists mainly of mountains, but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle La Mosquitia region in the northeast, and the heavily populated lowland Sula valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia, lies the UNESCO world-heritage site Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, with the Coco River which divides the country from Nicaragua( Dell Latitude E6400 battery). The Islas de la Bahía and the Swan Islands (all off the north coast) are part of Honduras. Misteriosa Bank and Rosario Bank, 130 to 150 km (80–93 miles) north of the Swan Islands, fall within the EEZ of Honduras. The region is considered a biodiversity hotspot because of the numerous plant and animal species that can be found there. Like other countries in the region, Honduras contains vast biological resources( Dell Latitude E6500 battery). The country hosts more than 6,000 species of vascular plants, of which 630 (described so far) are orchids; around 250 reptiles and amphibians, more than 700 bird species, and 110 mammal species, half of them being bats.[50] In the northeastern region of La Mosquitia lies the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, a lowland rainforest which is home to a great diversity of life. The reserve was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List in 1982( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery). Honduras has rain forests, cloud forests (which can rise up to nearly three thousand meters above sea level), mangroves, savannas and mountain ranges with pine and oak trees, and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. In the Bay Islands there are bottlenose dolphins, manta rays, parrot fish, schools of blue tang and whale shark( Dell XPS M140 battery). The economy has continued to grow slowly, but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining low. Economic growth in the last few years has averaged 7% a year, one of the highest rates in Latin America, but 50% of the population, approximately 3.7 million people, still remains below the poverty line.[51] It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are unemployed, the rate of unemployment standing at 27.9%( Dell XPS 13 battery). According to the Human Development Index, Honduras is the sixth poorest/least developed country in Latin America, after Haiti, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Guyana, and Bolivia. Sky Residence Club, one of the tallest building in Tegucigalpa, standing at 318 feet (97 meters) in the Lomas del Mayab neighborhood. Honduras was declared one of the heavily indebted poor countries by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, and was made eligible for debt relief in 2005( Dell XPS 16 battery). The government operates both the electricity (ENEE) and land-line telephone services (HONDUTEL), as ENEE receives heavy subsidies for its chronic financial problems. HONDUTEL, however, is no longer a monopoly, as the telecommunication sector was opened to private sector on 25 December 2005, as was required under the CAFTA. The price of petroleum is controlled, and the Congress often ratifies temporary price regulations for basic commodities( Dell XPS 1640 battery). Gold, silver, lead and zinc are produced at mines owned by foreign companies.[52] After years of decline against the U.S. dollar, lempira recently stabilized at around 19 lempiras per dollar. In June 2008, the exchange rate between U.S. dollar and lempira was approximately 1 to 18.85. In 2005, Honduras signed the CAFTA, the free trade agreement with the United States. In December 2005, Puerto Cortes, the main seaport in Honduras, was included in the U.S. Container Security Initiative. ( Dell XPS 1645 battery) On 7 December 2006, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Energy announced the first phase of the Secure Freight Initiative, an unprecedented effort to build upon existing port security measures by enhancing the U.S. government’s authority to scan containers from overseas for nuclear and radiological materials to better assess the risk of inbound containers( Dell XPS 1647 battery). The initial phase of Secure Freight involves the deployment of nuclear detection and other devices to six foreign ports: Port Qasim in Pakistan; Puerto Cortes in Honduras; Southampton in the United Kingdom; Port Salalah in Oman; Port of Singapore; and the Gamman Terminal at Port Busan in Korea. Since early 2007, containers from these ports have been scanned for radiation and other risk factors before they are allowed to depart for the United States. ( Dell Latitude 131L battery) State within a state To enhance the economy, on September 4, 2012 Honduras government has signed a memorandum of understanding with a group of international investors to build a zone (city) with their own laws, tax system, judiciary and police, but the opponents tried to lodge a suit at the supreme court about it ('state within a state'). ( Dell Latitude C400 battery) Main article: Social Conditions in Honduras Over the centuries, the territory of Honduras has known a number of social systems, ranging from ancient forager groups through early complex societies to more elaborated ones, such as those of the Maya and Lenca. Spanish conquest built on these, and their traditions carried over into the post independence period( Dell Latitude C500 battery). Honduras' emergence in the late nineteenth century as a cash crop producing exporter and then its limited industrialization through the maquiladora system have brought about the conditions of today. In both 2010 and 2011, Honduras was ranked as having the highest rate of intentional homicide in the world. See also: Hondurans According to the CIA World Factbook, Honduras has a population of 8,143,564 as at July 2011; the CIA World Factbook states that the population makeup is( Dell Latitude C510 battery): "mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European) 90%, Amerindian 7%, black 2%, white 1%".[1] However, in Honduras as in Latin American countries in general, racial breakdowns of population conform to local perceptions of race, and also social status which may tend to over represent some groups and under represent others, and thus such statistics must be understood in that light( Dell Latitude C540 battery). Ninety percent of the Honduran population is Mestizo and white[1] (a mixture of Amerindian and European ancestry). About 7% of the Honduran population are members of one of the seven recognized indigenous groups. About 2% of Honduras's population is black,[1] or Afro-Honduran, and mainly reside on the country's Caribbean coast( Dell Latitude C600 battery). Most are the descendants of the slaves and indentured servants from the West Indian islands brought to Honduras. Another large group (about 150,000 today) are the Garifuna, descendants of an Afro-Carib population which revolted against British authorities on the island of St. Vincent and were forcibly moved to Belize and Honduras during the 18th century. Garífunas are part of Honduran identity through theatrical presentations such as Louvavagu( Dell Latitude C610 battery). A final group are workers brought in from the English-speaking Caribbean, primarily Jamaica and Barbados, to work on the fruit plantations started by mostly North American companies such as United Fruit Company in the late 19th and early 20th century. Honduras hosts a significant Palestinian community (the vast majority of whom are Christian Arabs).[56] The Palestinians arrived in the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, establishing themselves especially in the city of San Pedro Sula( Dell Latitude C640 battery). The Palestinian community, well integrated in Honduras, is prominent in business, commerce, banking, industry, and politics. There is also an East Asian community that is primarily Chinese descent, and to a lesser extent Japanese. Some Korean, Ryukyuan, Vietnamese and Filipino peoples also make up a small percentage due to their arrival to Honduras as contract laborers in the 1980s and 1990s( Dell Latitude C800 battery). There are also an estimated 1000 Sumos (or Mayangnas) that live in Honduras, the majority of whom reside on the Caribbean coast. Since 1975, emigration from Honduras has accelerated as job-seekers and political refugees sought a better life elsewhere. Although many Hondurans have relatives in Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, El Salvador and Canada, the majority of Hondurans living abroad are in the United States( Dell Latitude C810 battery). Cardinal Oscar Andres Rodriguez was one of the strongest candidates to become Pope after the death of John Paul II. Although most Hondurans are nominally Roman Catholic (which would be considered the main religion), according to one report, membership in the Roman Catholic Church is declining while membership in Protestant churches is increasing( Dell Latitude C840 battery). The International Religious Freedom Report, 2008, notes that a CID Gallup poll reported that 47% of the population identified themselves as Catholic, 36% as evangelical Protestant, and 17% provided no answer or considered themselves "other." Customary Catholic church tallies and membership estimates 81% Catholic where the priest (in more than 185 parishes) is required to fill out a pastoral account of the parish each year( Dell Latitude D410 battery). The CIA Factbook has Honduras listed as 97% Catholic and 3% Protestant.[1] Commenting on statistical variations everywhere, John Green of Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life notes that: "It isn't that ... numbers are more right than [someone else's] numbers ... but how one conceptualizes the group.[59] Often people attend one church without giving up their "home" church. Many who attend evangelical megachurches in the US, for example( Dell Latitude D420 battery), attend more than one church.[60] This shifting and fluidity is common in Brazil where two-fifths of those who were raised evangelical are no longer evangelical and Catholics seem to shift in and out of various churches, often while still remaining Catholic.[61] Most pollsters suggest an annual poll taken over a number of years would provide the best method of knowing religious demographics and variations in any single country( Dell Latitude D430 battery). Still, in Honduras are thriving Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, Lutheran, Latter-day Saint (Mormon) and Pentecostal churches. There are Protestant seminaries. The Catholic Church, still the only "church" that is recognized, is also thriving in the number of schools, hospitals, and pastoral institutions (including its own medical school) that it operates( Dell Latitude D500 battery). It archbishop, Oscar Andres Rodriguez Maradiaga, is also very popular, both with the government, other churches, and in his own church. Practitioners of the Buddhist, Jewish, Islamic, Bahá'í, Rastafari and indigenous denominations and religions exist.[62] Health The fertility rate is approximately 3.7 per woman.[63] The under-five mortality rate is at 40 per 1,000 live births.[63] The health expenditure was US$ (PPP) 197 per person in 2004.[63] There are about 57 physicians per 100,000 people. ( Dell Latitude D505 battery) The most renowned Honduran painter is Jose Antonio Velásquez. Other important painters include Carlos Garay, and Roque Zelaya. Two of Honduras' most notable writers are Froylan Turcios and Ramón Amaya Amador. Others include Marco Antonio Rosa, Roberto Sosa, Lucila Gamero de Medina, Eduardo Bähr, Amanda Castro, Javier Abril Espinoza( Dell Latitude D510 battery), Teófilo Trejo, and Roberto Quesada. Some of Honduras' notable musicians include Rafael Coello Ramos, Lidia Handal, Victoriano Lopez, Guillermo Anderson, Victor Donaire, Matilde Quan, Moises Canelo,Julio Quan Francisco Carranza and Camilo Rivera Guevara. Hondurans are often referred to as Catracho or Catracha (fem) in Spanish. The word was coined by Nicaraguans and derives from the last name of the Spanish Honduran General Florencio Xatruch( Dell Latitude D520 battery), who, in 1857, led Honduran armed forces against an attempted invasion by North American adventurer William Walker. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory. The main language is Spanish, spoken by 94% as first language. Minority languages are spoken by less than 4%. These are Amerindian languages such as Garifuna, Miskito, and Pech; Honduras Sign Language; and English on the Bay Islands off the north coast( Dell Latitude D600 battery). Honduras This Week is a weekly English-language newspaper that has been published for seventeen years in Tegucigalpa. On the islands of Roatan, Utila and Guanaja, the Bay Islands Voice has been a source of monthly news since 2003. Honduran cuisine makes extensive use of coconut, in both sweet and savory foods, and even in soups( Dell Latitude D610 battery). The José Francisco Saybe theater in San Pedro Sula is home to the Círculo Teatral Sampedrano (Theatrical Circle of San Pedro Sula) Celebrations Sawdust Carpets of Comayagua During the Easter Celebrations. Some of Honduras' national holidays include Honduras Independence Day on 15 September and Children's Day or Día del Niño, which is celebrated in homes, schools and churches on 10 September; on this day, children receive presents and have parties similar to Christmas or birthday celebrations. Some neighborhoods have piñatas on the street( Dell Latitude D620 battery). Other holidays are Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Day of the Soldier (3 October to celebrate the birth of Francisco Morazán), Christmas, El Dia de Lempira on 20 July,[64] and New Year's Eve. Honduras Independence Day festivities start early in the morning with marching bands. Each band wears different colors and features cheerleaders. Fiesta Catracha takes place this same day: typical Honduran foods such as beans( Dell Latitude D630 battery), tamales, baleadas, cassava with chicharron, and tortillas are offered. On Christmas Eve, the people reunite with their families and close friends to have dinner, then give out presents at midnight. In some cities fireworks are seen and heard at midnight. On New Year's Eve there is food and "cohetes", fireworks and festivities. Birthdays are also great events, and include the famous “piñata” which is filled with candies and surprises for the children invited( Dell Latitude D800 battery). La Feria Isidra is celebrated in La Ceiba, a city located in the north coast, in the second half of May to celebrate the day of the city's patron saint Saint Isidore. People from all over the world come for one week of festivities. Every night there is a little carnaval (carnavalito) in a neighborhood. Finally, on Saturday there is a big parade with floats and displays with people from many countries. This celebration is also accompanied by the Milk Fair( Dell Latitude D810 battery), where many Hondurans come to show off their farm products and animals. In the spring is the Semana Santa religious celebration, including one of the main events of this holy week is "the one and only legal cockfight of the year". Main article: Education in Honduras See also: List of schools in Honduras In Honduras about 83.6% of the population of the country is literate. The net primary enrollment rate was 94% in 2004,[63] while in 2007 the primary school completion rate was reported to be 40%.[citation needed] Honduras has bilingual (Spanish and English) and even trilingual (Spanish, English, German/Turkish) schools[67] and numerous universities( Dell Latitude D820 battery). The university is ruled by National Autonomous University of Honduras which have centers in the most important cities in Honduras. About half of the electricity sector in Honduras is privately owned. The remaining generation capacity is run by ENEE (Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica). Key challenges in the sector are: How to finance investments in generation and transmission in the absence of either a financially healthy utility or of concessionary funds by external donors for these types of investments( Dell Latitude D830 battery); How to re-balance tariffs, cut arrears and reduce commercial losses – including electricity theft – without fostering social unrest; and How to reconcile environmental concerns with the government's objective to build two new large dams and associated hydropower plants. How to improve access in rural areas. Water supply and sanitation Water supply and sanitation in Honduras varies greatly from urban centers to rural villages. Larger population centers generally have modernized water treatment and distribution systems( Dell Latitude 2100 battery), however water quality is often poor because of lack of proper maintenance and treatment. Rural areas generally have basic drinking water systems with limited capacity for water treatment. Many urban areas have sewer systems in place for the collection of wastewater, however proper treatment of wastewater is scarce. In rural areas, sanitary facilities are generally limited to latrines and basic septic pits( Dell Latitude 2110 battery). Water and sanitation services were historically provided by Servicio Autonomo de Alcantarillas y Aqueductos (SANAA). In 2003, a new "water law" was passed which called for the decentralization of water services. With the 2003 law, local communities have the right and responsibility to own, operate, and control their own drinking water and wastewater systems( Dell Latitude E4300 battery). Since passage of the new law, many communities have joined together to address water and sanitation issues on a regional basis. Many national and international non-government organizations have a history of working on water and sanitation projects in Honduras. International groups include, but are not limited to, the Red Cross, Water 1st, Rotary Club( Dell Vostro 1310 battery), Catholic Relief Services, Water for People, EcoLogic Development Fund, CARE, CESO-SACO, Engineers Without Borders USA, Flood The Nations, SHH, Global Brigades, and Agua para el Pueblo in partnership with AguaClara at Cornell University. In addition, many government organizations working on projects include: the European Union, USAID, the Army Corps of Engineers, Cooperacion Andalucia, the government of Japan, and many others( Dell Vostro 1320 battery). Transportation in Honduras consists of the following infrastructure: 699 km of railways; 13,603 km of roadways;[1] seven ports and harbors;[citation needed] and 112 airports altogether (12 Paved, 100 unpaved).[1] Responsibility for policy in the transport sector rests with the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Housing (SOPRTRAVI after its Spanish acronym) ( Dell Vostro 1510 battery). The flag of Honduras is composed of 3 equal horizontal stripes, with the upper and lower ones being blue and representing the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The central stripe is white. It contains five blue stars representing the five states of the Central American Union. The middle star represents Honduras, located in the center of the Central American Union( Dell Vostro 1520 battery). The Coat of Arms was established in 1945. It is an equilateral triangle, at the base is a volcano between three castles, over which is a rainbow and the sun shining. The triangle is placed on an area that symbolizes being bathed by both seas. Around all of this an oval containing in golden lettering: "Republic of Honduras, Free, Sovereign and Independent"( Dell Vostro 2510 battery). The National Anthem of Honduras is a result of a contest carried out in 1914 during the presidency of Manuel Bonilla. In the end, it was the poet Augosto C. Coello that ended up writing the anthem, with the participation of German composer Carlos Hartling writing the music. The anthem was officially adopted on 15 November 1915, during the presidency of Alberto Membreño. The anthem is composed of a choir and seven stroonduran,that is very long( Dell Vostro 1014 battery). The national flower is the famous orchid, Rhyncholaelia digbyana (formerly known as Brassavola digbyana), which replaced the rose in 1969. The change of the National Flower was carried out during the administration of general Oswaldo López Arellano, thinking that Brassavola digbiana "is an indigenous plant of Honduras; having this flower exceptional characteristics of beauty, vigor and distinction", as the decree dictates it( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). The National Tree of Honduras is the Honduras Pine (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis). Also the use of the tree was regulated, "to avoid the unnecessary destructions caused by choppings or fires of forest." The National Mammal is the White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which was adopted as a measure to avoid excessive depredation. It is one of two species of deer that live in Honduras. The National Bird of Honduras is the Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) ( Dell Vostro 1015 battery). This bird was much valued by the pre-Columbian civilizations of Honduras. Wilson Palacios, one of the most well-known athletes from Honduras, plays for the Honduras national football team and for Stoke City of the English Premier League. Legends and fairy tales are paramount within the Honduras culture; Lluvia de Peces (Fish Rain) is an example of this. The legend of El Cadejo, La Llorona and La Ciguanaba (La Sucia) are also popular( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery). Tegucigalpa (Spanish pronunciation: [teɣusiˈɣalpa], formally Tegucigalpa, Municipality of the Central District Spanish: Tegucigalpa, Municipio del Distrito Central or Tegucigalpa, M.D.C.[3]), and commonly referred as Tegus,[1][8] is the capital of Honduras and seat of government of the Republic, along with its twin sister Comayagüela. ( Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery) Founded on September 29, 1578 by the Spanish,[10] it became the country's capital on October 30, 1880 under President Marco Aurelio Soto.[11] The current Constitution of Honduras, enacted in 1982, names the sister cities of Tegucigalpa[a] and Comayagüela[b] as a Central District[c] to serve as the permanent national capital, under articles 8 and 295( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). During the short-lived Constitution of the Republic of Central America of 1921, Tegucigalpa served as a Federal District and capital of then-newly formed as one nation: the states of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras.[14] After this failed attempt to maintain a Central American republic, Honduras returned to become an individual sovereign nation and on January 30, 1937, Article 179 of the 1936 Honduran Constitution was reformed under Decree 53 to established Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela as a Central District( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Tegucigalpa is located in the southern-central highland region of Honduras[16] in the department of Francisco Morazán of which it is also the departmental capital.[17] It is situated in a valley, surrounded by mountains and both Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela, being sister cities, are physically separated by the Choluteca River.[18] The Central District is the largest of the 28 municipalities in the Francisco Morazán department. ( SONY PCG-F305 battery) Tegucigalpa is Honduras' largest and most populous city as well as the nation's political and administrative center. Tegucigalpa is host to 25 foreign embassies and 16 consulates[20][21] in addition to being the home base of several state-owned entities such as ENEE and Hondutel, the national energy and telecommunications companies, respectively.[22] The city is also home to the country's most important university, the National Autonomous University of Honduras, ( SONY PCG-5J1L battery) as well as the national soccer team.[24] The capital's international airport, Toncontín, is notorious around the world for its extremely short runway for an international airport and the unusual maneuvers pilots must undertake upon landing or taking off to avoid the nearby mountains. The Central District Mayor's Office (Alcaldia Municipal del Distrito Central) is the city's governing body,[28] headed by a mayor[29] and 10 aldermen forming the Municipal Corporation (Corporación Municipal). ( SONY PCG-5J2L battery) Being the department's seat as well, the governor's office of Francisco Morazán is also located in the capital. In 2008, the city operated on an approved budget of 1.555 billion lempiras (US$82,189,029).[31] In 2009, the city government reported a revenue of 1.955 billion lempiras (US$103,512,220). (More than any other capital city in Central America, except Panama City) ( SONY PCG-5K2L battery) Tegucigalpa's infrastructure has not kept with the population growth.[32] Deficient urban planning,[33] densely condensed urbanization, and poverty[34] are ongoing problems.[35] Heavily congested roadways where current road infrastructure is unable to efficiently handle the over 400 thousand vehicles create havoc on a daily basis.[36] Both current national and local governments have taken approaches at improving or increasing infrastructure as well as to reducing poverty in the city( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). Most sources indicate that the origin and meaning of the word Tegucigalpa is derived from the Nahuatl language.[39] The most widely accepted version suggests that it comes from the Nahuatl word Taguz-galpa, which translates to cerros de plata in Spanish (hills of silver in English), but this interpretation is uncertain since the natives who occupied the region at time were unaware of the existence of mineral deposits in the area( SONY PCG-6S2L battery). Another source suggests that Tegucigalpa derives from another language in which it means painted rocks, as explained by Leticia Oyuela in her book "Minimum History of Tegucigalpa".[40] Other theories indicate it may derive from the term Togogalpa which refers to tototi (small green parrot, in Nahuatl) and Toncontín, a small town near Tegucigalpa (toncotín was a Mexican dance of Nahuatl origin) ( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). In Mexico, it is believed the word Tegucigalpa is from the Nahuatl word Tecuztlicallipan, meaning "place of residence of the noble" or Tecuhtzincalpan, meaning "place on the home of the beloved master".[43] Honduran philologist Alberto de Jesús Membreño, in his book "Indigenous Toponymies of Central America", states that Tegucigalpa is a Nahuatl word meaning "in the homes of the sharp stones" and rules out the traditional meaning "hills of silver" arguing that Taguzgalpa was the name of the ancient eastern zone of Honduras. ( SONY PCG-6V1L battery) Los Dolores Church, built 1735 Tegucigalpa was founded by Spanish settlers as Real de Minas de San Miguel de Tegucigalpa on September 29, 1578 on the site of an existing native settlement of the Pech, Tolupans and the Twahkas.[45] The first mayor of Tegucigalpa was Juan de la Cueva, who took office in 1579.[46] The Dolores Church (1735), the San Miguel Cathedral (1765), the Casa de la Moneda (1780), and the Immaculate Conception Church (1788) were some of the first important buildings constructed. ( SONY PCG-6W1L battery) Almost 200 years later, on June 10, 1762, this mining town became Real Villa de San Miguel de Tegucigalpa y Heredia under the rule of Alonso Fernández de Heredia, then-acting governor of Honduras. The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw disruption in Tegucigalpa's local government, from being extinguished in 1788 to becoming part of Comayagua in 1791 to returning to self-city governance in 1817. ( SONY PCG-7111L battery) In 1817, then-mayor Narciso Mallol started the construction of the first bridge, a ten-arch masonry, connecting both sides of the Choluteca River. Upon completion four years later, it linked Tegucigalpa with her neighbor city of Comayagüela.[49] In 1821, Tegucigalpa legally became a city.[50] In 1824, the first Congress of the Republic of Honduras, declared Tegucigalpa and Comayagua, then the two most important cities in the country, to alternate as capital of the country. ( SONY PCG-71511M battery) After October 1838, following Honduras' independence as a single Republic, the capital continued to switch back and forth between Tegucigalpa and Comayagua until October 30, 1880, when Tegucigalpa was declared the permanent capital of Honduras by then-president Marco Aurelio Soto.[11] A popular myth claims that the society of Comayagua( SONY PCG-6W3L battery), the long-time colonial capital of Honduras, publicly disliked the wife of President Soto, who took revenge by moving the capital to Tegucigalpa.[52] A more likely theory is that the change took place because President Soto was an important partner of the Rosario Mining Company, an American silver mining company, whose operations were based in San Juancito, close to Tegucigalpa, and he needed to be close to his personal interests. ( SONY PCG-7113L battery) By 1898, it was decided that both Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela, being neighbor cities on the banks of the Choluteca River, would form the capital, but with separate names and separate local governments.[54] During this period, both cities had a population of about 40,000 people. The Metropolitan Cathedral, built between 1765 and 1786. Between the 1930s and 1960s, Tegucigalpa continued to grow reaching a population of over 250,000 people, giving way to what would become one of the biggest neighborhoods in the city( SONY PCG-7133L battery), the Colonia Kennedy; the nation's autonomous university, the UNAH; and the construction of the Honduras Maya Hotel.[55] It still remained relatively small and provincial until the 1970s, when migration from the rural areas began in earnest. During the 1980s, several avenues, traffic overpasses, and large buildings were erected, a relative novelty to a city characterized until then by two-story buildings.[56] However, lacking the enforcement of city planning and zoning laws( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery), it led to highly disorganized urbanization. This lack of proper urbanization as the population has grown is evident on the surrounding slopes of the several hills in the city where some of the city's most impoverished neighborhoods have prevailed.[57] On October 30, 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated the capital, along with the rest of Honduras.[58] For five days, Mitch pounded the country creating devastating landslides and floods, causing the death of thousands as well as heavy deforestation and the destruction of thousands of homes. ( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) A portion of Comayagüela was destroyed along with several neighborhoods on both sides of the Honduran capital. After the hurricane, infrastructure in Tegucigalpa was severely severed. Even 12 years later, remnants of Hurricane Mitch are still visible specially along the banks of the Choluteca River.[60][61] Today, Tegucigalpa continues to sprawl far beyond its former colonial core: towards the east, south and west, creating a large but disorganized metropolis( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). In an effort to modernize the capital, increase its infrastructure and improve the quality of life of its inhabittants, the current administration has passed several ordinances and projects to turn the city around within the upcoming years.[62] Residential neighborhood in eastern Tegucigalpa. Tegucigalpa is located on a chain of mountains at elevations of 935 metres (3,068 ft) on its lowest points and 1,463 metres (4,800 ft) on its highest suburban areas( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery). Like most of the interior highlands of Honduras, the majority of Tegucigalpa's current area was occupied by open woodland. The area surrounding the city continues to be open woodland supporting pine forest interspersed with some oak, scrub, and grassy clearings as well as needle leaf evergreen and broadleaf deciduous forest( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery). The metropolitan area of both Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela cover a total area of 77.6 square miles (201 km2) while the entire Municipality of the Central District covers a total area of 539.1 square miles (1,396 km2).[63] Geological faults have been identified in the District's high regions surrounding the capital which are a threat to the neighborhoods on and below the hills. ( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery) The Choluteca River, which runs crossing the city from south to north, physically separates Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela.[65] El Picacho Hill, a rugged mountain of moderate height convert rises above the downtown area; several neighborhoods, both upscale residential and lower income, are located on its slopes. The city consists of gentle hills, and the ring of mountains surrounding the city tends to trap pollution.[66] During the dry season, a dense cloud of smog lingers in the basin until the first rains fall( SONY PCG-7112L battery). Tucked in a valley and bisected by a river makes Tegucigalpa prone to flooding during the rainy season, as experienced to the fullest during Hurricane Mitch and to a lesser degree every year during the rainy season. Despite being several thousand feet above sea level, the city currently lacks an efficient flood control system, including canals and sewerage powerful enough to channel rain water back into the river to flow down to the ocean( SONY PCG-6W2L battery). The river itself is a threat since it isn't deep enough below the streets nor there are levies high enough to prevent it from breaking out.[67] There are currently more than 100 neighborhoods deemed zones of high risk, several of them ruled out as uninhabitable in their entirety.[57] Parque España in Colonia Lomas del Guijarro. View of Tegucigalpa from La Leona Park. There is a reservoir, known as Embalse Los Laureles, west of the city providing 30 percent of the city's water supply as well as a water treatment plant south of the city about 7.3 kilometres (4.5 mi) from the airport( SONY PCG-5K1L battery); part of the Concepción Reservoir just 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southwest of the water plant.[68] See also: Choluteca river basin and Water management in greater Tegucigalpa The Central District shares borders with 13 other municipalities of Francisco Morazán:[19] (to the north) Cedros and Talanga; (south) Ojojona, Santa Ana, San Buenaventura and Maraita; (east) San Juan de Flores, Villa de San Francisco, Santa Lucía, Valle de Ángeles( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), San Antonio de Oriente, and Tatumbla; (and to the west) Lepaterique. It is also bordered on the west by two municipalities of the Comayagua Department, Villa de San Antonio[69] and Lamaní, with the latter exactly at the quadripoint where the Central District, Lepaterique, Villa de San Antonio and Lamaní all meet( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Teguicigalpa features a more moderate form of a tropical wet and dry climate. Of the major Central American cities, Tegucigalpa's climate is among the most pleasant due to its high altitude.[70] Like much of central Honduras, the city has a tropical climate, though tempered by the altitude—meaning less humid than the lower valleys and the coastal regions—with even temperatures averaging between 19 °C (66 °F) and 23 °C (73 °F) degrees. ( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery) The months of December and January are coolest, with an average min/ low temperature of 14 °C (57 °F); whereas March and April—popularly associated with Holy Week's holidays—are hottest and temperatures can reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) degrees on the hottest day.[72] The dry season lasts from November through April and the rainy season from May through October.[73] There is an average of 107 rainy days in the year, June and September usually the wettest months( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery). The average sunshine hours per month during the year is 211.2 and the average rainy days per month is 8.9. The average sunshine hours during the dry season is 228 per month while 182.5 millimetres (7.19 in) is the average monthly precipitation during the wet season. The wettest months of the rainy season are May—June and September—October, averaging 16.2 rainy days during each of those periods( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). Hurricane Mitch Aerial view of the capital after Hurricane Mitch, early November 1998. Main article: Hurricane Mitch Tegucigalpa, as with the rest of Honduras, experienced significant damaged by Hurricane Mitch, something of a magnitude Hondurans had not witnessed since Hurricane Fifi. Mitch destroyed part of the Comayagüela section of the city, as well as other places along the banks of the Choluteca River( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery). The storm remained over Honduran territory for five days, dumping heavy rainfall late in the rainy season. The ground was already saturated and could not absorb the heavy precipitation, while deforestation and debris left by the hurricane led to catastrophic flooding throughout widespread regions of the country, especially in Tegucigalpa. ( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery) The heavy rain caused flash floods of Choluteca's tributaries, and the swollen river overflowed its banks, tearing down entire neighborhoods and bridges across the ravaged city. The rainfall also triggered massive landslides around El Berrinche Hill, close to the downtown area. These landslides destroyed most of the Soto neighborhood, and debris flowed into the river, forming a dam( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery). The dam clogged the waters of the river and many of the low-lying areas of Comayagüela were submerged; historic buildings located along Calle Real were either completely destroyed or so badly damaged that repair was futile. Situated in a valley and surrounded by mountain ranges, Tegucigalpa is hilly with several elevations and few flat areas. The city is also highly disorganized, particularly around its oldest districts. ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery) It has seen a rapid growth in the last 30 years[81] and only until recently has the government passed certain laws to establish city planning and zoning rules.[82] Surface roads can be narrow with the most important avenues carrying no more than two or three lanes running in each direction, adding to the problem of heavy traffic congestion. Several of the main boulevards have been equipped with interchanges( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery), overpasses and underpasses, allowing for sections of controlled-access highways but considering that even the city's beltway does not entirely circle the city, the roads are generally limited-access. Intense webs of electrical and telephone lines above the streets are a common sight in the capital, and virtually in all Honduran cities, since implementation of underground utility lines has only been adopted in the recent years( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). Looking west towards the Juan A. Laínez Hill. Downtown Tegucigalpa as viewed westward from the Honduras Maya Hotel. The metropolitan area of Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela is officially divided into barrios and colonias and there are currently 892 of them. Colonias represent relatively recent 20th-century middle class residential suburbs, some known as residenciales for their upper income development, and these are continuously spreading while the barrios are old inner-city neighborhoods( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery). While the city administration divides the capital into barrios and colonias, the fact that there are hundreds of them, makes it difficult to define the city's different regions, especially for those not familiar with the Central District. To have a better understanding of the city's regions, the metro area of the Central District can essentially be divided, first, into two sections: Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). These two entities remain separated by the Choluteca River basin that runs between them. Map showing Tegucigapa's contemporary Center, formed by over 40 neighborhoods. The Tegucigalpa side of the District can be divided into five sections: 1) Centro Histórico (Historic Downtown); 2) Centro Contemporáneo or Zona Viva (Contemporary Downtown or Vibrant Zone); 3) North Tegucigalpa; 4) South Tegucigalpa; and 5) East Tegucigalpa( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery): 1 - Centro Histórico or the Historic Downtown of Tegucigalpa is formed by the original neighborhoods that date back to its founding days. For years, this area remained neglected and rundown but in recent times, attempts have been made to revive the zone and bring back its colonial heritage. Several government offices, including the National Congress and City Hall as well as museums, parks, a cathedral and churches are located here( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). 2 - Centro Contemporáneo is the contemporary, vibrant and modern downtown of Tegucigalpa. This area is formed by the neighborhoods encompassed east of the Choluteca River, south of the northern tributary, Rio Chiquito (which confluences with the Choluteca below the Mallol Bridge), west of the beltway (Anillo Periférico), and north of Armed Forces Blvd( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). The Marriot Hotel as seen from John Paul II Blvd in Colonia Los Profesionales. This section of the city is perhaps the best developed and properly urbanized. It is formed by more than 40 neighborhoods, many of them wealthy middle class residential areas such as Colonia Palmira to the east of the historic center, on Boulevard Morazán which hosts several foreign embassies as well as upscale restaurants( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). Other upscale neighborhoods are Lomas del Guijarro, Loma Linda and Lomas del Mayab which house most of the apartment complexes in the city. The leading hotels of the city are found around these neighborhoods, including within the Plaza San Martín Hotel District. These include: Marriott Hotel, Clarion Hotel, Hotel El Centenario, Intercontinental, Honduras Maya, Plaza Del Libertador, Plaza San Martín, Hotel Alameda, Excelsior Hotel and Casino( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery). Map showing the metropolitan area of the Central District dived into colored sections. Boulevard Morazán and Avenida Los Próceres/Avenida La Paz are busy commercial corridors (running parallel of each other) and run through several neighborhoods home to foreign embassies, a hotel district, business establishments and corporate buildings( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery); including Los Próceres Comercial Park (Parque Comercial). Boulevard Suyapa and Boulevard Juan Pablo II are located south of the aforementioned boulevards and they also form a busy commercial and financial district stretching through several neighborhoods such as Colonia Los Profesionales where the Presidencial House is located; Colonia Florencia Norte where Multiplaza Mall is located; Colonia Miramontes, among others—housing several financial institutions, government offices, hotels, etc( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). 3 - North Tegucigalpa is formed by both middle class and impoverished neighborhoods that lie above the surrounding hill immediately north of the historic downtown. Beyond these neighborhoods sits the United Nations National Park on the El Picacho Hill, one of the most popular destinations in the capital among its residents and visitors. Pass beyond the Park, stretching north and northwest of the city( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery), upper income suburban neighborhoods such as El Hatillo, sit on the sides of the hills, surrounded by heavy vegetation. 4 - South Tegucigalpa is everything south of Boulevard Fuerzas Armadas. This area is home to Colonia Kennedy, the capital's largest neighborhood with more than 137,000 residents. South Tegucigalpa concentrates both middle class and poor neighborhoods. Two universities, UTH and UNITEC, are located just off the beltway in southern outskirt neighborhoods( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). 5 - East Tegucigalpa concentrates mostly rural and impoverished neighborhoods, the result of improvised growth with little government funding and involvement. María Pediatric Hospital and the Basílica of Suyapa lie on the side of Anillo Períferico's eastern stretch. Comayagüela as viewed from Juan A. Laínez Hill with the Central Bank of Honduras Annex building in the center( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). Comayagüela is found to the west bank of the Choluteca River and most of its urbanization is made up of lower income neighborhoods. Historically, Comayagüela has remained less developed than the other side of the capital, some citing insufficient contribution from public officials. In recent years, this western side of the capital has seen some growth and improvement such as the opening of Metromall near the airport( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). With the construction of Mall Premier and City Mall, the latter to become the largest mall in the country, Comayagüela will be receiving another upgrade. There are an estimated 650,000 residents in Comayagüela contributing 58.3 percent of the 120 million lempiras (US$6.349 million) generated every day by commerce in the Central District. The Comayagüela side of the capital can be divided into four sections: 1) Zona Centro (Downtown Comayagüela); 2) North Comayagüela; 3) South Comayagüela; and 4) West Comayagüela( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery): 1 - Zona Centro de Comayagüela is the downtown area of Comayagüela and also original founding grounds formed by its oldest barrios. These barrios are formed in a grid street plan style. Several government offices are located in this district, including the Central Bank of Honduras Annex building and the Criminal Bureau of Investigation (Dirección General de Investigación Criminal) as well as the National School of Fine Arts housed in the former City Hall building of Comayagüela, built in 1845( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). Looking northeast from Comayagüela at the construction site of the upcoming shopping mall City Mall. 2 - North Comayagüela is formed by relatively recent post-Hurricane Mitch middle class residential developments that stretch onto the northern hills of Comayagüela, such as Colonia Cerro Grande, a continuously growing middle-class neighborhood on the northern outskirts( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). 3 - South Comayagüela is by far the better-off region of Comayagüela. This area is found south and southwest of the airport, around Los Laureles Reservoir and south of Lepaterique Road (Carretera Lepaterique also known as Carretera al Batallón). Also a post-Hurricane Mitch area, it has grown in the last decade and includes some of Comayagüela's upper income communities that have erupted in the area and continues to spread out as newer suburban middle class developments are built( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). Toncontín International, Metro Mall and upcoming City Mall are located in this area. Residencial la Arboleda and Residencial los Hidalgos are some of the growing upper income developments in the southern outskirts of Comayagüela. 4 - West Comayagüela is mostly impoverished neighborhoods spreading away from Zona Centro onto the surrounding slopes. Many of these neighborhoods came to be through improvised urbanization and lack proper infrastructure( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery). This area prevails north of Lepaterique Road and westward of Boulevard de la Comunidad Europea (European Community Blvd). Demographics As of 2011, following the trend of population growth between 1988 and 2001 of 2.79 percent, the population of Tegucigalpa is estimated anywhere between 1.2 and 1.3 million people.[88] The 2010 Population Projections estimated that the Central District had a population of 1,126,534 residents,[89] continuing a trend of population growth in the city since the 2001 Census, which recorded 850,445 residents. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery) In 2004, there were 185,577 households with an average of 4.9 members per household.[91] Both the city's population and metro area are expected to double by 2029.[92] The Human Development Index (HDI) is the highest in the country measured at 0.759 in 2006. During the same year, 47.6 percent of the Central District's population lived in poverty—29.7 lived in moderate poverty and 17.9 in extreme poverty( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery). Life expectancy in the District as of 2004 is 72.1 years. By 2010, 4.9 percent of the population remained illiterate, compared to the national rate of 15.2 percent.[93] In 2010, the average monthly income was L.8,321 (US$440.49), compared to the total national average of L.4,767 (US$252.35) and the national urban zone average of L.7,101 (US$375.91). The ethnic and racial makeup of Tegucigalpa is strongly tied to the rest of Honduras.[96] 90 percent of the city-dwellers are predominantly mestizos with a small White-Hispanic minority( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery). They are joined by Chinese[97] and Arab immigrants,[98] the latter mostly from Palestine.[99] There are indigenous Amerindians and Afro-Honduran people as well. Tegucigalpa by numbers:[100] 4 theaters, 12 marketplaces, 12 pedestrian bridges, 12 universities, 14 hospitals, 14 museums, 28 supermarkets, 40 movie screens, 64 health centers, 64 signal light-controlled intersections, 87 middle school and high schools, 100 farmacies, 123 local emergency committees( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery), 170 restaurants, 200 parks or plazas, 200 sports facilities, 400 firemen, 600 volunteer workers, 892 neighborhoods classified as barrios and colonias, 12 hundred physicians, two thousand public transportation vehicles, 12 thousands taxis, 60 thousand unable to read or write, and 140 thousand with direct access to potable water only( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery). Health In 2004, there were 67 public health care establishments in the Central District—five national hospitals, 22 health centers in the metropolitan area, 37 health centers throughout the rural areas, and three peripheral clinics. There are several private hospitals in the city as well as hospitals run by the Honduran Social Security Institute (IHSS), the country's government-sponsored social insurance program( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery). In 2003, only 58.5 percent of the employed population contributed to IHSS while the rest who remain uninsured were attributed to being employed in the informal sector or being domestic workers. Overall, only 26.5 percent of the Central District's population is covered by public health care( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery). The Central District reports the third highest or 20.2 percent of the country's HIV/AIDS incidents with 5,674 living with the virus. During 2004, there were 258 new diagnoses of HIV infection in the Central District. In 2000, the maternal mortality rate in the city was 110 of every 100,000 births of which 62.3 percent were women ages 20 to 35. In 2001, the infant mortality rate was 29 per 1000 live births (Both maternal and infant mortality rates are based on local and out-of-district residents who arrive to receive medical attention) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE battery). In 2005, it was estimated that 101 of every 10,000 residents suffered of a physical or mental disability. As with the rest of Honduras, Roman Catholicism is the dominating religion in the Central District and while at some point they made up as much as 95 percent of the population, contemporary estimates as recent as 2007 put them at 47 percent while Protestants make up as much as 36 percent. Their history in Tegucigalpa began around 1548 with the Spanish setting up Mercedarian ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery)missionaries as part of their conversion efforts of the native communities. By 1916, the Diocese of Comayagua was relocated and renamed the Diocese of Tegucigalpa, and it was elevated to Archdiocese under Archbishop Santiago María Martínez y Cabanas (1842–1921).[101] Other religious groups made their way at the beginning of the 20th century including the Quakers, who in 1914 began work in the nation’s capital. In 1946, missionaries of the Southern Baptist Convention first arrived in Tegucigalpa and in the 1950s( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery), the National Convention of Baptist Churches and the Eastern Mennonite Board of Missions followed. The Assembly of God missionaries entered Honduras in the late 1940s and today maintain a mega-church in Tegucigalpa with more than 10,000 members. The Church of God of Cleveland, Tennessee established in Tegucigalpa in 1951, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel followed in 1952, and by the late 1950s, the Evangelical Alliance of Honduras was established( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery). The Prince of Peace Pentecostal Church, founded in Guatemala City, began its ministry in Honduras during the 1960s. During the 1970s, the Catholic Charismatic Renewal Movement began to grow among the upper classes in Tegucigalpa.[101] The Christian Love Brigade Association arrived in Tegucigalpa in 1971, the Abundant Life Christian Church was founded in 1972, the Cenacle Christian Center of Charismatic Renewal began in 1978 and the Living Love Groups started in 1978. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery) Today, they are many religious groups in Tegucigalpa including a Jewish community, the Jehovah's Witnesses and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints that is currently building a new temple in the city.[101] Crime and violence Honduras has the world's highest murder rate.[105] Honduras has been experiencing record-high violence in recent years. In 2010, the homicide rate in Francisco Morazán was 83.2 (per 100,000 inhabitants) compared to the national average of 86. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery) In 2009, the Central District reached a homicide rate of 72.7 with authorities recording 792 intentional homicides and 151 involuntary homicides; this averaged to 66 murders per month or two per day. 85.6 percent of the deaths were committed by firearm and 39 percent were linked to organized crime. 91 percent of the victims were men and 81.2 were ages 15 to 39( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery). The neighborhoods reporting the highest incidents of violent deaths are Barrio Concepción, Colonia Nueva Capital, Colonia Villa Nueva Norte, Colonia Cerro Grande, Colonia El Carrizal No. 1, Colonia el Carrizal No. 2, Colonia Flor Del Campo, Colonia La Sosa, Colonia Las Brisas, and Barrio Centro de Comayagüela.[104] In 2009, there were 246 motor vehicle-related deaths of which 52 percent were pedestrians, including bicyclists( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ32 battery); 39 percent were caused by private vehicle and 12 percent by public transportation vehicle. In the same year, there were 69 deaths reported as suicides of which were most common in the age bracket of 20 to 29 and 30 to 35, while 76.9 percent of them were men.[104] Sky Residence Club, the tallest building in the city, standing at 318 feet (97 meters) in the Lomas del Mayab neighborhood. HSBC main offices on Suyapa Blvd (former BGA bank building) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ410 battery). The Central District has an economy equal to 19.3 percent of country's GDP. In 2009, the city's revenue and expenditures budget was of L.2,856,439,263 (US$151,214,182)[107] while in 2010 it was of L.2,366,993,208 (US$125.204.606) 57.9 percent or L.43.860 billion (US$2.318 billion) of the country's national budget is spent within the Central District. The District's active labor force is of 367,844 people of which 56,035 are employed in the public sector. In 2009, the unemployment rate in Tegucigalpa was 8.1 percent( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21 battery). and an unemployed person may spend as much as four months seeking employment.[112] There are 32,665 business establishments throughout the capital, the most of any city in the country. The size of these businesses is broken down as follow: micro-enterprises (73.2%), small businesses (9.63%), medium-sized businesses (7.47%), large companies (0.28%), and the remainder unreported (9.62%)( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery). The city's major economic sources are commerce, construction, services, textiles, sugar, and tobacco.[113] Economic activity is broken down as follow: commerce—including wholesale, retail, auto repair, household goods (42.86%); manufacturing industry (16.13%), hospitality—hotels and restaurants (14.43%), banking and real state (10.12%), social and personal services (8.94%), health-related services (3.90%), and others (3.60%).( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery) The industrial production taking place in the region include textiles, clothing, sugar, cigarettes, lumber, plywood, paper, ceramics, cement, glass, metalwork, plastics, chemicals, tires, electrical appliances, and farm machinery. Maquiladora duty-free assembly plants have been established in an industrial park in the Amarateca valley, on the northern highway.[115] Silver, lead and zinc are still mined in the outskirts of the city( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery). Alfonso XIII, a condo high-rise in one the city's upper income communities, Lomas del Guijarro. Nissan car dealership on Central America Blvd across the street from Plaza Miraflores Mall. Honduran banks based in Tegucigalpa include Banco Atlántida (Bancatlan), Banco Continental, Banco Financiera Centroaméricana (Ficensa), Banco Financiera Comercial Hondureña (Ficohsa), Banco Hondureño del Café (Banchcafe) ( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery), Banco Hondureño para la Producción y la Vivienda (Banhprovi), Banco de Occidente, Banco del País, Banco de los Trabajadores, the Central Bank of Honduras, the country's central banking public institution and Banco Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (Banadesa), also state-owned, with central offices located in Comayagüela( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery). International financial institutions in Tegucigalpa include Banco de América Central-BAC Honduras (former Banco Mercantil-BAMER), Banco Lafise (Latin American Financial Services), Citibank, HSBC, the Inter-American Development Bank (IAB), the World Bank, and the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (BCIE), with its headquarters located in Colonia Miramontes on Boulevard Suyapa. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery) [edit]Foreign investment Manufacturing assembly plants (maquiladoras) were introduced in Honduras in 1976.[118] While their contribution to the economy remained small, they boomed at the beginning of the 1990s, mostly concentrating in northern Honduras but after the mid 1990s they were expanded to the central region, including Tegucigalpa. By 2005, at least 6 maquiladoras operated in the Central District. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery) By the end of the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), Tegucigalpa continued to be a focus city for the development of industrial parks. The main obstacle to establish factories in Tegucigalpa has been facilitating infrastructure to provide efficient access between the capital and country's economic hubs: San Pedro Sula and Puerto Cortez. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery) While foreign investment manufacturers and exporters have focused in northern Honduras, the presence of multinational corporations is evident in Tegucigalpa. Popular retail, restaurant, and hospitality American-branded franchises prevail throughout the Honduran capital; such as Walmart, McDonalds, Marriot, among others. Companies from other countries such as Mexico, have also made their presence with arrivals like Cinépolis movie theaters( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery), which opened in 2010 in Cascadas Mall.[121] Foreign real estate and property developers operate in the capital District as well, such as Grupo Roble of the Multiplaza malls. Tegucigalpa's economic challenges are tied to those of the rest of the country, such as overcoming crime, anomalies in the judicial system, educational backwardness, and deficient infrastructure in order to continue to encourage foreign investors and permit growth of local entrepreneurs. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery) Presidential House, official residence of the President of Honduras. As capital of Honduras, as department head and as a municipality, the Central District seats three separate governments: national, departmental and municipal.[123] Prior to 1991, the central government held great jurisdiction over the execution of city management across the country, leading to uneven representation and improper distribution of resources and governance. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery)As a result, in late 1990, under Decree 134-90, the National Congress of Honduras enacted the Law of Municipalities (Ley de Municipalidades), defining the country's department and municipal institutions, representatives and their functions to give city government autonomy and decentralize it from the national government.[125] While autonomous, the Central District is still influenced by the national government given the territory remains seat of government of the republic( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). Major changes in public policy and funding of major city projects usually reach the Office of the President prior to approval by the District's local government.[126] "Welcome to the Central District: Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela" sign at the municipality's limit line. For all practical purposes the capital of Honduras is Tegucigalpa. However, politically and officially speaking, the Municipality of the Central District (DC for short) is the capital of Honduras and Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela are two entities within the district. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery) Traditionally, they are regarded as twin or sister cities in part because they were originally founded as two distinct cities.[127] When the Central District was formed on January 30, 1937 under Decree 53 of reformed Article 179 of the 1936 Honduran Constitution, both cities became one political entity sharing the title of Capital of Honduras.[15] The current Constitution of Honduras, under Chapter 1, Article 8, states (translated), "The cities of Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela, jointly( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery), constitute the Capital of the Republic."[12] Furthermore... Chapter 11, Article 295, states (translated) "The Central District consists of a single municipality made up of the former municipalities of Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela";[13] however, municipalities in Honduras are defined as political entities similar to counties, and they may contain one or more cities( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery). For example, in the Department of Atlántida, La Ceiba is the largest city—being also the third largest in Honduras—both in terms of population and metropolitan area;[128] however, Tela, one of the eight municipalities of Atlántida, is the biggest municipality in terms of physical administrative area in that department.[129] Since the Municipality of Tela is not considered the entire city of Tela, it is not bigger than La Ceiba( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery). There are an additional of 41 villages and 293 hamlets through the Central District Municipality.[63] These may be assigned deputy mayors (alcalde auxiliar) to serve as local representatives. National and departmental governments The National Institute of Statistics (INE) and the Attorney General's office (Ministerio Público) in Residencial Lomas del Guijarro. United States Embassy on Laz Paz Avenue( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery). Tegucigalpa is the political and administrative center of Honduras.[130] It is also the seat of government of the Francisco Morazán department.[131] All three branches of the national government as well as their immediate divisions—including the 16 departments of the Executive Branch,[132] the National Congress,[133] the Supreme Court of Justice,[134] the Armed Forces and National Police headquarters—are located in the city( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery). Most public agencies and state-owned companies are headquartered in the capital as well.[22] [edit]Local government City government takes form in a mayor-council system and is regulated under the Law of Municipalities which came into effect on January 1, 1991. The Central District Municipal Government (Alcaldía Municipal del Distrito Central or AMDC) is the city's governing authority. As established by current city governing law, AMDC is structured as a municipal corporation( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery), which is the deliberative-legislative body, voter-elected, and highest authority within the municipality. The Municipal Corporation is formed by a mayor serving as chief executive, general administrator and legal representative of the municipality[136] and a vice mayor to serve as acting mayor when required and to oversee functions within AMDC as instructed by the mayor( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery). Ten aldermen (regidores) are also members of the Municipal Corporation who along with the mayor execute the duties as described in the Law of Municipalities, including management, budgeting, and local law and ordinance legislation. A general manager, appointed by the mayor, is to served as chief comptroller to keep management of city funds and their allocation( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). A municipal secretary, also appointed by the mayor, serves as the city clerk in charge of keeping record of all official proceedings. The Municipal Corporation also counts with a Municipal Development Council (Consejo de Desarrollo Municipal) which serves as an advising cabinet on all the areas of issues of the city such as human development, public safety, utilities, etc( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery). Government Civic Center housing the Supreme Court of Justice and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The current mayor of the Central District is Ricardo Álvarez (PNH)[140] who is serving his second term (2006–2010, 2010–2014) after winning reelection in 2009.[141] Alvarez is the first candidate to win a consecutive reelection, he is the seventh person to serve as mayor of the Central District since local elections were restored in 1986( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery), (prior to 1986, the Central District local government, known as Consejo Metropolitano (Metropolitan Council), was appointed by the President); and this is the eighth elected mayoral term since then. Of the 10 aldermen currently serving, six are men and four are women. Six belong to the National Party while another two belong to the Liberal Party; one alderman belongs to the Democratic Unification Party and the other is Independent. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery) Both the city mayor and aldermen are elected to 4-year terms by voters of the Central District. Removal of the mayor or any alderman for any cause is reserved to the Ministry of Interior and Population (Secretaría del Interior y Población), formely Secretaría de Gobernación y Justicia. Law enforcement Law enforcement in the city is the responsibility of the National Police of Honduras, the nationwide police force. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery) The National Police maintains its headquarters in the Central District in Colonia Casamata. The Metropolitan Police Headquarters No. 1 (Jefatura Metropolitana No. 1) is the police department in charge of law and order in the city. It operates seven police districts throughout the metropolitan area. These are Police District 1-1 El Edén, Police District 1-2 El Mandén, Police District 1-3 San Miguel( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery), Police District 1-4 Kennedy, Police District 1-5 El Belén, Police District 1-6 La Granja and Police District 1-7 San Francisco. For 2011, the Secretary of Security designated L.2.162 billion (US$114.283 million) to law enforcement and criminal investigation in the Central District. As established by the Law on Police and Social Coexistence (Ley de Policía y Convivencia Social), municipalities can fund their own municipal police (Policía Municipal) and the Central District currently operates a Municipal Police force of 160 officers( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery). The Municipal Department of Justice (Departamento Municipal de Justicia) through its Municipal Police Court (Juzgado de Policía Municipal) enforces and prosecutes local law offenses. The Public Ministry (Ministerio Público) is the district attorney with nationwide jurisdiction in charge of prosecuting crimes on behalf of the people. It is also headquartered in the Central District and maintains regional prosecution offices throughout the country( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery). The Attorney General of the Republic (Procuraduría General de la República) is the country's chief legal representative and prosecutes crimes on behalf of the state.[146] United Nations National Park on El Picacho Hill north of Tegucigalpa. Tegucigalpa is a colonial city with a history spanning for more than 400 years. According to the National Chamber of Tourism of Honduras (CANATURH), the city is visited by at least 250,000 tourists every summer.[147] For Easter 2011, at least 300,000 visitors arrived to the city. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery) Colorful Sawdust carpets being prepared in the streets before the Easter Week religious processions through downtown Tegucigalpa. The Fair of the Capital (Feria de la Capital or Feria capitalina) is a celebration happening every year in the month of September to commemorate the city's anniversary. Several festivities occur during this time including book fairs, art expositions, concerts and a parade. The 2010 Fair was suspended due to heavy rain and flooding in the region. ( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery) For 2011, the fair was scheduled to run from September 26 until October 13. Another yearly event is the Fair of the Horse and Culture (Feria del Caballo y la Cultura) taking place in the month of November. There is also a Christmas Fair in the month of December. Monument of the Absent Soldier in Comayagüela on Anillo Periférico at the Military Hospital exit. Some of the parks in the city include Parque La Leona, Parque Herrera, Parque Del Soldado, Parque Juan A. Lainez( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery), Plaza España, Plaza del Libertador, and Central Park, the latter located in the heart of the historic center which leads to Paseo Liquidambar, a pedestrian zone street.[151] La Tigra National Park lies several kilometers north of the city and covers an area of 93.9 square miles (243 km2). The United Nations National Park on El Picacho Hill just north above the city offers a great view of the city and hosts the Picacho Metropolitan Zoo( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery). Some of the popular landmarks include the Metropolitan Cathedral, the former Presidential Palace (now a museum), the National University, the Basilica of the Virgin of Suyapa, La Merced Church, and the Manuel Bonilla Theater.[152] There are several charming colonial villages within easy driving distance from Tegucigalpa: Santa Lucia (12 km/7 mi away), Valle de Angeles (21 km/13 mi away), Ojojona, Yuscarán and San Juancito( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery). Each has its own distinct character and sense of history and all of them make easy day-trips out of the city. Tegucigalpa is home to two of the nation's four most important newspapers: La Tribuna, the liberal and leading newspaper in the city[155] and El Heraldo, the more conservative.[156] There are three other daily papers printed in the city: El Libertador, El Patriota, and Tiempos del Mundo( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery). Hondudiario, Proceso Digital, and Honduras Weekly are online-only newspapers based in the capital, the latter offered in English. La Gaceta is the Honduran government's official newspaper, printed and published in the capital. Tegucigalpa is also served by the rest of country's newspapers, including La Prensa and El Tiempo from San Pedro Sula[158] and the sports newspaper and fashion magazine, Diez[159] and Estilo, respectively; divisions of La Prensa. Voz el Soberano and Revistazo are political watchdog online publishers( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery). There are currently eight channels broadcasting on VHF (3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13) and 12 channels on UHF (21, 30, 33, 36, 39, 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, 66, 69) in the Central District region from TV networks of the major cities in the country. Cable Color, based in Tegucigalpa, is one of the major cable TV providers in the country. ( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery) There are five television networks based in Tegucigalpa: Televicentro Corporation, the largest television media conglomerate in the country which operates three television networks: Compañia Televisora Hondureña (Channel 5), Telesistema Hondureño (channels 3 & 7) and Telecadena 7 & 4 (Channel 7). The other four networks are Channel 11[163] owned by Grupo Continental & R. Media;[164] Televisión Educativa National-TEN (Channel 10) ( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery), a public broadcasting network featuring the Telenoticiero Abriendo Brecha[166] newscast; Maya TV (Channel 66), and Telered 21 which has its principal offices in San Pedro Sula. There are 24 FM radio stations and 28 AM stations transmitting into or from Tegucigalpa.[168][169] Emisoras Unidas,[170] the largest radio conglomerate in the country, is headquartered in Tegucigalpa and operates 94-SU 94.1 FM, Rock N' Pop 92.3 FM, Vox 101.9 FM, Suave 102.5 FM, Sterio Éxitos 88.1 FM, Radio Satélite 790 AM, XY Honduras 90.5 FM, Radio HRN 92.9 FM( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). The following radio stations are based in Tegucigalpa: 88.7 Radio Globo Honduras,[172] 91.1 Radio Kairos, 91.7 Estereo La Buenisima, 93.5 Radio Cadena Voces,[173] 94.7 Radio America,[174] 95.9 Radio Panamericana, 97.1 La 97 FM Radio, 97.7 Stereo Azul, 100.1 Super 100 Estereo, 101.3 Radio Nacional de Honduras, 103.1 Tu Alternativa, 103.7 Stereo Luz,[175] 104.3 Momentos FM Estereo( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery), 104.9 Estereo Amor, 106.7 Radio CHN-Cadena Hondureña de Noticias, and 107.3 W-107 Radio del Flow. Courtyard in the Chiminike children's museum located off Armed Forces Blvd in the Government Civic Center complex. There are 14 museums in Tegucigalpa. Most of the popular museums are located around historic center of the city. These include the National Identity Museum (Museo para la Identidad Nacional), founded in 2006; the National Anthropology and History Museum or Villa Roy National Museum (Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia-Museo Nacional Villa Roy) ( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery), founded in 1976 on the former residence of President Julio Lozano Díaz (1954–1956) and reopened after a complete restoration in 1997;[178] the National Art Gallery (Galería de Arte Nacional), founded in 1996;[179] the Republic History Museum (Museo Histórico de la República), founded in 1993;[180] the Museum of Man (Museo del Hombre), founded in 1989,[180] the Telecommuncations Museum (Museo de las Comunicaciones), founded in 1985; the Military History Museum (Museo Histórico Militar), founded in 1983;[180] and the Archaeological Museum (Museo Arqueológico) ( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery). The Natural History Museum (Museo de la Historia Natural) is located within the National Autonomous University of Honduras.[181] The Numismatic Museum (Museo Nimismático Rigoberto Rojas) was founded in 1993 and is located in Comayagüela next to the Central Bank of Honduras Annex building.[182] There is a children's museum, (Centro Interactivo de Enseñanza CHIMINIKE), founded in 2003( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery), located on Blvd. Fuerzas Armadas within the Government Civic Center complex, which also houses the Foreign Affairs Ministry and the Supreme Court of Justice. North entrance of Multiplaza Mall as seen from the parking lot. Other places of cultural interest are the Colonial Museum (Museo Colonial) located in Casa Cural, the Cultural Center of Spain in Tegucigalpa - CCET, founded in 2007; and Sala Bancatlán, located in Plaza Bancatlán of Banco Atlántida.[180] The Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History, founded in 1952, promotes cultural heritage and manages several museums throughout Honduras. ( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery) There is an art and history museum, Santa María de los Ángeles, in Valle de Ángeles, 27 km/17 mi northwest of Tegucigalpa. Main article: Cuisine of Tegucigalpa There is a variety of restaurants of different cuisine styles and origin in Tegucigalpa. Locals and visitors alike can enjoy of several restaurants serving traditional Honduran dishes as well, either from a typical streetside vendor or family restaurant to upscale food establishments. ( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery) MetroMall in Comayagüela on Armed Forces Blvd just north of Toncontín International. Ongoing construction of City Mall across the road from Toncontín International Airport. The centre of shopping in Tegucigalpa is Multiplaza, a multi-level indoor shopping mall that includes design name stores, a major grocery store, a movie theater complex, restaurants, and banking. This mall is located on John Paul II Blvd, forming one of the busiest commercial districts in the capital around the John Paul II Blvd and Suyapa Blvd corridors ( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery) (running parallel to each other) and Central America Blvd (crosswise). Other busy corridors are the Francisco Morazán Blvd and Los Próceres Ave/La Paz Ave to the north of the city. Sports Tegucigalpa is home to Club Deportivo Olimpia and Club Deportivo Motagua, members of the Honduran National Soccer League. Between the two teams, they have won more than 30 championships. The Tiburcio Carias Andino National Stadium is the multi-purpose venue hosting the national and international soccer games taking place in the capital. Inter-city school sports championships take place in Tegucigalpa as well. ( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery) The National College of Engineers Coliseum, west of the city near UNAH, is a basketball arena occasionally fitted as a music concert venue as well.[190] There is a sports facility known as Olympic Village Sports Complex (Complejo Deportivo Villa Olímpica) hosting several Olympic sports such as boxing, archery, tennis and tae-kwon-do; it is located north of the National University-UNAH( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). Jesus' Sacred Heart campus in Comayagüela of the Catholic University of Honduras (UNICAH). Tegucigalpa serves as the national education center, hosting most of the universities and higher education institutions in the country. For 2011, the national government allocated L. 9.175 billion (US$484.9 million) of the national public education budget (equal to 42.1 percent of total) to the Central District( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). The public and private education system in Tegucigalpa is divided into 16 school districts (distritales).[192] All districts are part of the Departmental Directorate of Education (Dirección Departamental de Educación), which in turn is a part of the country's Secretary of Education. There are 1,235 public schools in the Central District broken down as 488 preschools, 563 elementary schools, and 184 middle and high schools( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). In 2003, there were a total of 287,517 students enrolled throughout the municipality—28,915 in preschool, 159,679 in elementary school, and 98,923 in middle or high school. There are about 147 bilingual schools in Tegucigalpa.[194] The American School of Tegucigalpa is considered among the country's top private schools with its K-12 education program costing a total of L.1.366 million (US$72,248) for all years (amount based on 10-11 academic year) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery). Other popular private/bilingual schools include International School Tegucigalpa (K-12, Christian), Discovery School (K-12, secular), Los Pinares Academy (E-HS, Christian), DelCampo International School (MS-HS, secular), Dowal School (K-12, secular), Liceo Franco-Hondureño (K-12, French), Magic Castle Preschool (K), and Macris School (E-HS, Catholic). There are two modalities in regards to the school calendar: American Period (August to July), mostly used by private and bilingual schools( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery); and Latin Period (February to November), used by public schools.[195] José Cecilio del Valle University (UJCV) in Colonia Humaya. There are 12 universities in Tegucigalpa, including three state-funded higher education institutions.[196] The National Autonomous University of Honduras (UNAH), founded in 1847, is the country's most important university and operates eight regional campuses in several other cities in the country: UNAH-Valle de Sula, UNAH-La Ceiba, UNAH-Comayagua, UNAH-Copán, UNAH-Choluteca( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery), UNAH-Juticalpa, UNAH-Valle del Aguán, and University Technological Center UNAH–Danlí.[197] It employs 4,980 people throughout its campuses at an average annual salary of L.241,184 (US$12,747). The other two publicly-funded institutions are Francisco Morazán National Pedagogic University (UPNFM), founded in 1989, focusing on preparing future educators in several disciplines.[198] and the National Institute of Professional Formation (INFOP) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery), founded in 1972, focusing on economic and social development disciplines. The National University of Agriculture (UNA), founded in 1950, also state-funded and located in Catacamas, Olancho, maintains an liaison office in Tegucigalpa. There are 10 private universities in Tegucigalpa: All barrios and colonias in Tegucigalpa can be accessed by automobile, although some neighborhoods in the city suffer from unpaved( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery), narrow, or hilly streets making them difficult to maneuver.[205] A grid of surface streets and a network of major avenues and boulevards cross through the major areas of the capital. However, the most transited roads suffer from heavy traffic congestion due to the region's geography and disorganized urbanization( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery). An estimate of 400,000 vehicles take on the city streets and roads everyday. The oldest districts were not built with the advent of the automobile in mind and therefore lack efficient roadways to accommodate the overwhelming amount of vehicles. Newer developments, such as the malls, have been built with the car in mind allowing for large parking lots to accommodate their visitors( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). In the last decades, several of the boulevards and avenues have bee retrofitted with grade separations to ease up the flow of traffic. Map showing the network of roads and highways throughout the Central District and its borders. The Honduras Department of Public Works, Transportation and Housing (SOPTRAVI) presently divides the country's highway network into international routes (ruta internacional), national routes[disambiguation needed] (ruta nacional) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery), and provincial routes (ruta vecinal). These are assigned numbers; however, they are more often identified using their physical destinations (e.g. Tegucigalpa-Danlí highway) rather the number itself since road signage is scarce. International routes are given a "CA-" designation followed by a highway number (i.e. CA-1) which can be of one or two digits enclosed in a highway shield. "CA-" highways are part of the Central American highway network (hence the "CA" letters) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery) that interconnects Honduras with its neighboring countries as part of the Pan-American Highway. National highways are assigned a two or three-digit number and provincial routes are assigned a three-digit number. There are five highways connecting the Central District to the bordering municipalities and the rest of the country. These are Central American highways CA-5 (north and south) and CA-6 (east); and national highways 15 (north), 25 (northeast) and 33 (southwest) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery). CA-5 North connects the Central District to Comayagua Department going through Comayagua City and further north to Cortes Department and into San Pedro Sula where it connects to highways CA-4 and CA-13, one heading west connecting through the western departments until it reaches the Guatemalan border and the other traveling east towards Atlántida Department, connecting to La Ceiba and into Colón Department and its major cities( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery). CA-5 South connects to the municipalities of Ojojona, Santa Ana, and San Buenaventura and then enters Choluteca Department and later Valle Department, becoming highway CA-1 which travels to the west towards Nacaome and into El Salvador and to the east to Choluteca City and into Nicaragua, near the Gulf of Fonseca. CA-6 connects to municipalities Maraita and San Antonio de Oriente and continues east into El Paraíso Department, passing through Danlí and El Paraiso municipalities eventually reaching the Nicaraguan border( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery). Highway 15 runs north through the bordering municipality of Talanga, it later enters the municipality of Guaimaca and then junctions with highway 43 which connects to Yoro department. Highway 15 continues northeast and enters Olancho Department, continuing until junction with highways 41 and 39 which lead to Colón Department( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery). Highway 25 runs northeast of the Central District and connects to the municipalities of Santa Lucía, Valle de Ángeles and San Juan de Flores. Highway 33 travels southwest and connects to the municipality of Lepaterique. About 30 other provincial roads connect to the towns and villages outside the urban area of the Central District( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery). Anillo Periférico (beltway) at the Suyapa Boulevard overpass near Basilica of Suyapa. Heading westbound on Armed Forces Blvd near the Metro Mall interchange. The Anillo Periférico (beltway or ring road) and Boulevard Fuerzas Armadas (Armed Forces Blvd) are the city's two expressways—equipped with center dividers, interchanges, overpasses and underpasses—allowing for controlled-access traffic. These connect with the city's other major boulevards: Central America Blvd, Suyapa Blvd, European Community Blvd( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery), Kuwait Blvd—which are essentially limited-access roadways as they have been equipped with interchanges but may lack underpasses or overpasses to bypass crossing surface road traffic. Despite a network of major highways, none reach directly into the historic downtown, forcing drivers to rely heavily on surface streets. Like in most Central American cities, orientation and driving may be difficult to first-time visitors due to the nature of how streets are named, insufficient road signage and the native's driving behavior. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery) The current city administration has green lit several road infrastructure projects to help reduce traffic congestion and improve the overall aspect of the city. Public transportation "School buses"-turned public transportation buses in Tegucigalpa. Public transportation in Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela is based on buses and taxis and they currently cover 71 percent of the capital's road migration. Bus routes are named based on the neighborhood they cover. For example, routes that travel from the downtown area to UNAH are labeled Centro-UNAH or Centro-Multiplaza-UNAH( Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery). Taxis are the quickest way to move around the city after personal auto transportation. Taxis are popular for short-distance trips or trips that required a sense of urgency. Taxis are relatively cheap for the international tourist. They are not the cheapest form of public transportation for the locals, however. There are over 12,000 taxis in the Central District( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery). The public transportation system in Tegucigalpa is, however, highly disorganized.[208] Being a for-profit business, it encourages competition between the fleet owners where revenue is the priority while heavily ignoring the quality and efficiency of the service. Public transportation regulation is heavily flawed. Bus drivers must compete for the passengers in order to bring the highest earnings possible while becoming a hazard for other drivers and pedestrians and contributing to traffic jams( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery). There is currently an overflow of public transportation vehicles on the roads. The government has declared its public transportation system as oversupplied and inefficient. There is currently a project underway to give the public transportation system an upgrade with the addition of a bus rapid transit fleet. In late May 2011, the National Congress approved the project under a new law as part of the financing deal with the Inter-American Development Bank (IAB). The BRT system will be solely managed by the Central District government( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery). National and int'l ground transportation Tegucigalpa is connected with the rest of the country through its city to city bus services. There are several bus lines connecting the capital with the rest of Honduras.[211] There is no central bus terminal in the city; in turn, there are several bus stations scattered throughout the city, particularly most in Comayagüela, and some of these stations are operated directly by the bus company serving from there( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery). Tegucigalpa is connected with the rest of Central America and Mexico through its international bus lines. Buses leave for Guatemala, El Salvador,[212] Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Mexico everyday. 单击此处进行编辑.
San Salvador (English: Holy Savior) is the capital city of the Republic of El Salvador, and the capital of the San Salvador department.[1] It is the country's most populated municipality as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.[2] As a gamma global city, San Salvador is also an important financial center within Central America and in the world economy sony vgp-bps2 battery. The city is home to the Concejo de Minisitro de El Salvador (Council of Ministries of El Salvador), La Asamblea Legislativa (The Legislative Assembly of El Salvador), the Corte Suprema de Justicia (The Supreme Court), and other governmental institutions, as well as the official residence of the president of the republic. San Salvador is located in the Salvadoran highlands sony vgp-bps3 battery, surrounded by volcanoes and prone to earthquakes. The Spaniards called the area "El Vale de Las Hamacas" (English: The Valley of Hammocks), a translation of the name given it by the native Pipil people in allusion to the need for beds that would sway with the earth's movements during an earthquake. With a population of 567,698 (2,442,017 in the metro area), it is the fifth most populated city in Central America, and its metropolitan area is the second most populated sony vgp-bps4 battery. The city is also home to the Catholic Archdiocese, as well as many Protestant branches of Christianity, including Evangelicals, Latter-day Saints, Baptists, and Pentecostals. San Salvador has the second largest Jewish community in Central America,[3] and a small Muslim community. Castilian is spoken by the entire population, and a high percentage speaks English sony vgp-bps5 battery. San Salvador has been the host city for various regional and international sporting, political, and social events. It hosted the Central American and Caribbean Games in 1935 and 2002, and the Central American Games in 1977 and 1994. The Olympic Committee of El Salvador has expressed interest in bidding for the 2019 Pan-American Games; if successful, it will be the first time the Pan American Games have been hosted in Central America. sony vgp-bps7 battery San Salvador has also been the host city of the 18th Ibero-American Summit, held October 29–31, 2008—this is the most important sociopolitical event in the Spanish and Portuguese sphere.[5] The Central American Integration System (SICA) has its headquarters in San Salvador.[6] In 1991, the institutional framework of SICA included Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama sony vgp-bpl7 battery. Belize joined in 2000 as a full member, while the Dominican Republic became an associated state in 2004. The Central American Bank for Economic Integration (BCIE) also has its headquarters in San Salvador. Before the Spanish conquest, the Pipil people established their capital, Cuzcatlán, near the current location of San Salvador. Not much is known about Cuzcatlán, as it was abandoned by its inhabitants in an effort to avoid Spanish rule sony vgp-bps8 battery. Under the orders of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, his associates Gonzalo de Alvarado and Diego de Holguín occupied the empty settlement and began to develop it. Diego de Holguín became the first mayor of San Salvador after the town was founded on April 1, 1525. The town changed location twice, in 1528 and 1545. Originally established in what is now the archaeological site of Ciudad Vieja sony vgp-bps8a battery, north of the present-day city, it was moved to the Valle de Las Hamacas, so named for the intense seismic activity that characterizes it. The new site was chosen because it had more space and more fertile land, thanks to the Acelhuate River. The population of the city remained relatively small until the early 20th century. In January 1885, during the presidency of Dr. Rafael Zaldivar, a group of businessmen and the president's family contributed funds for building the sony vgp-bps8b batterySara Zaldivar Asylum for Indigents and the Elderly. In 1902, the Hospital Rosales was built, named after its benefactor, Dr. Jose Rosales, a banker who gave his fortune to the hospital and to the orphanage. The hospital's construction was begun by president Carlos Ezeta and finished during the presidency of Tomás Regalado. In 1905 president Pedro José Escalón initiated construction of the National Palace, funded by coffee exportation taxes sony vgp-bpl8 battery. The Monumento a los Próceres de 1811(Monument to the Heroes of 1811), located in the Plaza Libertad, and the Teatro Nacional were built in 1911 during Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo's presidency. In 1917, an earthquake during an eruption of the nearby San Salvador volcano (also known as Quetzaltepec) damaged the city, but it escaped additional damage because the lava flowed down the back side of the volcano. On December 2, 1931 sony vgp-bps9 battery, president Arturo Araujo was ousted by a military coup d'état and replaced by a military directorate. The directorate named vice-president Maximiliano Hernández Martínez as president and Araujo went into exile. The Martínez regime lasted from December 4, 1931 to May 6, 1944. In 1964, the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) candidate, José Napoleon Duarte, an engineer, was elected mayor; he served from 1964 to 1970 sony vgp-bps9/s battery. During his term he ordered construction of the Pancho Lara park in the Vista Hermosa neighborhood, renewed the electrical grid, and set up a system of schools for adult education. The 1960s to the 1980s were the golden age of San Salvador in all aspects of security, quality of life, and modernization. Today the tallest building in the country has 28 floors and is 110 meters high sony vgp-bps9a/s battery. With the commencement of the civil war in the 1980s, many modernization projects were halted. Examples of suspended projects include a 40-story government building approximately 160 meters in height, and the Sheraton Hotel Tower, a 26-story building with a rotating restaurant on top sony vgp-bps9/b battery. In 1969, celebrations in the Cuscatlán stadium were held in honor of the returning troops from the Football War with Honduras. The Boulevard de los Héroes (Boulevard of the Heroes) was named after the Salvadoran soldiers who fought there. The 1986 San Salvador earthquake destroyed many government buildings and other important structures, injuring and killing hundreds sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. Thousands of people were displaced by the disaster and many struggled to find shelter in the ruins. In 1986, Mayor Morales Ehrlich closed streets in the downtown of the city to create a large market, which has resulted in chronic traffic congestion. Since 2009, the mayor Norman Quijano has worked for the redevelopment of parks and historic buildings in the Rescate del Centro Historico, which involves the removal of street vendors sony vgp-bps9a battery. This has led to several riots in the area, but he has managed to place the vendors in new markets where they can operate their own stalls. Quijano is widely regarded as the first mayor to truly care for the welfare of the city, consequently he was reelected in 2012. The Chapultepec Peace Accords were signed on January 16, 1992, ending 22 years of civil war. The signing is celebrated as a national holiday with people flooding downtown San Salvador in the Plaza Gerardo Barrios and in La Libertad Park sony vgp-bps9b battery. [edit]Municipal government San Salvador City as darkness descends on the greater metropolitan area. The cities in El Salvador, by constitutional provision (Article 203), are economically and administratively autonomous. San Salvador is governed by a council consisting of a mayor (elected by direct vote every three years, with an option to be re-elected), a trustee and two or more aldermen whose number varies in proportion to the population of the municipality sony vgp-bpl9c battery. Mayor Quijano, a member of the Nationalist Republican Alliance party, is accompanied by a trustee, twelve aldermen, four substitute aldermen, and a secretary. The functions and powers of this government are framed within the rules of the Municipal Code. San Salvador's government is composed of various departments, including the departments of festivals, parks, cemeteries sony vgp-bpl9 battery, and finance. To safeguard the interests of the municipality, there is a board of metropolitan agents. Each of the six city districts also has a government department. The mayor is a member of the Council of Mayors of the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador (COAMSS), composed of fourteen local councils that make up the area known as Greater San Salvador sony vgp-bps10 battery. Sub-division and projects The San Salvador Municipality is divided into Districts. Currently the city has six Districts as listed below: District One - Historic Downtown, Colonia Layco, Colonia La Rabida. (Population: 118,325) District Two - Colonia Centro America, Colonia Miralvalle, Colonia Flor Blanca, Colonia Miramonte. (Population: 110,475) District Three - Colonia Escalon, Colonia San Benito, Colonia La Mascota, Colonia Maquilishuat. (Population: 51,325) Sony VGP-BPS12 BatteryDistrict Four - Colonia San Francisco, Colonia La Cima (I-IV), Colonia La Floresta. (Populaton: 68,465) District Five - Colonia Monserrat, Colonia Modelo, Centro Urbano Candelaria. (Population: 126,290) District Six - Barrio San Esteban. (Population: 92,908) Total Population in all Six Districts: 567,788 The city is located in the Boquerón Volcano Valley, a region of high seismic activity. The city's average elevation is 659 meters above sea level (2,162 feet), but ranges from a highest point of 1,186 m (3,891 ft) Sony VGP-BPL12 Batteryabove sea level to a lowest point of 596 m (1,955 ft) above sea level. The municipality is surrounded by these natural features of the landscape: southward by the Cordillera del Balsamo (Balsam Mountain Range); westward by the Boquerón Volcano and Cerro El Picacho, the highest point in the municipality at 1,929 meters (6,328 ft). El Boquerón Volcano was dormant since its last eruption in 1917 Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery, but has been active recently. East of the municipality lies the San Jacinto Hill and the caldera of Lake Ilopango, the largest natural body of water in the country with an area of 72 km² (28 sq mi). The caldera is seismically active, but has not erupted since 1880.[7] San Salvador has a tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen climate classification, and enjoys warm weather all year round, with daily mean temperatures of 27°C (80°F). Its weather cools from the months of November through February due to seasonal winds of the dry season Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery. During these months one can expect a daily mean of 24.5°C (76°F). The hottest months of the year are April and May, during the transition from the dry season (October–April), to the rainy season (May–September). In April and May temperatures may reach 32°C (90°F). The highest reading ever recorded was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F), the lowest was 8.2 °C (46.8 °F). The highest dew point was 27 °C (81 °F) and the lowest −10 °C (14 °F) Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. Thunderstorms occur almost daily during the rainy season, mostly in the afternoon and through the night—by morning the sky clears and the days are usually sunny till the afternoon storms. San Salvador has a relatively benign climate; the temperature range is constant through the year, and it gets more than adequate rain. Occasional cold fronts can drop temperatures to a range of 10°C (50°F)–15°C (59°F). The passage of cold fronts is facilitated by the volcanic range west of the city Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery: air cools as it moves over the high altitudes of this region, then descends to the San Salvador Valley. Hail storms and snow occur rarely, while tornadoes have never been recorded. Hurricanes pass over the city only occasionally. El Boquerón crater, San Salvador San Salvador has a very hilly terrain; there are few parts of the municipality where the elevation is consistent. San Salvador shares many topographic features with neighboring municipalities in the San Salvador and the La Libertad departments Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. The most notable topographical feature visible in San Salvador and its metropolitan area is the Boquerón Volcano, which looms over this region in its foot hills at a height of 1,893 m (6,211 ft) above sea level. San Salvador shares Cerro El Picacho, 1931 m (6,331 ft) above sea level, with the neighboring municipality of Mejicanos Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. Flora found in the volcanic region of El Boquerón The portion of the Cordillera del Balsamo (Balsam Mountain Range) that sits in the Municipality has an average elevation of 1030 m above sea level. The Cordillera del Balsamo is named after the Myroxylon balsamum tree, one of two species of Central American and South American trees in the Fabaceae family (Leguminosae). The tree, often called Quina or Balsamo, is well known in the western world as the source of Peru balsam and Tolu balsam Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery. El Salvador is the main exporter of these resins, which are still extracted manually. El Cerro de San Jacinto (San Jacinto Hill), is located on the eastern border of the municipality and is shared with Soyapango, Santo Tomás and San Marcos. The summit is located at 1,153 m above sea level (3,782 ft). The hill was once famous for the San Jacinto Cable Car and Park located at its summit, but the facilities were eventually abandoned. Soil types include regosol, latosol, and andosol, as well as soils derived from andesitic and basaltic rocks Sony VGP-BPS13A battery. Aerial view of Lake Ilopango caldera The river nearest San Salvador is the Acelhuate, which is 2.2 km (1.4 miles) long. Although not within the municipality, it forms a natural boundary between San Salvador and Soyapango. The Acelhuate served as a water source for San Salvador during the late 1800s and early 1900s, but due to urbanization is now quite polluted. There are small streams running down from Lake Ilopango, and a few old aqueduct systems Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery, but the municipality itself has no major bodies of water. Lake Ilopango, although not located in the municipality, is the closest large body of water, being only minutes away from the San Salvador historic center. The lake is also the largest natural body of water in the country, with an area of 72 km² (28 sq mi). The Cerrón Grande reservoir, 78 km (48 mi) north of San Salvador, was formed by damming the Lempa River in the municipalities of Potonico, (Chalatenango) and Jutiapa (Cabañas) Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery. The Cerrón Grande Hydroelectric Dam provides a substantial portion of the region's electricity. Spanish, or Castilian (as most people call it), is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. English is spoken more widely than in the past, due mainly to cultural influences from the United States, especially in entertainment. About 86% of the population is considered to be Mestizo, and 12% fall under the category of white, or creole, having mostly Spanish ancestry Sony VGP-BPS13S battery, and a few of French or German descent. Other smaller ethnic groups in the white population are descendants of Swiss, Italians, Syrians, Turks, Jews (mostly Sephardic), and Christian Palestinians, who immigrated to escape persecution from the Muslim community of the West Bank. San Salvador has a population of 567,698 inhabitants, accounting for about 9.45% of the country's population Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery, while the metropolitan area has 2,442,017 inhabitants, or 40.6% of the country's total population. The San Salvador metropolitan area is the second most populated metro area in Central America, surpassed only by the Guatemala City metropolitan area which has over 4 million inhabitants. The population of San Salvador is predominantly Roman Catholic, with a significant minority of Protestants Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery. There is more diversity of religion than in most Latin American countries. Although the Protestant population is mostly Evangelical, there are also Baptist, Pentecostal, and Seventh-Day Adventist churches. One of the largest Protestant churches in the city is the Centro Internacional de Alabanza (International Center of Praise), another is the Tabernaculo Biblico Bautista, Amigos de Israel (Bible Baptist Tabernacle, Friends of Israel). Much of the Protestant population of the country is especially sympathetic to Israel Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery, as indicated by the fact that a city street, Avenida Jerusalén (Jerusalem Avenue), was named after the capital of Israel. There is also a considerable population of members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Mormon community in El Salvador recently built its first temple in El Salvador, a structure of impressive engineering and architecture. There are also smaller Latter Day Saints chapels in Districts 1 and 3 Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. As in most of the country, Roman Catholicism still plays a prominent role in the celebration of holidays, including Las Fiestas Agostinas (The August Festivals) in honor of Jesus Christ, the patron "saint" of El Salvador, referred to as El Salvador del Mundo (The Savior of the World). These events are becoming less prominent with a sharp decline in the Roman Catholic population during the past decade Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery. San Salvador is also home to about 3,500 Jews; the Jewish community is still robust, but less so since the 1980s, as a large number of them left with the start of the Salvadoran Civil War. Many Jews had migrated to El Salvador during World War II due to the the work of José Castellanos Contreras, the Salvadoran diplomatic Consul General in Geneva, Switzerland, who helped a Jewish-Hungarian businessman named Gyorgy Mandl (he later adopted the name George Mantello) Sony VGP-BPL21 batterysave up to 40,000 Jews in Central Europe from the Nazi persecution by giving them Salvadoran nationality papers. The city has a small Christian Arabic community of immigrants from Palestine, and an even smaller Muslim population, but Islam is not well accepted publicly in the country. The country's strong Christian roots and popular sympathy for Israel tend to restrict the practice of Islam. The city also has Korean Evangelical Churches that hold services in the Korean language for a growing Korean population Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. San Salvador is rich in Spanish heritage, and its historical center contains architecture of a kind not found elsewhere in Latin America. The Metropolitan Cathedral was built in the 1950s combining Baroque and eclectic styles of architecture. The National palace, built in 1905, is a mix of Gothic, Neoclassical, and Renaissance Revival architecture. Sony VGP-BPS21A battery The National Theater is the oldest theater in Central America, being built in 1917 in the French Renaissance Revival style with details in the Rococo, Romantic and Art Nouveau architectural styles. The building contains three levels of seats, including a Presidential box at the center of the second level, and has seating for 650 people. The structure is surmounted by an ellipsoidal dome, the interior of which is adorned with a mural painted by Carlos Cañas and a striking crystal chandelier Sony VGP-BPS21B battery. San Salvador is also home to an important museum, the Mueso de Arte de El Salvador (MARTE), whose collection includes artworks dating from the mid-19th century to the contemporary era. The museum has held temporary exhibitions of works by internationally renowned artists like Picasso, Rembrandt, Salvador Dalí and Joan Miró Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery. The Museo Nacional de Antropología (MUNA) or National Museum of Anthropology, founded in 1883 by Dr. David J. Guzmán, has exhibits on human settlements, agriculture, artisans, commerce and trade, religion, arts and communication. The museum aims to foster cultural awareness for Salvadorans through exhibitions, research, publications and educational programs Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. In 2011, the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities or Unión de Ciudades Capitales Iberoamericanas (UCCI), selected San Salvador as a "Latin American capital of culture", recognizing San Salvador's cultural diversity. The city government is restoring the downtown area, with the goal of celebrating the city's past and promoting cultural diversity. The Contracultura website at http://www.contracultura.com.sv/ has information about the cultural movement in El Salvador Sony VGP-BPS13 battery(without CD). The symbols of the city are the shield, flag, anthem, and staff of office. The first three were created as a result of a contest launched in 1943. The shield (designed by the painter José Mejía Vides) shows four quadrants: the two quadrants at the top right and bottom left oblique carry the blue and white (representing the national flag), the top left frame displays an emerald necklace, symbol, and the lower right shows the bell of the Church of La Merced Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery(without CD), which represents the beginning of San Salvador's independence movement in 1811, when José Matías Delgado rang the bells. The flag was designed at the request of the city government. The anthem was written by Carlos Bustamante (lyrics) and Ciriaco de Jesús Alas (music). The municipal staff shows a series of figures and symbols relating to local history. From top to bottom these images are: a native Amerindian Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery(without CD), first mayor Don Diego de Olguín, Carlos V of Spain, the Royal Decree which gave San Salvador its name, Mayor Don Antonio Gutierrez, priest José Matías Delgado, the seal of liberation of 1811, the 1821 independence seal, the shield of the Municipal Freedom Union, the national emblem, and God Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery(without CD). San Salvador serves not only as the capital of El Salvador, but also as the premier city in the country. The metropolitan area accounts for only 3% of the national territory, yet 70% of public and private investment is made there. The economy of San Salvador, Antiguo Cuscatlán, and Santa Tecla, is a mixed one composed mainly of services, private education, banking, business headquartering, and industrial manufacturing Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery(without CD). Other municipalities in the metropolitan area depend either on industry, like Soyapango and Ilopango, on public services, like Mejicanos, or on power generation, as in Nejapa and Apopa. The other municipalities have not developed their own economies, and provide work forces for industry in neighboring municipalities Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery(without CD). San Salvador, as well as the rest of the country, has used the U.S. dollar as its currency of exchange since 2001. This has been a boon to the Salvadoran economy, as it encourages foreign investors to launch new companies in El Salvador, saving them the inconvenience of conversion to other currencies. San Salvador's economy is based more on the service sector and retailing, than on industry or manufacturing Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery(without CD). [edit]Financial sector As the nation's capital, San Salvador supports many commercial activities, including food and beverage production, the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, the sale of automobiles, handicrafts, and construction materials, and appliance repair. Grupo TACA, a multinational consortium which includes the national airline of El Salvador, Costa Rica, and other Central American countries, has its headquarters in San Salvador. Sony VGP-BPS13A battery(without CD) Other companies with headquarters in San Salvador include the Unicomer Group, Almacenes Simán, Grupo Roble, Grupo Real, Excel Automotríz, and Grupo Q. Many international companies like Dell, Microsoft, Continental airlines, Hewlett-Packard, etc., have their regional headquarters in San Salvador. Banks in the cty include Banco Agrícola, Citibank, HSBC, Scotiabank, BAC-Credomatic Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery(without CD), Banco Promérica, Banco Pro-Credit and the Mexican Banco Azteca. Important insurance companies include Asesuisa, SISA, Mapfre-La Centroamericana and Scotia Seguros. Major department stores in San Salvador include Almacenes Simán, and Sears, Walmart, La Despensa de Don Juan, Super Selectos, and PriceSmart Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery(without CD). The city's financial businesses are not located in the historic center, but are spread throughout the other districts in the city, particularly in District 2 and District 3. World Trade Center The World Trade Center San Salvador is located in District 3 (Colonia Escalon) on 87th Avenida Norte and Calle del Mirador. The World Trade Center offers some of the best office locations in the country: it is interconnected to two hotels (one of which is the Crowne Plaza Hotel) Sony VGP-BPS13S battery(without CD), a convention center and a commercial center containing retail shops and restaurants. As of October, 2012, the center consists of two towers of 8 levels each, with a total of 13 thousand m² of office space. Since their completion, the first two towers have maintained a 100 percent occupancy rate with multinational companies, embassies, and firms such as Banco Multisectorial de Inversiones (BMI), Ericsson, Continental Airlines, Microsoft, Inter-American Development Bank, and Banco Promérica maintaining offices there Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery(without CD). Centro Financiero Gigante Centro Financiero Gigante is a complex of office buildings consisting of five towers: the highest of which is 77 meters (253 ft) tall and has 19 floors. Centro Financiero Gigante is a phased project which began with the construction of the two towers. After several years the number of buildings has increased, and it has become one of the most significant business complexes in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery(without CD). The tallest tower is occupied by the Telefónica phone company, the next tallest tower is used by RED Business Communication Systems. The complex also includes the Banco Azteca center, Stream Global Services representing Dell in Central America, The Israeli Embassy of San Salvador, Tigo, call centers, and other small offices and banks Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery(without CD). The project started in 1997 with Phase I, the construction of the two tallest towers. In Phase II a 7 story-high tower for the old Dell company in Central America was built, and in Phase III a 12 story-high tower for Tigo and a 10-story-high tower for Telemovil. The final phase was remodeling of the Telemovil building to convert it into the Banco Azteca Center Sony VGP-BPS13B battery(without CD). Alameda Manuel Enrique Araujo and Zona Rosa Along Alameda Manuel Enrique Araujo there are many businesses, banks, and financial centers, government institutions and museums, such as: AFP Confia, the Superior Council of Public Health, the HSBC Central Office, AFP Crecer, the Ministry of Public Works, the Centro Internacional de Feria y Convenciones (International Center of Fairs and Conventions) Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery(without CD), the Presidential Palace, the Museo Nacional de Antropología David J. Guzman (National Museum of Anthropology), the Banco Promerica Financial Center, the Ministry of Tourism, the Channel 2 & 4 Studio Center, the Channel 6 Studio Center, and the Centro de Compañía de Alumbrado Eléctrico de San Salvador (CAESS-Centro) or Electric Lighting Company of San Salvador Center Sony VGP-BPL21 battery(without CD). Communications See also: Telecommunications in El Salvador A relatively large proportion of residents have telephones, televisions, and access to the internet, and several communications companies have their headquarters in San Salvador. The largest are Tigo, Claro-Telecom, Movistar-Telefónica, and Digicel. All of these companies provide 3G networks, cable TV, and internet services. El Salvador's television stations are based primarily in San Salvador. Stations include the following Sony VGP-BPS21 battery(without CD): YSTV Channel 2, also known as Teledos; a Telecorporación Salvadoreña (TCS)station YSU4 Channel 4, also known as Canal Cuatro; a TCS station YSWA Channel 6, also known as Canal Seis; a TCS station YSWE Channel 8, a broadcasting service known as Ágape TV YSWD-TV Channel 10, an educational television station TV Doce Channel 12, Telesistema a broadcasting service Channel 15, an MTV Networks Latin America station CF 17, a church-owned independent religious television station Canal 19 (Channel 19), broadcasting Nickelodeon Latin America Canal 21 (Channel 21), broadcasting Telemundo Sony VGP-BPS21A battery(without CD)Musica a Colores Channel 23, an independent station broadcasting music videos Fundación Canal 25 (Channel 25), broadcasting Trinity Broadcasting Network Canal 27 (Channel 27), an independent religious television station UTEC Channel 33 VTV Channel 35; station owned by Telecorporación Salvadoreña Canal Católico channel 57, a religious television station operated by the Roman Catholic Church CJC Channel 65 Sony VGP-BPS21B battery(without CD)TCI Channel 67 Services and Retail Shopping San Salvador's economy is based mostly on the service sector, where the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods. San Salvador has many restaurants, and at any given time of the day most restaurants are open, with people eating. Even on an average Saturday when one might expect the rush hour in a restaurant to be from 11:00 am until 1:00 pm, the restaurants in San Salvador are full as late as 3:00 pm Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. The city also has many shopping malls, including Metrocentro, the largest shopping mall in Central America, as well as retail stores such as Wal-Mart, Office Max, and a Pricesmart warehouse club. The tallest shopping mall in the region, Centro Comercial Galerias, was built around and over an old mansion, La Casona, dating from the late 1950s, which was home to a family of Palestinian origin, the Guirolas Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. It is the only mall in the world with such an attraction. The house has been perfectly preserved and is used as a space for shops, cafes, and small restaurants. Galerías has three underground parking levels, three stories of shops and food courts, one story that serves as the administrative offices ofGrupo Siman, which owns the complex, and a retail store. The uppermost two floors of the mall are used as a cinema, giving the structure a total of 9 stories including the parking levels Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery. San Salvador has hundreds of locally owned restaurants, but is also home to several international restaurant chains. Pizza Hut is popular here, but is based on a different concept than in the United States. In El Salvador a Pizza Hut franchise offers more options—serving salads, pastas, and desserts in addition to pizza, similarly to the Olive Garden chain in the U.S. Many other fast food chains operate in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery, including Pollo Campero and most of the other chains popular in the U.S. The city also has "splurge" restaurants unique in Central America, as well as fine dining restaurants featuring Mexican, Spanish, South American and other international cuisines. San Salvador has small industrial zones scattered throughout the municipality, although most of them are concentrated in the eastern section near the border with Soyapango. Much of the industry is related to food processing, beverage manufacturing Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery, and sugar refining. Construction materials ranging from ceramic tiles to concrete blocks and concrete are produced in large quantities; plastics extrusion, including the production of piping, is also an important industry. Industrias La Constancia, El Salvador's largest brewer and bottler of purified water, dominates the Salvadoran export market of beers and bottled water. The company became part of the second largest brewer in the world, SABMiller, in 2005 Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. Its flagship brand is Pilsener, a Pilsner style lager beer which has been the recipient of many awards nationally and internationally; it is the national beer of El Salvador. In 2011, La Constancia centralized its operations and opened its new headquarters in San Salvador, where it moved in 1928 from the Santa Ana Department. The company produces the Agua Cristal brand of bottled water Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery, the best selling in El Salvador and in the Central American region. The Coca Cola company uses the La Constancia installations to manufacture its beverage brands sold in El Salvador and the rest of Central America. Unilever, a British–Dutch multinational consumer goods company, has a plant in San Salvador. Its products include foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products. It is the world's third-largest consumer goods company as of 2011, and owns over 400 brands. Unilever manufactures all its products sold in Central America in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery. Landmarks and buildings The Complete Skyline as 2011 In contrast to many other cities, the financial center of San Salvador is not located downtown, but at the periphery, towards the northwestern sections of the city. Downtown or "Old" San Salvador possesses many historical buildings, including the National Palace, the National Theater, the Plaza Libertad, and the Cathedral. Due to continuous seismic activity Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery, downtown San Salvador currently has no major high rise buildings. However, modern building technology is allowing the construction of taller earthquake-resistant buildings. The rest of the city has undergone a major change of skyline following the year 2008, with many projects completed or underway. Main article: San Salvador Historic Downtown Historic Downtown District 1 District 1 is the historical center of the capital city. The original buildings of the Spanish colonial era have been mostly destroyed by natural disasters Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery. Notable surviving buildings were erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This district has long been the country's political, economic and religious center. The earthquake of 1986 severely damaged the area, and due to rising unemployment it has been occupied by a large quantity of street vendors and other informal traders. The tallest buildings in District 1 are those in the Governmental Center. The tallest building is 14 stories and 65 m in height Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. The tallest structure is not a building, but rather the cathedral's bell tower, which is approximately 80 m in height. A view of District 2 District 2[9] is mostly residential, and its northern section has a slower pace, with few traffic jams. The district has a long history. During the 1980s, construction in this area was originally intended to be the focal point for the modernization of San Salvador, but due to the outbreak of civil war, many of these projects were cancelled Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. The planned new Government Center was to have a 40 story office complex. This and other proposed facilities, including medical facilities, were never built. Although the projected growth in the area never reached its predicted potential, some other projects were completed during this period. Grupo Roble opened the Metrocentro Project, still the largest mall in Central America Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery. This project has a mall, hotel, and small business plaza with the company headquarters tower, known today as Torre Roble, which stands 14 stories (56 m) high. Long after the civil war was over, the Centro Financiero Gigante Project along the Plaza Las Americas was started, consisting of four phases: one with the two main towers and three phases with a smaller tower Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. Many business and banking headquarters have opened around thePlaza Las Americas, such as those of Banco Agricola, AFP Confia, Torre Montecristo and the Centro Finaciero Gigante, where Tigo, Telefónica, RED, Banco Azteca and the Israeli Embassy have offices. Plaza Futura Fountain District 3 is undergoing a building boom, with many highrises recently completed, and many more under construction. District 3 is the district with the greatest economic activity Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery. The Torre Futura World trade center is the tallest building in San Salvador and second tallest building in the country at 99 m and 19 stories. The Alisios 115 Apartment Tower, 96 m and 26 stories high, is located in the Zona Rosa, a key location in the city. Next to this building two additional towers, 24 stories and 92 m high, will be built. Campestre 105 Towers I, II, and III stand on the top of the Masferrer Roundabout Plaza SONY VGN-FZ11E battery, the tallest tower with 24 stories and 79.5 m in height followed by its sister towers with respective floor counts of 21 and 13. Next to the Campestre 105 stands the Terra Alta Apartment Tower, 26 stories and 90 m high. The Hilton Hotel is another standout building of the city's skyline. Next to the Zona Rosa lies the San Benito area, with the main apartment tower complexes SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. Agrisal has announced plans to build a complex which includes a 25 story high corporate tower connected to a hotel tower and a shopping complex. District 3 includes the International Center of Conventions and Fairs, the National Museum of Anthropology, and almost all the foreign embassies. District 3 is the safest district, and the district with the most tourism activity. This district has many monuments SONY VGN-FZ11M battery, most notably the statue of Jesus Christ, El Salvador del Mundo, at the Plaza Las Americas. There are also many government buildings, including the Ministry of Public Works and the Ministry of Tourism, as well as the headquarters of corporations in the financial services sector, such as HSBC and AFP Crecer. Shopping centers in this district include Plaza Basilea, Plaza Zona Rosa, El Paseo, and Galerias as well as many stores of international chains based in North America and Europe. SONY VGN-FZ11S battery[edit]District 4 District 4 is composed of three main neighborhoods, La Cima (I, II, and III), Colonia Militar, and Colonia San Francisco. The ridgeline in this area contains residential neighborhoods for the upper-middle class and upper classes, where many of the residences are mansions. The RN-5, a major highway in the city, runs through this district. Alongside RN-5 is the Torre Cuscatlán, now renamed Torre Citibank SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery, a tower 79m high with 19 floors and two underground parking levels. For many years it was the tallest building in the city. The Torre Citi has been standing by itself for 30 years. Several construction projects were planned near the building in the 1980s, but were canceled because of the civil war. Later projects were halted in 2009 because of the economic recession SONY VGN-FZ130E/B battery. Another major landmark in District 4 is the Cuscatlán Stadium, the second largest stadium in Central America with a capacity of over 35,000 spectators. District 5 contains mostly middle-class and lower-middle-class homes, and also includes the National Zoo. The district borders San Marcos on the east. Many tourists visit this district for its eateries, particularly its numerous pupuserias, even though it has a relatively high crime rate SONY VGN-FZ15 battery. District 5 has many viewpoints which look out over San Salvador and other cities beyond,[11] such as San Marcos, Mejicanos, and Ciudad Delgado. District 6, bordering Soyapango on the east and Ciudad Delgado on the north, is the smallest district in San Salvador. The neighborhood is middle-lower class, and is known to be quite dangerous. The most outstanding landmark is the San Jacinto Hill; the Old Presidential House was formerly here SONY VGN-FZ15G battery. Urban development Early colonial development could not anticipate the extensive growth of the city in the following centuries. Thus, the city contains many narrow streets which create traffic problems, and sidewalks are often overcrowded. As the expansion of San Salvador continues, the need for infrastructure improvements becomes more acute SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. During the 1960s, urban expansion was most prevalent in the northern and southern parts of the city, while the 1970s saw growth continue further south, north and west. Colonias Miravalle, Montebello, Satellite, Maquilishuat, San Mateo Lomas de San Francisco, Alta Mira, Loma Linda, La Floresta, and Jardines de la Libertad were built during this period SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. The expansion of San Salvador, while occurring in all directions, was primarily in the direction of the volcano of San Salvador. The increased demand for housing was due to an increase in the numbers of middle class workers, members of the military, and professionals. Around 2000, the city expansion westward slowed. There was an expansion of middle-class neighborhoods such as Merliot, Santa Elena and the Tier, but the product of internal migration and SONY VGN-FZ15S battery the cessation of armed conflict created a high demand for urban public housing. This gave rise to large urban development projects mostly in the east and north, to the phenomenon of "bedroom communities", and to a disorderly growth pattern. AMSS (San Salvador Metropolitan Area) Cathedral de Nuestra Señora del Carmen in downtown Santa Tecla San Salvador, founded in 1525, was the second city in Central America established by the Spanish colonizers. When El Salvador became independent in 1821 SONY VGN-FZ15T battery, San Salvador had a population of 10,000. A large migration of rural residents to the capital increased the population to 25,000 by 1825. When the city was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1854, the surviving population left and created a new city, Santa Tecla, which served as the temporary capital from 1854 to 1859, until San Salvador was rebuilt SONY VGN-FZ17 battery. Birds eye view of Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo plaza The continued development of San Salvador was spurred by the success of the local coffee industry, and it became a very productive commercial city. By 1890 the city had 94,580 Inhabitants. In 1901 it was composed of the urban center (population 80,167), Vista Hermosa (13,123), and Planes de Rendero (1,560), and expanded toward the volcano in the following years SONY VGN-FZ17G battery. In the 1970s the city population leaped from 430,500 to 700,000. As San Salvador grew, it merged with neighboring cities, forming the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador (AMSS), a conglomerate of 14 municipalities. These were consolidated in 1993, through Legislative Decree No. 732 of the Law on Territorial Development and the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador and Neighboring Municipalities SONY VGN-FZ17L battery. The act stipulates that the constituent cities form a single urban unit. Since 1990, due to the rapid growth of San Salvador and neighboring municipalities, the government established initiatives to plan and guide the development of the metropolis. The AMSS is the heart of the country's political, financial, economic and cultural life. It accounts for 27% of the population and 70% of public and private investment, in only 3% of the national territory SONY VGN-FZ18 battery. Together the fourteen municipalities give the AMSS a total population of 2,177,432 inhabitants (2009 census). The Government expects a total population of 2.5 million by the year 2011. Tourism and sites of interest Historic Downtown Main article: San Salvador Historic Downtown The historic downtown of San Salvador includes the area where the capital city of El Salvador has been located since the 16th century. The original buildings of the Spanish colony have been mostly destroyed by natural disasters over the years. The few notable surviving buildings were erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mayor Norman Quijano started several large projects with the goal of restoring the former grandeur of the buildings in the center SONY VGN-FZ18E battery. One such project is to reroute the public transportation routes so they no longer pass through the historic downtown. Another project is the relocation of illegal street vendors to a designated public market. National Palace The current National Palace building replaced the old National Palace built in 1866–1870, which was destroyed by fire on December 19, 1889. The construction, done between 1905 and 1911, was the work of engineer José Emilio Alcaine SONY VGN-FZ18G battery, under the direction of the foreman Pascasio González Erazo. To finish the project, legislation was passed that collected one colon for every quintal of coffee exported. The materials used were imported from several European countries including Germany, Italy and Belgium. Its facilities were occupied by government offices until 1974 SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. The building contains four main rooms and 101 secondary rooms; each of the four main rooms has a distinctive color. The Red Room (Salon Rojo) is used for receptions held by the Salvadoran Foreign Ministry, and the ceremonial presentation of the credentials of ambassadors. It has been used for ceremonial purposes since the administration of General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez. The Yellow Room (Salon Amarillo) is used as an office for the President of the Republic SONY VGN-FZ18ME battery, while the Pink Room (Salon Rosado) housed the Supreme Court and later the Ministry of Defense. The Blue Room (Salon Azul) was the meeting place of the Legislature of El Salvador from 1906, and its classical architecture with Ionian, Corinthian and Roman elements is notable. The room is now called the Salvadoran Parliament in commemoration of its former purpose, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974 SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. Metropolitan Cathedral Main article: San Salvador Cathedral The new National Cathedral, facing Plaza Barrios in the city centre The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Holy Savior (Catedral Metropolitana de San Salvador) is the principal church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Salvador and the seat of the Archbishop of San Salvador. The church was twice visited by Pope John Paul II, who said that the cathedral was "intimately allied with the joys and hopes of the Salvadoran people SONY VGN-FZ18T battery." During his visits in 1983 and 1996, the Pope knelt and prayed before the Tomb of Archbishop Óscar Romero, assassinated in 1980, whose tomb here is a major draw for pilgrims. The Cathedral's site is the location of the old Temple of Santo Domingo (St. Dominic). Forty four people died on Palm Sunday, March 31, 1980, during the funeral of Archbishop Romero, as a result of a stampede after some gunmen SONY VGN-FZ19L battery, allegedly members of security forces (although it has never been corroborated), fired on mourners and on Romero's funeral cortege. The gunmen were never identified. The square in front of the Cathedral was the site of celebrations after the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords that ended the Salvadoran Civil War in 1992. The Cathedral was finished off with a festive tiled facade by the Salvadoran master Fernando Llort and inaugurated on March 19, 1999 SONY VGN-FZ19VN battery. National Theater Main article: Teatro Nacional de El Salvador National Theater of El Salvador The Teatro Nacional de El Salvador, or National Theater of El Salvador, is the oldest theater in Central America. It was designed by the French architect Daniel Beylard, with construction starting on November 3, 1911. The building was inaugurated on March 1, 1917. It is of French Renaissance style with modern touches, and was decorated by the Italian architect Lucio Capellaro SONY VGN-FZ20 battery. Its Grand Hall is considered one of the most beautiful and elegant halls in Central America. The National Theater is located on the southern side of Francisco Morazán Plaza on Calle Delgado. The Theater is in the French Renaissance style with details in other styles such as Rococo, Romantic, and Art Nouveau. It can seat 650 spectators in the Grand Hall. It has balconies on three levels; the Presidential Balcony, located between the third and second Floor SONY VGN-FZ210CE battery, has a direct view of center stage. The theater features an ellipsoidal dome containing a mural by painter Carlos Cañas and a striking crystal chandelier. Other spaces include the Chamber Hall and the Grand Foyer. It was declared a National Monument in 1979. Today, the theater is open to tourists, and since the Historic Downtown Restoration has been used for plays, shows, operas, song recitals, and modern dance performances. The theater is the largest and most luxurious in Central America SONY VGN-FZ21E battery. Calle Arce (Maple street) is a major street in San Salvador. Mayor Norman Quijano inaugurated the first phase of its redevelopment near the Plaza de la Salud, which focuses on improvements to the sidewalks between 21st and 19th Avenida Norte. Twelve antique lights, originally from Spain and dating from 1900, will be installed, along with six benches and forty trees SONY VGN-FZ21J battery. At the same time, sidewalks will be renovated with ramps to provide access for people with disabilities and seniors. Calle Arce is monitored by 24 members of the Corps Metropolitan Agents (CAM), who specialize in the maintenance and protection of the new public space. La Plaza Gerardo Barrios, also known as the Civic Plaza, is located in the heart of the city. The statue that dominates the site, designed by Francisco Durini SONY VGN-FZ21M battery, is dedicated to President Gerardo Barrios and was unveiled in 1909. It was the work of the sculptors Antonio and Carlos Ezeta, who were brothers. The figure, made of bronze, is placed on a pedestal of granite and depicts battle scenes and the shield of El Salvador. Plaza Gerardo Barrios is the site of many demonstrations and political rallies. Mass is celebrated there as well, and it is the destination of many parades. The plaza is the focal point for celebrations accompanying the feast of San Salvador on August 5 and 6. SONY VGN-FZ21S battery The religious procession called El Descenso ("The Descent"), dedicated to the Divine Savior of the World and representing the resurrection of Jesus and his descent from the tomb, terminates there. Plaza Libertad Plaza Libertad contains the Monumento de los Héroes (Monument to the Heroes), a commemoration of the centenary of the "First Cry of Independence" in 1811. The monument is crowned by an "angel of freedom" at its pinnacle holding a laurel wreath in both hands SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery. Years later, as a consequence of increased commercial activity, the area around the plaza was enhanced with the construction of the ornate Portal la Dalia in 1915–1916 and Portal de Occidente in 1917. The Government of El Salvador, headed by Rafael Zaldivar, ordered the erection of a marble statue in honor of Francisco Morazán, president of the Federal Republic of Central America, to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of his death on March 15, 1882. The work was created by the artist Francisco Durini in Genoa, Italy SONY VGN-FZ29VN battery. The son of Morazan attended the inauguration as a representative of the Government of Honduras. El Salvador's government declared March 15 as a day of national civic celebration. This important residential building was built in the 1920s by coffee farmer Miguel Dueñas. The government confiscated the house in 1922 to cover debts of the owner. The house remained unoccupied for years SONY VGN-FZ31B battery. From 1930 to 1933, Mexico leased the house for use by its diplomatic delegation. From 1935 to 1957, the United States legation rented the house for the residence of its ambassadors. Six successive U.S. ambassadors resided there, and occasional guests such as former Presidents Richard Nixon and Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Robert Kennedy, and movie stars Clark Gable and Tony Curtis stayed there. After 1957 it was the temporary headquarters of an advertising agency SONY VGN-FZ31E battery. The building remained vacant after 1960, until 1973 when the Department of Vocational Training Ministry of Labor occupied it. In 1986 the structure was declared a Cultural Asset by an Executive Agreement of May 8, 1985. The ministry of Labor transferred the property to the authorities of the Ministry of Education, to explore the possibility of a restoration and rehabilitation. In 2001 the restoration work began, under the leadership of Dr. Alfredo Martínez Moreno SONY VGN-FZ31J battery, former director of the Salvadorean Language Academy and the Royal Spanish Academy. Zona Rosa is a nightclub neighborhood in District 3. It has many hotels, ranging from five star luxury hotels to small, comfortable guest houses. Zona Rosa also includes many high class restaurants and fast food restaurants. The area includes a small business center, and a 25 story high business tower is under construction SONY VGN-FZ31M battery. Zona Rosa also has many apartment projects which are changing the landscape and life of the area. It is easy to get to Zona Rosa from any part of the city: it is 45 minutes away from the International Airport, and from Escalon one can take 79 Avenue South. Hilton Princess – The Hilton Princess San Salvador hotel is conveniently located within the business district of San Salvador, 45 minutes away from the San Salvador International Airport; offering the plushest accommodations and the finest amenities among Hilton Princess SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery. The Hilton Princess San Salvador hotel includes 204 guestrooms and suites and 5,934 square feet (551.3 m2) of flexible function space. Sheraton Presidente – The Sheraton has a central location just a few steps from the city's most exclusive stores, bars and restaurants. Suites Las Palmas – Hotel Suites Las Palmas is located in Colonia San Benito,[12] one of the most exclusive and strategic neighborhoods in San Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR110 battery, within the Zona Rosa's lively environment, adjacent to many restaurants, bars, museums and near to International Center for Fairs and Conventions. The Hotel offers 47 suites. Two of the most important museums in San Salvador are located in Zona Rosa. They are Museo David J. Guzmán and Museo de Arte de El Salvador (MARTE). David J. Guzman National Museum of Anthropology contains a variety of Mayan and Pipil artifacts that date to Mayan classical period Sony VAIO VGN-CR115 battery. This museum consists of several co-located facilities. The Museum has its own theater, often used by schools to present lessons on subjects such as the theory of evolution, how dinosaurs disappeared, and the cultural heritage from the Mayan Civilization. Museo de Arte MARTE displays an extensive collection of Salvadoran and international art. [edit]Convention centers The Centro Internacional de Ferias y Convenciones (CIFCO) is a multipurpose convention center in the city of San Salvador. Its facilities are located in the Colonia San Benito-Zona Rosa (District 3) Sony VAIO VGN-CR115E battery, 5 miles (8.0 km) from the Historic Downtown of San Salvador (District 1), in a residential area with good transportation facilities and easy access to first class hotels. It is regarded as the largest and most modern convention center in Central America. It is affiliated with the Union of International Fairs (UFI) and the Association of International Fairs of America (AFIDA) Sony VAIO VGN-CR116 battery. The CIFCO amphitheater is one of the most important performance venues in San Salvador, hosting many concerts and international artists. It has a capacity of 15,000 persons. It also has a parking for over 800 vehicles. From 2003 until 2010, the CIFCO underwent renovation, adding five pavilions and restructuring of the drainage system. The renovation also included the construction of a three-level underground parking for 3,500 vehicles Sony VAIO VGN-CR116E battery, and hotels within the center. Goals of CIFCO include: Support the international exchange of technological, commercial and industrial ideas Plan and organize conventions for exhibitors from the realms of commerce, industry and tourism Provide a pleasing environment for guests and visitors Promoting the image of El Salvador both nationally and internationally Restaurants and nightlife Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B batteryThere are many restaurants in the Zona Rosa. Some of the most notable restaurants include 503, Paradise Lobster and Steak Dinner, A Lo Nuestro, La Pampa Argentina, Inka Grill, Sushi-Itto, Dynasty Chinese, Diva, and Tre-Fratelli. Zona Rosa has the most vibrant nightlife of San Salvador, featuring many bars, nightclubs, and pubs Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L battery. Shopping centers Metrocentro, on Boulevard Los Heroes, is the largest mall in Central America. It took one year to construct the first part of mall, which opened in 1970, and by 2008 the mall had grown to 1,000 stores. The mall receives about 1,700,000 shoppers every month. The mall is owned by Grupo Roble, a Salvadoran construction company, which has also built Metrocentro malls in other cities in El Salvador, such as Santa Ana Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P battery, San Miguel and Sonsonate. The company has opened Metrocentro Malls outside El Salvador, in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Panama. Centro Comercial el Paseo, on Paseo General Escalon, is a mall which is also owned by Roble. This mall is relatively small compared to Metrocentro, but the stores are more upscale, including a BMW Dealership, Super Selectos Super Market, and MAX Electronic Stores. Restaurants in this mall include La Panetiere (French), Tre Fratelli (Italian) Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W battery, Coffee Cup, Puerco Rico (Puerto Rican), TGI Friday's, and Buffalo Wings. Centro Comercial Galerias is an eight story mall (3 levels for parking). The mall was built in two phases: the first phase saw the construction of the 3 parking floors and three shopping floors. The second phase added two more stories for shopping. The mall was built around an old house, which was restored and used for shopping space. This mall includes banking facilities, a fast food court, and many European shops, like Givenchy, Bershka, Pull and Bear, and Zara Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R battery. The restaurant scene in San Salvador is influenced by many different cultures. Food options include Italian, Korean, Japanese, Thai, French, Chilean, American, Peruvian, Mexican, Spanish, Middle Eastern, German, Chinese, Argentine and others. Local food options include several "Pupuserias" where one can purchase the famous Salvadoran Pupusas Sony VAIO VGN-CR120 battery. San Salvador has many museums. The two largest and most popular are Museo Nacional de Antropologia de El Salvador (MUNA) and Museo de Arte de El Salvador. MUNA's mission is to help Salvadorans reflect on their cultural identity through exhibitions, research, publications and educational programs in the fields of archeology and anthropology Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E battery. The museum's exhibits are a testimony to the social processes of the various human groups who have inhabited El Salvador. MARTE's mission is to contribute to the development of the country's education and culture through the conservation and dissemination of the artistic heritage, and by strengthening historic knowledge, reaffirming cultural values that shape the Salvadoran identity Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/L battery, and promoting new artistic languages. MARTE, a private, nonprofit organization, opened on May 22, 2003. In the time that it has existed, the museum has become an essential element of the cultural life of Central America, with its representative view of art from the mid-nineteenth century to contemporary times. A different, but equally popular museum, is Tin Marín Museo de los Niños (Tin Marin Children's Museum), located between Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda and Parque Cuscatlán. Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/P battery Tin Marín seeks to contribute to children becoming integral and creative citizens through significant learning, cultural stimulation and entertaining experimentation.[16] The museum has more than 25 exhibits, including The Airplane, The Grocery Store, and the Planetarium. [edit]Hotels San Salvador is home to over 90 hotels, covering a wide range of sizes and prices. The choices include small hotels, located in quiet neighborhoods Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/R battery, and five star hotels. In the Zona Rosa the Hilton Hotel, a five start hotel built in 1997 by Grupo Agrisal, is 55 meters in height(180 ft) and has 15 stories, plus two parking levels, 204 rooms, and eight suites. Zona Rosa also includes hotels such as Suite Las Palmas, Sheraton Presidente, and other small hotels. Connecting to the Torre Futura World Trade Center Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/W battery, in the Escalon neighborhood that lies on the foothills of Cerro El Picacho and the San Salvador Volcano, lies the Crowne Plaza Hotel. The Real InterContinental hotel connects to the Connecting to the Metrocentro mall. In Antiguo Cuscatlán there are many other hotels, for example the Holiday Inn which is connected by a pedestrian bridge to a small shopping plaza, with many restaurants and cafes and the first Starbucks in the country Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/B battery. Beverly Hills Hotel, a five star suite hotel, is located in northern Antiguo Cuscatlán next to the Avante Business Center. Gastronomic festivals All over the country, there are gastronomic festivals, where people sell food and enjoy art and music. At San Salvador, one is held at Las Fuentes de Bethoven Park every month. Magico Gonzalez Statium Estadio Cuscatlán, with a capacity of over 45,000, is the largest soccer venue not only in Central America, but the Caribbean, as well. It was announced on November 16, 2007 that Estadio Cuscatlán would become the first soccer stadium in Central America and Caribbean to have a large LED screen, where the supporters can view the action Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G battery. The screen is 40 meters in height and width and was completed in March 2008. Estadio Cuscatlán was built in the early 1980s right before the beginning of the civil war. This building, was supposed to kick-off an era of modernization of San Salvador in the 1980s, but the civil war took 12 years of development from the country. Another major stadium is Estadio Nacional de la Flor Blanca, with a capacity of 32,000. This stadium hosted the Central American and Caribbean Games in 2002, where El Salvador came in 6th place among 37 countries Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B battery. San Salvador is currently home of three major soccer teams in the Primera División (El Salvador): Alianza F.C., C.D. Atlético Marte and C.D. Universidad de El Salvador . Alianza F.C. currently plays their home games at Estadio Cuscatlán; Club Deportivo Marte currently plays their home games at Estadio Nacional "Flor Blanca", and C.D. Universidad de El Salvador plays their home games at Estadio Universitario UES Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L battery. Alianza is well known throughout El Salvador for its loyal supporters and for the atmosphere created during games. Alianza gained fame in Central America for winning the CONCACAF Championship and for beating the Brazilian team, Santos, when that side featured the football legend Pele. Marte was also once a prominent team, winning 8 national championships and the 1991 CONCACAF Cup Winners Cup Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P battery. C.D. Universidad de El Salvador is one of the soccer teams that recently acquired one place on the Primera División (El Salvador), at June 6, 2010, as defeating in an epic Final Game to C.D. Once Municipal from Ahuachapán. [edit]Organized Soccer Crowds in San Salvador City, San Salvador San Salvador has a large number of private high schools, including Protestant schools (such as Colegio Cristiano Josue, Colegio Bautista de San Salvador located in San Jacinto neighborhood) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R battery, Catholic high schools (such as Liceo Salvadoreño, Colegio Champagnat, Externado San José, Colegio Don Bosco, Colegio La Asunción, Colegio María Auxiliadora), and other secular (such as García Flamenco and Colegio Augusto Walte). San Salvador also has many private bilingual schools, such as: Colegio Cristiano Josue (English), Academia Británica Cuscatleca (British English), Colegio Internacional de San Salvador (English), Escuela Americana (English) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W battery, Escuela Panamericana (English), Liceo Francés (French) and Escuela Alemana (German). El Salvador employs a school classification system administered by the government teaching service (MINED), which scores both private and public schools. A score of A is among the highest, and a score of C means the school needs improvement. San Salvador is home to many higher education institutions. The only public university in the country is Universidad de El Salvador, which is one of the best universities in Central America Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L battery. Private universities, like Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas and Universidad Tecnológica, are also located in the capital city. Other universities that focus on particular professions include Escuela de Comunicacion Monica Herrera, ESEN (Escuela Superior de Economia y Negocios), Escuela Militar (Military School) and many others. San Salvador a major transportation hub, served by a comprehensive public transport network. Major routes of the national transportation network run through the city Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P battery. The country's primary airport is El Salvador International Airport (AIES), which handles all international flights for El Salvador. AIES replaced Ilopango as the country's main airport in 1980. AIES: Until 1980, San Salvador was served by Ilopango International Airport, but on January 31, 1980, Ilopango was replaced by the El Salvador International Airport (IATA: SAL, ICAO: MSLP) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R battery. Ilopango airport is located within the city limits and could not be expanded due to the lack of land and the surrounding population, so the new airport was built outside the city in the neighboring department of La Paz. AIES lies on flat terrain, and it is not surrounded by populated areas, so it can be expanded in the future. AIES is located in the municipality of San Luis Talpa located at 40 km (25miles) from San Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L battery. With 2,076,258 passengers in 2008, it was the third busiest airport by passenger traffic in Central America Ilopango International: Ilopango International Airport, is used for military and charter aviation. It recently underwent renovation, and re-opened in 2009. Ilopango is the host of an annual air show. Tamarindo Regional: There are plans to build a new airport on the Salvadoran coast of El Tamarindo, La Unión Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P battery. Construction began of the first Expressway/Freeway in Central America RN-21 (Boulevard Diego Holguin), due to the increasing amount of vehicular traffic in the west side of the San Salvador Metropolitan Area, which consist of three cities: Santa Tecla, Antiguo Cuscatlan, and San Salvador, in El Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R battery. RN-5 Los Proceres East/West San Salvador has excellent transportion connectivity, due to its extensive road network and its street maintenance system. Interamerican Development Bank has determined that San Salvador has one of the best road systems in Latin America.[citation needed] The road system of Metropolitan Area of San Salvador handles approximately 400,000 vehicles per day. In the morning rush hour, about 600,000 trips are made Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W battery. The main highway which passes thru San Salvador is the CA-1 (Pan-American highway), which at one point becomes Bulevar Arturo Castellanos. The RN-21 (also known as Bulevar Diego de Holguin) is a major east–west road which connects the cities, of Santa Tecla, Antiguo Cuscatlán and it finally merges in San Salvador with the RN-5 East/West (also known as Bulevar Los Proceres) that later turn into the North/South RN-5 heading towards the International Airport Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/W battery. Another major roadway is the RN-4 (Carretera Este Oeste) which goes from San Salvador through Apopa, and subsequently merges with the CA-1 Panamericana. Roads in the capital are named "street" if they travel east-west, and are called "avenue" if they travel north-south. Road numbering starts at the downtown intersection of Avenida Espana/Avenida Cuscatlán and Delgado Arce street. Avenues to the west of this intersection have odd-number names, and to the east of the intersection they have even-number names Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B battery. Streets have odd-number names if they are to the north of the intersection, and even-number names to the south. One particularly heavily travelled road is 49a Avenida Norte, which connects with the RN-5 highway to the airport. An important historical street is Calle Arce, which was shut down in order to create a pedestrian-only region which is part of the historic downtown of San Salvador. Some streets in the city are very narrow with little room for cars to pass Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L battery, yet there are also many streets that are wide. Within the city, the speed limits are 90kph on highways, 60 km/h on main roads, and 40 km/h on secondary streets and avenues. The San Salvador Metropolitan Area Integrated System of Transportation (SITRAMSS) is a proposed high-volume bus transportation system. The first route of the SITRAMSS will make a round trip from San Martin, through Ilopango Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P battery, Soyapango, through San Salvador, to Antiguo Cuscatlan, and terminate in Santa Tecla. It is estimated that between 40 and 60 busses capable of carrying 160 passengers per trip will start operating in the second half of 2013.[18] The departure interval will be approximately eight to ten minutes.[19] By the time the buses have reached the San Salvador historic downtown they would already transported 20,000 passengers Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W battery, SITRAMSS us a public-private partnership involving the current passenger transport operators, who must purchase the busses. To pay for the infrastructure development, a loan of $50 million has been provided by the Inter-American Development Bank (BID). The system will work with a prepaid card system which is expected to reduce the time required for passengers to enter the busses Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L battery. An estimated 200,000 passengers will be transported daily, or about 5,600,000 every month.[19] Approximately 200,000 people use the city's public bus system daily. Some of the bus transportation system is operated by the city government, but the majority is operated by the private sector. This mixture of ownership has contributed to safety and traffic problems. In 2013, when the SITRAMS commences operation Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P battery, it will resolve many of these problems.[20] Bus rides typically cost between $0.20 and $0.25, depending on the route. The city government operates a free bus system for use by handicapped, elderly, and pregnant persons. San Salvador is the only city in Central America with a bus system that is entirely free for those categories of persons Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W battery. A taxi system operates throughout the entire city. Taxi fares depend on the route. Taxi drivers charge based on the destination location, rather than on a timer. Taxis in San Salvador are yellow, and the fleet is primarily composed of Toyota Corollas. Railway service was absent during the 1990s, but beginning on October 1, 2007, the National Railways of El Salvador (FENADESAL) resumed service. Tickets cost $0.10. Trains depart from near the East Bus Station and travel to the town of Apopa Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N battery. There are plans to start operation of another route, connecting the northern side of San Salvador, Cuscatancingo, to Apopa and from Apopa, to the city of Nejapa. There is also a historic railroad consisting of railroad cars from the 1960s which were refurbished and put into operation by the ministry of tourism. Once a month, visitors can board the antique train and experience the way San Salvadorians transported themselves in the 1960s Sony PCG-5G2L battery. The Dueñas building collapses over its bases The city has suffered from many severe earthquakes, the most disastrous of which occurred in 1854. In 1917, the San Salvador volcano erupted, which resulted in three major earthquakes that damaged the city so extensively that the government was forced to temporarily move the capital to the city of Santa Tecla (known at that time as New San Salvador). The most recent earthquakes, in 2001 (one in January and one in February), resulted in considerable damage Sony PCG-5G3L battery, especially in Las Colinas suburb, where a landslide destroyed homes and killed many people. During the 1980s, conflicts in El Salvador erupted into a civil war, and many people fled to the city, since most of the fighting occurred outside of it (San Salvador itself was not directly affected by the war until the final offensive of 1989). Hurricanes, tsunamis, and landslides also pose a threat. On November 2009, Hurricane Ida hit the departments of San Salvador, San Vicente and Cuzcatlan Sony PCG-5J1L battery. In San Vicente, the municipalities of Verapaz and Guadalupe were totally destroyed by the rainfall that accompanied the hurricane, and the resultant landslide. Many thousands of people were left homeless. The Army and the Red Cross were able to rescue many people, and the government opened public schools to be used as temporary shelters for three months Sony PCG-5J2L battery. The Hurricane destroyed some bridges, and some towns lost communications. The people of El Salvador raised money for the homeless and international aid came from countries such as the United States, Mexico, Nicaragua and Guatemala, and the European Union. Tropical Storm Agatha See also: Tropical Storm Agatha (2010) Tropical Storm Agatha Tropical storm Agatha hit the Central American coast on Thursday, May 27, 2010. About 3 feet (0.91 m) of rainfall over a period of five days was recorded in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador, producing sinkholes, flash floods, and mudslides. Districts particularly hard hit included downtown, El Picacho, and Montebello Sony PCG-5K1L battery. Concerns about public safety in San Salvador increased in the late 1980s due to the Civil War. Although the Civil War was primarily fought in the countryside, during the latter years of the war, guerrillas started attacking the capital city. San Salvador recovered quickly from the Civil War, but gang ("mara") violence soon became a problem. The 18th Street gang that originated in Los Angeles, has proliferated in San Salvador. A rival gang is the Mara Salvatrucha Sony PCG-5K2L battery. In 2002 the crime rates in San Salvador skyrocketed and the municipal government was unable to combat the rise. Recent efforts by mayor Norman Quijano to restore public safety have been somewhat successful. Security measures in San Salvador's most troubled Districts (5 and 6, which border Soyapango, and are home to many gangs) included safety campaigns and recreational activities to keep youth from joining gangs Sony PCG-5L1L battery. The mayor also initiated a security camera program so the police can watch the most heavily trafficked areas of the city. The security camera project started in the historic downtown and will expand throughout the entire city.[21] Today, San Salvador is considered to be a land of opportunity for many immigrants from neighboring countries, such as Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. Immigrants also come from South American countries such as Peru and Bolivia, and it also is home to a Korean population and a European minority Sony PCG-6S2L battery. As of 2011 San Salvador had managed to reduce its crime rate, reducing its murder rate to a level lower than Haiti, Venezuela,[22] Mexico, Guatemala, or Honduras.[23] Also according to a UN Development report, San Salvador has a relatively low robbery rate of 90 per 100,000,[24] compared to San José, the capital of Costa Rica, which has 524 robberies per 100,000. Sony PCG-6S3L batteryDistricts 3 and 4[26] are the safest in the country, comparable to that of a European cities; Districts 1 and 2 have a slightly higher crime rate than 3 or 4; and District 5 bordering San Marcos, and District 6 bordering Soyapango the areas that have the highest crime rates.
El Salvador is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country as well as Central America. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean on the south Sony PCG-71313M battery, and the countries of Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the north and east. Its easternmost region lies on the coast of the Gulf of Fonseca, opposite Nicaragua. As of 2009, El Salvador had a population of approximately 5,744,113 people, composed predominantly of Mestizos.[3] The colón was the official currency of El Salvador from 1892 to 2001, when it adopted the U.S. Dollar Sony PCG-71212M battery. In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and in the top 3 in Central America (behind Costa Rica and Panama), due in part to ongoing rapid industrialization. In addition, tropical forests and overall forest cover has expanded by nearly 20% from the year 1992 to 2010, making it one of the few countries experiencing reforestation Sony PCG-71311M battery. Temazcal in Joya de Ceren Pre-Columbian El Salvador's origins of human civilization date back to the Pipil people of Cuzcatlán, which means The Place of Precious Diamonds and Jewels. The people of El Salvador are variably referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage Sony PCG-71213M battery. In pre-Columbian times the territory was inhabited by various Native American peoples, including the Pipil, a Nahuatl-speaking population that occupied the central and western regions of the territory, and the Lenca, who settled in the east of the country. The larger domain until the Spanish conquest of the kingdom was Cuzcatlán. The Mayan civilization which inhabited El Salvador has left ruins such as those at Tazumal, Joya De Ceren, Sony PCG-61211M battery San Andres, Casa Blanca, Cihuatan, and Chalchuapa. European Contact (1522) In 1520 the indigenous population of the territory had been reduced by 80% due to the smallpox epidemic that affected the Mesoamerican area. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño led an expedition to Central America and disembarked on Meanguera island, which he named Petronila, in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31, 1522 Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. Thereafter he discovered Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River. This was the first known visit by Spaniards to what is now Salvadoran territory. Conquest of Cuzcatlán Pedro de Alvarado Between 1524 and 1525, after participating in the conquest of Mexico, Spanish Conquistadors led by Pedro de Alvarado and his brother Gonzalo crossed the Rio Paz (Peace River) from the area comprising the present Republic of Guatemala into what is now the Republic of El Salvador. The Spaniards were disappointed to discover that the indigenous Pipil people had no gold or jewels like those they had found in Guatemala or Mexico Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery, but recognized the richness of the verdant land's volcanic soil. Pedro de Alvarado led the first incursion by Spanish forces to extend their dominion to the nation of Cuzcatlán (El Salvador), in June 1524. On June 8, 1524, the conquerors arrived in the neighborhood of Acajutla at a village called Acaxual. There, according to records, a battle ensued between the opposing armies, with the Pipil wearing cotton armor Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery (of three fingers' thickness, according to Alvarado) and carrying long lances. This circumstance would be crucial in the progression of the battle. Alvarado approached the Pipil lines with his archers' showers of crossbow arrows, but the natives did not retreat. The conquistador noticed the proximity of a nearby hill and knew that it could be a convenient hiding place for his opponents Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Alvarado pretended that his army had given up the battle and retreated. The Pipil suddenly rushed the invaders, giving Alvarado an opportunity to inflict massive losses. The Pipil warriors who fell to the ground could not get back on their feet, hindered by the weight of their cotton armor, which enabled the Spanish to slaughter them Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. In the words of Alvarado: "...the destruction was so great that in just a short time there were none which were left alive...". However, Alvarado's army were not completely unscathed. In the battle Alvarado himself was struck by a sling shot to his thigh which fractured his femur bone. According to local tradition the stone that hit the conquistador was hurled by a Pipil "Tatoni" Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery (a prince) called Atonal. The resultant infection lasted about eight months and left Alvarado partially crippled. In spite of this wound, he continued the conquest campaign with relish. Tazumal ruins in Santa Ana, El Salvador. The Spanish efforts were firmly resisted by the indigenous people, including the Pipil and their Mayan-speaking neighbors. Despite Alvarado's initial success in the Battle of Acajutla, the people of Cuzcatlán, who according to tradition were led by a warlord called Atlacatl, defeated the Spaniards and what was left of their Mexican Tlaxcala Indian allies Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery, forcing them to withdraw to Guatemala. There, Pedro de Alvarado was again wounded, this time on his left thigh, which left him handicapped for the rest of his life. He abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the task. It took two subsequent expeditions (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) to bring the Pipil under Spanish control Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. In 1525, the conquest of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established. The Spanish faced much resistance from the Pipil and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas. Finally, with reinforcements, in 1526 the Spanish established the garrison town of San Miguel, headed by another explorer and conquistador, Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, nephew of Pedro Alvarado Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. A Maya-Lenca woman, crown Princess Antu Silan Ulap I, daughter of Asisilcan Nachan I and Lady Omomatku, Monarch of the Lencas, organized resistance to the domination of the gold- and profit-hungry Conquistadors. The Lenca kingdom was alarmed by de Moscoso's invasion, and Antu Silan dealt with it by going from village to village, uniting all the Lenca towns in present-day El Salvador and Honduras against the Spaniards Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. Through surprise attacks and their overwhelming numbers, they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy the garrison. For ten years, the Lencas prevented the Spanish from building a permanent settlement. Then the Spanish returned with more soldiers, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Guatemala. Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá. Antu Silan Ulap continued leading the united forces until, late in pregnancy, she slipped out of the conflicted area to a safe haven, Tihuilotal, where she gave birth to twins, a girl and a boy. Their father was Prince Salaiki Kanul from Sesori. The daughter became Atonim Silan I – she and her twin and another brother lived in the mountains near the lake Olomega and Maquigue Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery – in this way they escaped the Spanish and their allies who were hunting them. Tihuilotal is a little southwest of the present city of La Unión, near the source of the sacred Managuara River. Antu Silan Ulap eventually handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira). Lempira was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and using their weapons captured in battle Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in El Salvador and Honduras until he was killed in battle. The remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills. The Spanish were then able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537. Spanish rule (colonization) and independence Painting of the First Independence Movement celebration in San Salvador. At the center, José Matías Delgado Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. Manuel José Arce joined the movement for independence from Spain, joining in the first Cry for Independence on November 5, 1811 in San Salvador. In the early sixteenth century, the Spanish conquistadors ventured into the natural harbors to extend their dominion to the area. They called the land "Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo" ("Province of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior of the World"), which was subsequently abbreviated to "El Salvador (The Savior)" Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery. During the colonial period, El Salvador was part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala (Spanish: Reino de Guatemala), created in 1609 as an administrative division of New Spain. The Salvadoran territory was administered by the Mayor of Sonsonate, with San Salvador being established as an intendancia in 1786 Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Towards the end of 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from the Spanish Crown. The most important internal factors were the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities, and the Creoles' long-standing aspiration for independence Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the eighteenth century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery. On 5 November 1811, Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement. This insurrection was suppressed and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail. Another insurrection was launched in 1814, and again it was suppressed Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. Finally, on September 15, 1821, in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the Acta de Independencia (Deed of Independence) which released all of the Captaincy of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule and declared its independence Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. In 1821, El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in a union named the Federal Republic of Central America. In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery. A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with the fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote for joining Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces. (Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture.) Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E batteryWhen the Federal Republic of Central America dissolved in 1841, El Salvador maintained its own government until it joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form the Greater Republic of Central America, which later dissolved in 1898. After the mid-19th century, the economy was based on coffee growing and, as the world market for indigo withered away, prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the concentration of land in the hands of an oligarchy of just a few families.[9] Throughout the last half of the 19th century, a succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery, the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labor for the coffee fincas (plantations), and the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. 20th century Gen. Tomás Regalado In 1898, Gen. Tomas Regalado gained power by force, deposing Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez and ruling as president until 1903. Once in office he revived the practice of designating presidential successors. After serving his term, he remained active in the Army of El Salvador, and was killed July 11, 1906, at El Jicaro during a war against Guatemala Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. Until 1913 El Salvador was politically stable, but there were undercurrents of popular discontent. When President Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo was killed in 1913, there were many hypotheses advanced for the political motive of his murder. Dios, Union, Libertad (God, Unity, Liberty) El Salvador 1912 Flag. Araujo's administration was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927. Pio Romero Bosque Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery, ex-Minister of the Government and a trusted collaborator of the dynasty, succeeded President Jorge Melendez and in 1930 announced free elections, in which Arturo Araujo came to power on March 1, 1931. His government lasted only nine months, as his Labor Party lacked political and governmental experience and many party members used their government offices inefficiently. President Araujo faced general popular discontent Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery, as the people expected economic reforms and the redistribution of land. There were demonstrations in front of the National Palace from the first week of his administration. His vice president and Minister of War was Gen. Maximiliano Hernández Martínez and his National Police Director was Rochac—his brother-in-law Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. In December 1931 a coup d'état was organized by junior officers and led by Gen. Martínez; the first strike started in the First Regiment of Infantry across from the National Palace in downtown San Salvador. Only the First Regiment of Cavalry and the National Police defended the President (the National Police had been on its payroll), but later that night, after hours of fighting, the badly outnumbered defenders surrendered to the rebel forces Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery. The Directorate, composed of officers, hid behind a shadowy figure,[10] a rich anti-Communist banker called Rodolfo Duke, and later installed the ardent fascist Gen. Martínez as president. The causes of the revolt were probably due to the army's discontent at not having been paid by President Araujo for some months. Araujo left the National Palace and later unsuccessfully tried to organize forces to defeat the revolt Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized the government of Martínez, who agreed to hold presidential elections later. He resigned in 1934, six months before the presidential elections, to run for the presidency, which he won—not a difficult achievement, seeing as he was the only candidate. He ruled from 1935 to 1939, then from 1939 to 1943 Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. He began a fourth term in 1944, but resigned in May after a general strike. Martínez had said he was going to respect the Constitution, which stipulated he could not be re-elected, but he refused to keep his promise. From December 1931, the year of the coup in which Martínez came to power, there was brutal suppression of the rural resistance Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. The most notable event was the February 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising, led by Farabundo Martí and Abel Cuenca, and university students Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata. Only Cuenca survived; the other insurgents were killed by the government. It was later referred to as La Matanza (The Massacre), because tens of thousands of peasants were slaughtered on the orders of President Martinez Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. In the unstable political climate of the previous few years, the social activist and revolutionary leader Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America, and led a Communist alternative to the Red Cross called International Red Aid, serving as one of its representatives. Their goal was to help poor and underprivileged Salvadorans through the use of Marxist-Leninist ideology (strongly rejecting Stalinism) Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. In December 1930, at the height of the country's economic and social depression, Martí was once again exiled due to his popularity among the nation's poor and rumors of his upcoming nomination for President the following year. Once Arturo Araujo was elected president in 1931, Martí returned to El Salvador, and along with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata began the movement that was later truncated by the military Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. They helped start a guerrilla revolt of indigenous farmers. The government responded by killing over 30,000 people at what was to have been a "peaceful meeting" in 1932; this became known as La Matanza (The Slaughter). The peasant uprising against Martínez was crushed by the Salvadoran military ten days after it had begun. The Communist-led rebellion SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, fomented by collapsing coffee prices, enjoyed some initial success, but was soon drowned in a bloodbath. President Martínez, who had himself toppled an elected government only weeks earlier, ordered the defeated Martí shot after a perfunctory hearing. Historically, the high Salvadoran population density has contributed to tensions with neighboring Honduras, as land-poor Salvadorans emigrated to less densely populated Honduras and established themselves as squatters on unused or underused land SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. This phenomenon was a major cause of the 1969 Football War between the two countries.[11] As many as 130,000 Salvadorans had been forcibly expelled or had fled from Honduras.[12] The PDC and the PCN parties José Napoleón Duarte In 1960 two political parties were born and are still active in El Salvadoran politics: the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN). Both share common ideals, but one represents the middle class and the latter the interests of the Salvadoran military SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. Opposition leader José Napoleón Duarte from the PDC was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the regime of President Jose Adalberto Rivera (who allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly). Duarte later ran for president with a political grouping called the National Opposition Union (UNO) but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. He lost to the ex-Minister of Interior, Col. Arturo Armando Molina, in an election that was widely viewed as fraudulent; Molina was declared the winner even though Duarte was said to have received a majority of the votes. Duarte, at some army officers' request, supported a revolt to protest the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled. Duarte returned to the country in 1979 to enter politics after working on projects in Venezuela as an engineer SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. The October 1979 coup d'état In October 1979 a coup d'état brought the Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway in response to Duarte's stolen election. Nevertheless, the oligarchy opposed agrarian reform SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, and a junta formed with young liberal elements from the army such as Gen. Majano and Gen. Gutierrez, as well as with progressives such as Ungo and Alvarez. Owing to pressure from the oligarchy, this junta was soon dissolved because of its inability to control the army in its repression of the people fighting for unionization rights, agrarian reform, better wages, accessible health care and freedom of expression SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. In the meantime, the guerrilla movement was spreading to all sectors of Salvadoran society. Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); and workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block) Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second junta to change the political environment and stop the spread of a leftist insurrection. Napoleon Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new junta. However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the junta was seen by the general population as opportunistic SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection. Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero, Archbishop of San Salvador denounced injustices and massacres committed against the civilians by the government in turn. He was the voice of the voiceless. But, Monsignor Romero was executed by a death squad in January 1980 and this was the beginning of the Salvadoran Civil War in full which lasted from 1980 to 1992 SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. A reconstruction of Radio Venceremos, at the Museo de la Palabra y la Imagen, San Salvador On January 16, 1992, the government of El Salvador, represented by president Alfredo Cristiani, and the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (FMLN), represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups – Shafick Handal SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery, Joaquin Villalobos, Salvador Sánchez Ceren, Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho, all signed the peace agreements brokered by the United Nations which ended the 12-year civil war. This event, held at the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico, was attended by U.N. dignitaries and other representatives of the international community. After signing the armistice, the president stood up and shook hands with all the now ex-guerrilla commanders SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery, an action which was widely admired. The so-called Mexico Peace Agreements mandated reductions in the size of the army, and the dissolution of the National Police, the Treasury Police, the National Guard and the Civilian Defense, a paramilitary group. A new Civil Police was to be organized. Judicial immunity for crimes committed by the armed forces ended SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery; the government agreed to submit to the recommendations of a Commission on the Truth for El Salvador (Comisión de la Verdad Para El Salvador), which would "investigate serious acts of violence occurring since 1980, and the nature and effects of the violence, and...recommend methods of promoting national reconciliation SONY PCG-8113M battery." End of the 20th century From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favored the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) party, voting in ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca) until 2009, when Mauricio Funes was elected president from the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) party SONY PCG-8112M battery . Economic reforms since the early 1990s have brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of its export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level. However, crime remains a major problem for the investment climate. This all ended in 2001, and support for ARENA weakened. Internal turmoil in ARENA weakened the party, while the FMLN united and broadened its support. SONY PCG-7134M battery21st century The unsuccessful attempts of the left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate. On March 15, 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN party. He was inaugurated on June 1, 2009. One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government. SONY PCG-7131M batteryARENA formally expelled Saca from the party in December, 2009. With 12 loyalists in the National Assembly, Saca established his own party, GANA (Gran Alianza por la Unidad Nacional or Grand Alliance for National Unity), and entered into a tactical legislative alliance with the FMLN.[17] After three years in office, with Saca's GANA party providing the FMLN with a legislative majority, Funes had not taken action to investigate or to bring corrupt former officials to justice SONY PCG-7122M battery. Main article: Geography of El Salvador The topography of El Salvador. El Salvador lies in the isthmus of Central America between latitudes 13° and 15°N, and longitudes 87° and 91°W. It stretches 168 miles (270 km) from west-northwest to east-southeast and 88 miles (142 km) north to south, with a total area of 8,123 miles (13,073 km), about the size of Massachusetts or Wales. As the smallest country in continental America SONY PCG-7121M battery, El Salvador is affectionately called Pulgarcito de America (the "Tom Thumb of the Americas"). The highest point in the country is Cerro El Pital, at 8,957 feet (2,730 m), on the border with Honduras. El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors SONY PCG-7113M battery. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early nineteenth century to the mid 1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name "Lighthouse of the Pacific." Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone SONY PCG-7112M battery. El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river; it and its tributaries drain about half the country SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific. These include the Goascorán, Jiboa, Torola, Paz and the Río Grande de San Miguel. The Coatepeque Caldera. There are several lakes enclosed by volcanic craters in the country, the most important of which are Lake Ilopango (70 km²/27 sq mi) and Lake Coatepeque (26 km²/10 sq mi) SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. Lake Güija is El Salvador's largest natural lake (44 km²/17 sq mi). Several artificial lakes were created by the damming of the Lempa, the largest of which is Embalse Cerrón Grande (135 km²). There are a total 123.6 square miles (320 km2) of water within El Salvador's borders. El Salvador shares those borders with Guatemala and Honduras, the total national boundary length is 339 miles (546 km): SONY PCG-8Z1M battery 126 miles (203 km) with Guatemala and 213 miles (343 km) with Honduras. It is the only Central American country that has no Caribbean coastline; the coastline on the Pacific is 191 miles (307 km) long. Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau SONY PCG-8Y3M battery , covering 85% of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands. Main article: Climate of El Salvador Playa La Libertad, Liberty Beach. El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate. The rainy season extends from May to October; this time of year is referred to as invierno or winter SONY PCG-8Y2M battery . Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this period; yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 2,170 millimetres (85.4 in). The best time to visit El Salvador would be at the beginning or end of the dry season. Protected areas and the central plateau receive less, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure systems formed over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. Hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch, which formed in the Atlantic and crossed Central America. From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns; this time of year is referred to as verano, or summer. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of its precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras SONY PCG-6W2M battery. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy, and the country experiences hot weather, excluding the northern higher mountain ranges, where temperatures will be cool. In the extreme northeastern part of the country near Cerro El Pital, snow is known to fall during summer as well as during winter due to the high elevations (it is the coldest part of the country) SONY PCG-5J5M battery . Biodiversity and endangered species The Torogoz is El Salvador's national bird. There are eight species of sea turtles in the world; six of them nest on the coasts of Central America, and four make their home on the Salvadoran coast: the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Green Sea turtle (Chelonia agasizzii) and the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) SONY PCG-5K2M battery. Of these four species, the most common is the Olive Ridley turtle, followed by the brown (black) turtle. The other two species, Hawksbill and Leatherback, are much more difficult to find as they are critically endangered, while the Olive Ridley and brown (black) turtle are in danger of extinction SONY PCG-5K1M battery . Recent conservation efforts provide hope for the future of the country's biological diversity. In 1997, the government established the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources. A general environmental framework law was approved by the National Assembly in 1999. Specific legislation to protect wildlife is still pending SONY PCG-5J4M battery . The Ocelot is a native of El Salvador. In addition, a number of non-governmental organizations are doing important work to safeguard some of the country's most important forested areas. Foremost among these is SalvaNatura, which manages El Impossible, the country's largest national park under an agreement with El Salvador's environmental authorities SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Despite these efforts, much remains to be done. It is estimated that there are 500 species of birds, 1,000 species of butterflies, 400 species of orchids, 800 species of trees, and 800 species of marine fish in El Salvador. Natural disasters Cordillera de Apaneca volcanic mountain range in El Salvador. Usulutan volcano rises above the Pacific coastal plain in El Salvador.. The Izalco Volcano, partially covered by clouds, is a natural draw for tourists. The Santa Ana Volcano, as seen from a United States Air Force C-130 Hercules flying above El Salvador SONY PCG-5G2M battery. El Salvador lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, and is thus subject to significant tectonic activity, including frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. Recent examples include the earthquake on January 13, 2001 that measured 7.7 on the Richter scale and caused a landslide that killed more than 800 people;[18] and another earthquake only a month later, on February 13, 2001 Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery, that killed 255 people and damaged about 20% of the nation's housing. Luckily, many families were able to find safety from the landslides caused by the earthquake. The San Salvador area has been hit by earthquakes in 1576, 1659, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873, 1880, 1917, 1919, 1965, 1986, 2001 and 2005.[19] The 5.7 Mw-earthquake of 1986 resulted in 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless. El Salvador's most recent destructive volcanic eruption took place on October 1, 2005, when the Santa Ana Volcano spewed a cloud of ash Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, hot mud and rocks that fell on nearby villages and caused two deaths. The most severe volcanic eruption in this area occurred in the 5th century AD when the Ilopango volcano erupted with a VEI strength of 6, producing widespread pyroclastic flows and devastating Mayan cities.[22] El Salvador's position on the Pacific Ocean also makes it subject to severe weather conditions, including heavy rainstorms and severe droughts Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery, both of which may be made more extreme by the El Niño and La Niña effects. In the summer of 2001, a severe drought destroyed 80% of the country's crops, causing famine in the countryside.[23][24] On October 4, 2005, severe rains resulted in dangerous flooding and landslides, which caused a minimum of fifty deaths. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M batteryEl Salvador's location in Central America also makes it vulnerable to hurricanes coming off the Caribbean; however, this risk is much less than for other Central American countries. The Santa Ana Volcano in El Salvador is currently dormant; the last eruptions were in 1904 and 2005. Lago de Coatepeque (one of El Salvador's lakes) was created by water filling the caldera that formed after a massive eruption Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. The British Imperial College's El Salvador Project aims to build earthquake-proof buildings in remote areas of the country. Government and politics Main article: Politics of El Salvador Main article: Foreign relations of El Salvador The 1983 Constitution is the highest legal authority in the country. El Salvador has a democratic and representative government, whose three bodies are: The Executive Branch, headed by the President of the Republic, who is elected by direct vote and remains in office for five years. He can be elected to only one term. The president has a Cabinet of Ministers whom he appoints, and is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. The Legislative Branch, called El Salvador's Legislative Assembly (unicameral), consisting of 84 deputies. The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, which is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary. The Chapultepec Peace Accords (1992) created the new National Civil Police, the Attorney for the Defense of Human Rights and the Supreme Electoral Tribunal Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. The Peace Accords re-imagined the Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (FMLN) as a political party and redefined the role of the army to be for the defense of the sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Accords also removed some security forces who were in command of the army, such as the National Guard, Treasury Police and special battalions that were formed to fight against the insurgency of the 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. The political framework of El Salvador is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multiform, multi-party system. The President, currently Mauricio Funes, is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The country also has an independent Judiciary and Supreme Court Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. Main political parties Although El Salvador has six political parties, the ones which receive the most votes are the conservative right (ARENA) and the liberal left (FMLN). GANA, PDC, PCN, and CD have not received as many votes, leading some people to believe the country has a two-party system, although alternative parties still exist. Within Salvadoran political culture Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery, ARENA is considered right or conservative and the FMLN Party is considered left, split between the dominant Marxist-Leninist faction in the legislature, and the liberal wing led by President Funes. The departments of the Central region, especially the capital and the coastal regions, known as departamentos rojos, or red departments, are relatively liberal. The departamentos azules, or blue departments in the east Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, western and highland regions are relatively conservative. The winner of the 2009 presidential election, Mauricio Funes belongs to the FMLN party and currently controls the National Assembly. El Salvador Political Parties (alphabetical order) Human rights Main article: Human rights in El Salvador Amnesty International has drawn attention to several arrests of police officers for unlawful police killings. Other current issues to gain Amnesty International's attention in the past 10 years include missing children, failure of law enforcement to properly investigate and prosecute crimes against women, and rendering organized labor illegal. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M batteryDepartments See also: Ranked list of Salvadoran departments and Salvadoran Departments by HDI El Salvador is divided into 14 departments (departamentos), which in turn are subdivided into 262 municipalities (municipios). Department names and abbreviations for the 14 Salvadoran Departments: Main article: Economy of El Salvador The World Trade Center San Salvador. According to the IMF and CIA World Factbook, El Salvador has the third largest economy in the region, behind Costa Rica and Panama, when comparing nominal Gross Domestic Product and purchasing power GDP El Salvador's GDP per capita stands at US$4,365. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M batteryEl Salvador's economy has been hampered at times by natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, by government policies that mandate large economic subsidies, and by official corruption. Subsidies became such a problem that in April, 2012, the International Monetary Fund suspended a $750 million loan to the central government Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. President Funes' chief of cabinet, Alex Segovia, acknowledged that the economy was at the "point of collapse."[27] Antiguo Cuscatlán has the highest per capita income of all the cities in the country, and is a center of international investment. GDP in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $ 25.895 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 64.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 24.7% (2008 est.). Agriculture represents only 11.2% of GDP (2010 est.) Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M batteryThe GDP grew after 1996 at an annual rate that averaged 3.2% real growth. The government committed to free market initiatives, and the 2007 GDP's real growth rate was 4.7%.[28] In December 1999, net international reserves equaled US $1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning January 1, 2001 by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the Salvadoran colón, and all formal accounting was done in U.S. dollars. Thus, the government has formally limited the implementing of open market monetary policies to influence short-term variables in the economy. As of September 2007, net international reserves stood at $2.42 billion Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. San Salvador, one of the fastest growing capitals in the world. It has long been a challenge in El Salvador to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. In the past, the country produced gold and silver,[30] but recent attempts to re-open the mining sector, which were expected to add hundreds of millions of dollars to the local economy, collapsed after President Saca shut down the operations of Pacific Rim Mining Corporation Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. The U.S.-Canadian company had spent $77 million to discover a gold deposit estimated at 1.4 million troy ounces. President Funes and the FMLN upheld the gold and silver mining ban. As with other former colonies, El Salvador was considered a mono-export economy (an economy that depended heavily on one type of export) for many years. During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. San Miguel is an important economic center of El Salvador and home to "Carnival of San Miguel", the biggest festival of entertainment and gastronomy in Central America. The government has sought to improve the collection of its current revenues, with a focus on indirect taxes. A 10% value-added tax (IVA in Spanish), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995 Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. Inflation has been steady and among the lowest in the region. Since 1997 inflation has averaged 3%, with recent years increasing to nearly 5%. As a result of the free trade agreements, from 2000 to 2006, total exports have grown 19% from $2.94 billion to $3.51 billion, and total imports have risen 54% from $4.95 billion to $7.63 billion. This has resulted in a 102% increase in the trade deficit, from $2.01 billion to $4.12 billion Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. El Chorreron, El Salvador; tourism is the fastest-growing sector of the Salvadoran economy. Despite being the smallest country in Central America, El Salvador has the third largest economy, with a per capita income that is roughly two-thirds that of Costa Rica and Panama, but more than double that of Nicaragua. Growth has been modest in recent years, and the economy contracted nearly 3% in 2009. Because of the recent growing and dollarized economy Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, El Salvador is seeing an increase of Central American, South American, and Caribbean immigrants from Guatemalans, Hondurans, Nicaraguans, Dominicans, Colombians, Venezuelan, Peruvians and Cubans searching for better living opportunities. El Salvador has promoted an open trade and investment environment, and has embarked on a wave of privatizations extending to telecom Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, electricity distribution, banking, and pension funds. In late 2006, the government and the Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a five-year, $461 million compact to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty in the country's northern region, the primary conflict zone during the civil war, through investments in education, public services, enterprise development, and transportation infrastructure Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. With the adoption of the US dollar as its currency in 2001, El Salvador lost control over monetary policy. Any counter-cyclical policy response to the downturn must be through fiscal policy, which is constrained by legislative requirements for a two-thirds majority to approve any international financing. Remittances from abroad El Salvador leads the region in remittances per capita, with inflows equivalent to nearly all export income; about a third of all households receive these financial inflows Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. Remittances from Salvadorans living and working in the United States, sent to family members in El Salvador, are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of $4.12 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade, and reached an all-time high of $3.32 billion in 2006 (an increase of 17% over the previous year).[32] approximately 16.2% of gross domestic product(GDP) Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. Remittances have had positive and negative effects on El Salvador. In 2005, the number of people living in extreme poverty in El Salvador was 20%,[33] according to a United Nations Development Program report. Without remittances, the number of Salvadorans living in extreme poverty would rise to 37%. While Salvadoran education levels have gone up, wage expectations have risen faster than either skills or productivity Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. For example, some Salvadorans are no longer willing to take jobs that pay them less than what they receive monthly from family members abroad. This has led to an influx of Hondurans and Nicaraguans who are willing to work for the prevailing wage. Also, the local propensity for consumption over investment has increased Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. Money from remittances has also increased prices for certain commodities such as real estate. With much higher wages, many Salvadorans abroad can afford higher prices for houses in El Salvador than local Salvadorans, and thus push up the prices that all Salvadorans must pay.[34] Free trade agreements Sony VAIO PCG-81114L batteryIn 2006, El Salvador was the first country to ratify the Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement. CAFTA has bolstered exports of processed foods, sugar, and ethanol, and supported investment in the apparel sector, which faced Asian competition with the expiration of the Multi-Fiber Agreement in 2005. In anticipation of the declines in the apparel sector's competitiveness, the previous administration sought to diversify the economy by promoting the country as a regional distribution and logistics hub Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery, and by promoting tourism investment through tax incentives. There are a total of 15 free trade zones in El Salvador. El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) — negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic — with the United States in 2004. CAFTA requires that the Salvadoran government adopt policies that foster free trade Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. El Salvador has signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama and increased its trade with those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada. In October 2007, these four countries and Costa Rica began free trade agreement negotiations with the European Union. Negotiations started in 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery. Official corruption and anti-business practices In an analysis of ARENA's electoral defeat in 2009, the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador pointed to official corruption under the Saca administration as a significant reason for public rejection of continued ARENA government. According to a secret diplomatic cable made public by WikiLeaks, "While the Salvadoran public may be inured to self-serving behavior by politicians Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, many in ARENA believe that the brazen manner in which Saca and his people are widely perceived to have used their positions for personal enrichment went beyond the pale. ARENA deputy (and son of controversial ARENA founder) Roberto d'Aubuisson told [a U.S. diplomat] that Saca 'deliberately ignored' his Public Works Minister’s government contract kickbacks scheme Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery, even after the case was revealed in the press. Furthermore, considerable evidence exists, including from U.S. business sources, that the Saca administration pushed laws and selectively enforced regulations with the specific intent to benefit Saca family business interests." [35] Subsequent policies under the Saca and Funes administrations made El Salvador less friendly to foreign investment, and the World Bank sharply lowered its once positive ratings of the country Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. By 2012, El Salvador slid to 112th place out of 183 countries in the World Bank's annual "Ease of Doing Business" index.[36] The World Economic Forum lowered El Salvador's economic competitiveness rating in 2012 from 43rd to 91st in the world.[37] El Salvador began 2012 with the lowest level of foreign investment in Central America, with San Salvador being rated 44th out of 48 Central American cities in terms of attractiveness to investors Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Foreign companies increasingly have resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals after Salvadoran government policies damaged their investments. In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment.[39] The U.S. Embassy warned in 2009 that the Salvadoran government's populist policies of mandating artificially low electricity prices were damaging private sector profitability Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery, including the interests of American investors in the energy sector.[40] The U.S. Embassy noted the corruption of El Salvador's judicial system and quietly urged American businesses to include “arbitration clauses, preferably with a foreign venue,” when doing business in the country. In May, 2012, a tribunal of the World Bank's International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes ruled against El Salvador after Pacific Rim Mining Corp. had filed for arbitration to claim $100 million in losses. Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L batteryMain article: Demographics of El Salvador Main article: List of Salvadorans Christy Turlington is an American model of Salvadoran ancestry, best known for representing Calvin Klein from 1987 to 2007. The population of El Salvador increased from 1.9 million inhabitants in 1950 to 4.7 million in 1984.[43] El Salvador has lacked authoritative demographic data for many years because no national census was taken between 1992 and 2007. Before the 2007 census Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery, patterns in population growth led many officials (including within the Salvadoran government) to estimate the country's population at between 7.1 and 7.2 million people.[44] However, on May 12, 2008, El Salvador's Ministry of Economy released statistics gathered in the census of the previous May. These data present a figure for the total population that corroborates the earlier estimates Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery: 7,185,218. Challenges to the 2007 census on a number of grounds are forthcoming. The country's population is composed of mestizos (those of mixed indigenous Native American and European ancestry), whites, and indigenous peoples. Eighty-six percent of Salvadorans are of mixed ancestry. In the mestizo population, Salvadorans of predominantly Mediterranean descent, Afro-Salvadoran, and Native Indigenous who are not connected to indigenous customs or language, all identify themselves as Mestizo culturally Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. Consuelo de Saint Exupéry was a Salvadoran writer and artist. Twelve percent of Salvadorans are mostly of Spanish descent. Small communities of French, German, Swiss, English, Irish, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Central European ethnicity also exist within the country. The majority of Central European immigrants arrived during World War II as refugees from Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery, and Switzerland, and their descendants are scattered in different communities across El Salvador. Russians arrived during the Salvadoran civil war, concurrent with the U.S./Soviet Union cold war, to help the communist guerrillas in their struggle to seize the government. Americans, Australians, and Canadians assisted the military junta in their fight against the communists Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Only 1% of the Salvadoran population is purely indigenous, mostly Mayan, Pipil, Lenca and Kakawira (Cacaopera). The current low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by mass murders during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising (or La Matanza). Up to 30,000 peasants were killed in what by modern standards would be considered genocide because of the Salvadoran army's efforts to exterminate a certain racial group Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. Other ethnic groups include Arabs, Jews, other Central Americans, South Americans, Caribbean and a small group of Asians. Afro-Salvadoran. El Salvador is the only Central American country that has no visible African population today, which is the result of racial intermixing during colonial times. Africans that were brought to El Salvador completely mixed into the Mestizo population Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery, creating Afro-Mestizo Salvadorans. Africans are also not visible because of El Salvador's isolation from the Atlantic Central American coastline, where the slave trade occurred for centuries. This scarcity of African population is also due to laws imposed by the Spanish and Criollos around the 17th century after a slave revolt in San Salvador, which were sustained by authorities even after independence was won from Spain in 1821 and slavery was abolished Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. Until the end of the 20th century, people of African descent weren't allowed to enter the country unless the oligarchy determined it was absolutely necessary. In addition, General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez instituted race laws in 1930 that prohibited four ethnic groups — blacks, Gypsies, Asians, from entering the country. It was not until the 1980s that this law was rescinded Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Regardless of these racial laws, Afro-Salvadorans are present in some areas due to immigrants arriving from neighboring countries like Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua, who eventually mixed in with the local populations. Arabs, mostly Palestinian Christians, are today one of the most notable immigrant groups in El Salvador, despite their relatively small numbers. Sony VAIO PCG-51513L batteryDenying this, the book "Seeing Indians: A Study of Race, Nation, and Power in El Salvador", by Virginia Q. Tilley, states on page 210, "...no twentieth-century law or regulation ever prohibited the entry, settlement, or patriation of blacks, under the Martinez dictatorship or any other regime." There have been several publications presenting information about Africans in what is now El Salvador during the colonial period Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Salvadoran model Irma Dimas was crowned Miss El Salvador in 2005. She made headlines recently for her entry into Salvadoran politics. Among the immigrant groups in El Salvador, Palestinian Christians stand out.[50] Though few in number, their descendants have attained great economic and political power in the country, as evidenced by the election of ex-president Antonio Saca — whose opponent in the 2004 election Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, Schafik Handal, was likewise of Palestinian descent — and the flourishing commercial, industrial, and construction firms owned by this ethnic group. The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. Urbanization has expanded at a phenomenal rate in El Salvador since the 1960s, driving millions to the cities and creating growth problems for cities around the country Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. In the first half of 2007, government statistics provided by La Policía Nacional Civil of El Salvador showed lower numbers in homicide and extortions as well as robbery and theft of vehicles. In 2007, homicides in El Salvador were reduced by 22%, extortions were reduced by 7%, and robbery and theft of vehicles had gone down 18% Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery, in comparison with the same period in 2006.[51] However, in 2009, there has been an increase in homicides and extortions of about 30% more than in 2008, according to some statistics.[52] As of 2004, there were approximately 3.2 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, with the United States traditionally being the destination of choice for Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. By 2009, there were about 1.6 million Salvadoran immigrants and Americans of Salvadoran descent in the U.S.,[53] making them the sixth largest immigrant group in the country.[54] Salvadorans also live in nearby Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.[55] The majority of expatriates emigrated during the civil war of the 1980s for political reasons and later because of adverse economic and social conditions Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (including the Cayman Islands), Sweden, Brazil, Italy, Colombia, and Australia. There is also a large community of Nicaraguans, 100,000 according to some figures, in the United States and Costa Rica,[56] many of them seasonal immigrants Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. Language Central American Spanish is the official language and is spoken by virtually all inhabitants. Some indigenous people still speak their native tongues (such as Nahuatl and Maya), but indigenous Salvadoreans who do not identify as mestizo constitute only 1% of the country's population. However all of them can speak Spanish. Q'eqchi' is spoken by immigrants of Guatemalan and Belizean indigenous people living in El Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. There have also been recent large migrations of Hondurans and Nicaraguans.[58] German, Dutch and French are taught as a secondary language in private international schools, such as the Liceo Frances (France), Escuela Alemana (Germany), Academia Britanica Cuscatleca (United Kingdom) and the Escuela Americana (United States). English has been taught by Americans and the British in El Salvador for several decades Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery, at least 50 years. However, most formal education is given in private schools, out of reach for most of the population, who have to attend public schools where they receive education in a very elementary level of English. There has been a small Japanese community in El Salvador since World War II.[citation needed], as well as a considerable Taiwanese community Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. The local Spanish vernacular is called Caliche. Salvadoreans use voseo, which is also used in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Uruguay and Argentina. This refers to the use of "vos" as the second person pronoun, instead of "tú". However "caliche" is considered informal and a small number of people choose not to use it. Nahuatl is an indigenous language that has survived, though it is only used by small communities of some elderly Salvadorans in western El Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. Religion Main article: Religion in El Salvador There is diversity of religious and ethnic groups in El Salvador. The majority of the population are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics (52.5%); while Protestantism represents 27.6% of the population.[59] Mormonism and Pentecostalism are two of the notable non–Catholic faiths in El Salvador. According to a survey in 2008, 52.6% of El Salvador's residents are Catholic and Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery27.9% are Protestant.[60] Pentecostals and Latter-Day Saints (Mormons). A LDS temple was dedicated August 21 2011 in San Salvador. Other religions (1.4%) are present as well – Islam, Judaism and Jehovah's Witnesses. Eleven percent of the population is not affiliated with any religious group, this includes people who believe in a god, but practice no religion, also atheists and agnostics Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. For the period 2005–2010, El Salvador had the third lowest birth rate in Central America, with 22.8 births per 1,000. However, during the same period, it has the highest death rate in Central America, 5.9 deaths per 1,000. According to the most recent United Nations survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. Healthy life expectancy was 57 for males and 62 for females in 2003 Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Main article: Crime in El Salvador In the past few years, El Salvador has experienced high crime rates, including gang-related crimes and juvenile delinquency.[62] Some say that this was a result of the deportation of thousands of Salvadorans from the U.S, the majority of whom were members of MS-13 (Mara Salvatrucha, or La Mara), in the mid-90s. The gangs in which Salvadorans had been involved in the United States began to show up in El Salvador. Sony VAIO PCG-384L batteryToday El Salvador experiences some of the highest murder rates in the world;[64] it is also considered an epicenter of the gang crisis, along with Guatemala and Honduras.[65] In response to this, the government has set up countless programs to try to guide the youth away from gang membership; so far its efforts have not produced any quick results Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. One of the government programs was a gang-reform called "Super Mano Dura" (Super Firm Hand). Super Mano Dura had little success and was highly criticized by the UN. It saw temporary success in 2004 but then saw a rise in crime after 2005. In 2004, the rate of intentional homicides per 100,000 citizens was 41, with 60% of the homicides committed being gang-related. Sony VAIO PCG-382L batteryThe Salvadoran government reported that the Super Mano Dura gang legislation led to a 14% drop in murders in 2004. However, El Salvador had 66 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012, more than triple the rate in Mexico that year. There are an estimated 25,000 gang members at large in El Salvador with another 9,000 in prison. Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery The most well-known gangs, called "maras" in colloquial Spanish, are Mara Salvatrucha and their rivals Calle 18; maras are, or at least were, hunted by death squads including Sombra Negra. New rivals also include the rising mara, The Rebels 13.[69] As of March 2012, El Salvador has seen a 40% drop in crime due to what the Salvadoran government called a gang truce. In early 2012, there were on average of 16 killings per day but in late March that number dropped to fewer than 5 per day and on April 14, 2012 for the first time in over 3 years there were no killings in the country. Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery Overall, there were 411 killings in January 2012, but in March the number was 188, more than a 40% reduction,[71] while crime in neighboring Honduras has risen to an all time high.[72] The iconic statue of Christ on the globe sphere of planet earth is part of the Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo (Monument to the Divine Savior of the world) on Plaza El Salvador del Mundo (The Savior of the World Plaza), a landmark located in the country's capital San Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. It is a symbol that identifies and represents both El Salvador and Salvadorans throughout the world. Mestizo culture dominates the country, heavy in both Native American Indigenous and European Spanish influences. A new composite population was formed as a result of intermarrying between the native Mesoamerican population of Cuzcatlán with the European settlers. The Catholic Church plays an important role in the Salvadoran culture Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery. Archbishop Óscar Romero is a national hero for his role in resisting human rights violations that were occurring in the lead-up to the Salvadoran Civil War.[73] Significant foreign personalities in El Salvador were the Jesuit priests and professors Ignacio Ellacuria, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes, who were murdered in 1989 by the Salvadoran Army during the height of the civil war Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Painting, ceramics and textiles are the principal manual artistic mediums. Writers Francisco Gavidia (1863–1955), Salarrué (Salvador Salazar Arrué) (1899–1975), Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino, Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Manlio Argueta, José Roberto Cea, and poet Roque Dalton are among the most important writers from El Salvador. Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, female film director Patricia Chica, artist Fernando Llort, and caricaturist Toño Salazar. Amongst the more renowned representatives of the graphic arts are the painters Augusto Crespin, Noe Canjura, Carlos Cañas, Julia Díaz, Mauricio Mejia, Maria Elena Palomo de Mejia, Camilo Minero, Ricardo Carbonell, Roberto Huezo, Miguel Angel Cerna, (the painter and writer better known as MACLo), Esael Araujo, and many others. For more information on prominent citizens of El Salvador, check the List of Salvadorans Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. The only airport serving international flights in the country is Comalapa International Airport. This airport is located about 40 km (25 mi) southeast of San Salvador.[74] The airport is commonly known as Comalapa International or El Salvador International. El Salvador's tourism industry has grown dynamically over recent years as the Salvadoran government focuses on developing this sector. In 2006, tourism accounted for 4.6% of GDP; in 1996, it accounted for 0.4%. In this same year Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery, tourism grew 4.5% worldwide. Comparatively, El Salvador saw an increase of 8.97%, from 1.15 million to 1.27 million tourists. This has led to revenue from tourism growing 35.9%, from $634 million to $862 million. In 1996, tourism revenue was only $44.2 million. Also, there has been an even greater increase in the number of excursions (visits that do not include an overnight stay). More than 222,000 excursionists visited El Salvador in 2006, a 24% increase over the previous year. Sony VAIO PCG-7172L batteryEl Salvador has surf tourism, due to large waves from the Pacific Ocean. Most North American and European tourists seek out El Salvador's beaches and nightlife. Besides these two attractions, El Salvador's tourism landscape is slightly different from those of other Central American countries. Because of its geographic size and urbanization, there are not many nature-themed tourist destinations such as ecotours, or archaeological sites Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery, open to the public. Surfing, however, is a natural tourism sector that has gained popularity in recent years as Salvadoran beaches have become increasingly popular. Surfers visit many beaches on the coast of La Libertad and the east end of the country, finding surfing spots that are not yet overcrowded. Also, the use of the United States dollar as Salvadoran currency, Sony VAIO PCG-7162L batteryand direct flights of 4–6 hours from most cities in the United States, are factors for American tourists. Urbanization and Americanization of Salvadoran culture has also led to the abundance of American-style malls, stores, and restaurants in the three main urban areas, especially greater San Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. Currently, tourists to El Salvador can be classified into four groups: Central Americans; North Americans; Salvadorans living abroad, primarily in the United States; and Europeans and South Americans. The first three represent the vast majority of tourists. Recently, El Salvador has attempted to broaden its tourist base by increasing the number of visitors from Europe and South America. Early indicators show that the government's efforts are working Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. When comparing January–March 2007 to the same period in 2006, tourism has grown overall 10%, and specifically from North America 38%, Europe 31%, and South America 36%.[76] In the fall, Livingston Airlines will initiate the only direct flight between Europe (departing from Milan) and El Salvador. The Decameron Salinitas, a recently inaugurated resort, has contributed to the growth of tourism by South American visitors because of the resort chain's name recognition, and it is looking to do the same with Europeans Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Mural in Perquín, former "guerrilla capital" and now a tourist destination. A whole new segment of tourism has grown up around El Salvador's recent turbulent past. Artillery fragments, battle photographs, combat plans, and mountain hideouts have become tourist attractions in themselves. Since 1992, residents in some economically depressed areas have set up local enterprises to profit from these Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The mountain town of Perquín was considered the "guerrilla capital", and today it is home to the "Museum of the Revolution", featuring cannons, uniforms, pieces of Soviet weaponry, and other weapons of war once used by the FMLN's (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) headquarters Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. According to the El Salvadoran newspaper El Diario De Hoy, the top 10 attractions are: the coastal beaches, La Libertad, Ruta Las Flores, Suchitoto, Playa Las Flores in San Miguel, La Palma, Santa Ana (location of the country's highest volcano), Nahuizalco, Apaneca, Juayua, and San Ignacio.[77] Among the numerous volcanic crater lakes in the mountains, Lake Coatepeque and Lake Ilopango are two of the most beautiful Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Pupusas, the national and most famous dish of El Salvador. One of El Salvador's notable dishes is the pupusa. Pupusas are handmade corn tortillas (made of masa de maíz or masa de arroz, a maize or rice flour dough used in Latin American cuisine) stuffed with one or more of the following: cheese (usually a soft Salvadoran cheese such as quesillo, similar to mozzarella), chicharrón, or refried beans Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Sometimes the filling is queso con loroco (cheese combined with loroco, a vine flower bud native to Central America). Pupusas revueltas are pupusas filled with beans, cheese and pork. There are also vegetarian options. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. The name pupusa comes from the Pipil-Nahuatl word, pupushahua. The precise origins of the pupusa are debated Sony VPCW21C7E battery, although its presence in El Salvador is known to predate the arrival of the Spaniards.[78] Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes con pollo. Yuca frita is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Pan con pollo/pavo (bread with chicken/turkey) are warm turkey or chicken-filled submarine sandwiches Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery. The bird is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with tomato and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. One of El Salvador's typical breakfasts is fried plantain, usually served with cream. It is common in Salvadoran restaurants and homes, including those of immigrants to the United States. Alguashte, a condiment made from dried, ground pepitas, is commonly incorporated into savoury and sweet Salvadoran dishes Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. "Maria Luisa" is a dessert commonly found in El Salvador. It is a layered cake that is soaked in orange marmalade and sprinkled with powdered sugar. A popular drink that Salvadorans enjoy is Horchata, a drink native to the Valencian Community in Spain. Horchata is most commonly made of the morro seed ground into a powder and added to milk or water, and sugar. Horchata is drunk year round, and can be drunk anytime of day. It mostly is accompanied by a plate of pupusas or fried yuca Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery. Horchata from El Salvador has a very distinct taste and is not to be confused with Mexican horchata, which is rice-based. Coffee is also a common morning beverage.[79] Other popular drinks in El Salvador include Ensalada, a drink made of chopped fruit swimming in fruit juice, and Kolachampan, a sugar cane-flavored carbonated beverage. One of the most popular desserts is the cake Pastel de tres leches (Cake of three milks), consisting of three types of milk; evaporated milk, condensed milk, and cream Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. The public education system in El Salvador is severely lacking in resources. Class sizes in public schools can reach 50 children, so Salvadorans who can afford the cost often choose to send their children to private schools, which are reasonably higher in every level. Most private schools follow American, European or other advanced systems. Lower-income families are forced to rely on public education Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. Education in El Salvador is free through high school. After nine years of basic education (elementary–middle school), students have the option of a two-year high school or a three-year high school. A two-year high school prepares the student for transfer to a university. A three-year high school allows the student to graduate and enter the workforce in a vocational career, or to transfer to a university to further their education in their chosen field Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. Post-secondary education varies widely in price. There is one public university: Universidad de El Salvador, UES The University of El Salvador has one main campus in San Salvador and three more campuses in Santa Ana, San Miguel and San Vicente. Havana (/həˈvænə/; Spanish: La Habana, [la aˈβana] ( listen)) is the capital city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba.[2] The city proper has a population of 2.1 million inhabitants,[1][2] and it spans a total of 728.26 km2 (281.18 sq mi) Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery — making it the largest city by area, the most populous city, and the third largest metropolitan area in the Caribbean region.[1][3] The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbours: Marimelena, Guanabacoa and Atarés. The sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. Sony VPCYA1S1E/B batteryHavana was founded by the Spanish in the 16th century and due to its strategic location it served as a springboard for the Spanish conquest of the continent becoming a stopping point for the treasure laden Spanish Galleons on the crossing between the New World and the Old World. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592. Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery Walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city.[6] The sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana's harbor in 1898 was the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War.[7] Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one: Old Havana, Vedado, and the newer suburban districts Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. The city is the center of the Cuban Government, and home to various ministries, headquarters of businesses and over 90 diplomatic offices.[8] The current mayor is Marta Hernández from the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC).[9] In 2009, the city/province had the 3rd highest income in the country.[10] The city attracts over a million tourists annually,[11] the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists, Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery a +20.0% increase from 2005. The historic centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.[12] Moreover, the city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and monuments.[13] The name Habana could be based upon the name of a local Taíno chief Habaguanex. An alternate theory is that Habana is derived from the Middle Dutch word havene, referring to a harbour. Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery17th century depiction of Havana Conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded Havana on August 25, 1515 or 1514, on the southern coast of the island, near the present town of Surgidero de Batabanó, or more likely on the banks of the Mayabeque River close to Playa Mayabeque. All attempts to found a city on Cuba's south coast failed, however an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of this river Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. Between 1514 and 1519, the city had at least two different establishments on the north coast, one of them in La Chorrera, today in the neighborhood of Puentes Grandes, next to the Almendares River. The final city's location was adjacent to what was then called Puerto de Carenas (literally, "Careening Bay"), in 1519. The quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havana's harbor, warranted this change of location Sony VPCY11S1E battery. Havana was the sixth town founded by the Spanish on the island, called San Cristóbal de la Habana by Pánfilo de Narváez: the name combines San Cristóbal, patron saint of Havana, and Habana, of obscure origin, possibly derived from Habaguanex, a native American chief who controlled that area, as mentioned by Diego Velásquez in his report to the king of Spain Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Shortly after the founding of Cuba's first cities, the island served as little more than a base for the Conquista of other lands. Hernán Cortés organized his expedition to Mexico from the island. Havana was originally a trading port, and suffered regular attacks by buccaneers, pirates, and French corsairs. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsair Jacques de Sores in 1555 Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. Such attacks convinced the Spanish Crown to fund the construction of the first fortresses in the main cities — not only to counteract the pirates and corsairs, but also to exert more control over commerce with the West Indies, and to limit the extensive contrabando (black market) that had arisen due to the trade restrictions imposed by the Casa de Contratación of Seville (the crown-controlled trading house that held a monopoly on New World trade) Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery. Ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the city's bay also fueled Havana's agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water, and other products needed to traverse the ocean Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery. On December 20, 1592, King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City. Later on, the city would be officially designated as "Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies" by the Spanish crown. In the meantime, efforts to build or improve the defensive infrastructures of the city continued Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery. Havana expanded greatly in the 17th century. New buildings were constructed from the most abundant materials of the island, mainly wood, combining various Iberian architectural styles, as well as borrowing profusely from Canarian characteristics. In 1649 a very fatal epidemic brought from Cartagena in Colombia, affected a third of the population of Havana Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery. By the middle of the 18th century Havana had more than seventy thousand inhabitants, and was the third-largest city in the Americas, ranking behind Lima and Mexico City but ahead of Boston and New York.[17] The city was captured by the British during the Seven Years' War. The episode began on June 6, 1762, when at dawn, a British fleet, comprising more than 50 ships and a combined force of over 11,000 men of the Royal Navy and Army Sony VPCZ13M9E/X battery, sailed into Cuban waters and made an amphibious landing east of Havana.[18] The British immediately opened up trade with their North American and Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society. Less than a year after Havana was seized, the Peace of Paris was signed by the three warring powers thus ending the Seven Years' War. The treaty gave Britain Florida in exchange for the city of Havana on the recommendation of the French, Sony VPCZ13V9E battery who advised that declining the offer could result in Spain losing Mexico and much of the South American mainland to the British.[19] After regaining the city, the Spanish transformed Havana into the most heavily fortified city in the Americas. Construction began on what was to become the Fortress of San Carlos de la Cabaña, the third biggest Spanish fortification in the New World after Fort San Cristobal ( The biggest ) and Fort San Felipe del Morro both in San Juan, Puerto Rico. On January 15, 1796 Sony VPCZ13X5003B battery, the remains of Christopher Columbus were transported to the island from Santo Domingo. They rested here until 1898, when they were transferred to Seville's Cathedral, after Spain's loss of Cuba. As trade between Caribbean and North American states increased in the early 19th century, Havana became a flourishing and fashionable city. Havana's theaters featured the most distinguished actors of the age Sony VPCZ13V9E/X battery, and prosperity amongst the burgeoning middle-class led to expensive new classical mansions being erected. During this period Havana became known as the Paris of the Antilles. In 1837, the first railroad was constructed, a 51 km stretch between Havana and Bejucal, which was used for transporting sugar from the valley of Guinness to the harbor. With this, Cuba became the fifth country in the world to have a railroad Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery, and the first Spanish-speaking country. Throughout the century, Havana was enriched by the construction of additional cultural facilities, such as the Tacon Teatre, one of the most luxurious in the world. The fact that slavery was legal in Cuba until 1886 led to Southern American interest, including a plan by the Knights of the Golden Circle to create a 'Golden Circle' with a 1200 mile-radius centered on Havana Sony VPCZ21M9E battery. After the Confederate States of America were defeated in the American Civil War in 1865, many former slaveholders continued to run plantations by moving to Havana. In 1863, the city walls were knocked down so that the metropolis could be enlarged. At the end of the 19th century, Havana witnessed the final moments of Spanish colonialism in the Americas. Republican period and Post-revolution Sony VPCZ21Q9E batteryMS St. Louis with Jewish refugees entering Havana in 1939 The 20th century began with Havana, and therefore Cuba, the city of chickens es]].[20] The US occupation officially ended when Tomás Estrada Palma, first president of Cuba, took office on 20 May 1902. During the chicken Period, from 1902 to 1959, the city saw a new era of development. Cuba recovered from the devastation of war to become a well-off country, with the third largest middle class in the hemisphere Sony VPCZ21V9E battery. Apartment buildings to accommodate the new middle class, as well as mansions for the Cuban tycoons, were built at a fast pace. Numerous luxury hotels, casinos and nightclubs were constructed during the 1930s to serve Havana's burgeoning tourist industry. In the 1930s, organized crime characters were not unaware of Havana's nightclub and casino life, and they made their inroads in the city Sony VPCEH3T9E battery. Santo Trafficante, Jr. took the roulette wheel at the Sans Souci Casino, Meyer Lansky directed the Hotel Habana Riviera, with Lucky Luciano at the Hotel Nacional Casino. At the time, Havana became an exotic capital of appeal and numerous activities ranging from marinas, grand prix car racing, musical shows and parks Sony VPCEH3N6E battery. Havana achieved the title of being the Latin American city with the biggest middle class population per-capita, simultaneously accompanied by gambling and corruption where gangsters and stars were known to mix socially. During this era, Havana was generally producing more revenue than Las Vegas, Nevada. In 1958, about 300,000 American tourists visited the city Sony VPCEH3N1E battery. After the revolution of 1959, the new regime promised to improve social services, public housing, and official buildings; nevertheless, shortages that affected Cuba after Castro's abrupt expropriation of all private property and industry under a strong communist model backed by the Soviet Union followed by the U.S. embargo, hit Havana especially hard Sony VPCEH3D0E battery. By 1966-68, the Cuban government had nationalized all privately owned business entities in Cuba, down to "certain kinds of small retail forms of commerce" (law No. 1076[21]). There was a severe economic downturn after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. With it, subsidies ended, losing billions of dollars which the Soviet Union gave the Cuban government, with many believing Havana's Soviet-backed regime would soon vanish Sony VPCEH3B1E battery, as happened to the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe. However, contrary to the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe, Havana's communist regime prevailed during the 1990s. After many years of prohibition, the communist government increasingly turned to tourism for new financial revenue, and has allowed foreign investors to build new hotels and develop hospitality industry. Sony VPCEH2Z1E battery In Old Havana, effort has also gone into rebuilding for tourist purposes, and a number of streets and squares have been rehabilitated.[22] But Old Havana is a large city, and the restoration efforts concentrate in all but less than 10% of its area. Havana lies on the northern coast of Cuba, south of the Florida Keys, where the Gulf of Mexico joins the Caribbean Sony VPCEH2S9E battery. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbours: Marimelena, Guanabacoa, and Atarés. The sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. The low hills on which the city lies rise gently from the deep blue waters of the straits. A noteworthy elevation is the 200-foot-high (60-metre) Sony VPCEH2Q1E battery limestone ridge that slopes up from the east and culminates in the heights of La Cabaña and El Morro, the sites of colonial fortifications overlooking the eastern bay. Another notable rise is the hill to the west that is occupied by the University of Havana and the Prince's Castle. Outside the city, higher hills rise on the west and east. Havana, like much of Cuba, enjoys a year-round tropical climate that is tempered by the island's position in the belt of the trade winds and by the warm offshore currents. Under the Köppen climate classification, Havana has a tropical savanna climate Sony VPCEH2P0E battery. Average temperatures range from 72 °F (22 °C) in January and February to 82 °F (28 °C) in August. The temperature seldom drops below 50 °F (10 °C). The lowest temperature was 33 °F (1 °C) in Santiago de Las Vegas, Boyeros. The lowest recorded temperature in Cuba was 32 °F (0 °C) in Bainoa, Havana province. Rainfall is heaviest in June and October and lightest from December through April, averaging 46 inches (1,200 mm) annually. Hurricanes occasionally strike the island Sony VPCEH2N1E battery, but they ordinarily hit the south coast, and damage in Havana has been less than elsewhere in the country. Centro Habana is the most densely populated borough Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one: Old Havana, Vedado, and the newer suburban districts. Old Havana, with its narrow streets and overhanging balconies, is the traditional centre of part of Havana's commerce, industry, and entertainment, as well as being a residential area Sony VPCEH2M9E battery. To the north and west a newer section, centred on the uptown area known as Vedado, has become the rival of Old Havana for commercial activity and nightlife. Centro Habana, sometimes described as part of Vedado, is mainly a shopping district that lies between Vedado and Old Havana. The Capitolio Nacional building marks the beginning of Centro Habana, a working-class neighborhood. Sony VPCEH2M1E battery Chinatown and the Real Fabrica de Tabacos Partagás, one of Cuba's oldest cigar factories is located in the area.[26] A third Havana is that of the more affluent residential and industrial districts that spread out mostly to the west. Among these is Marianao, one of the newer parts of the city, dating mainly from the 1920s. Some of the suburban exclusivity was lost after the revolution Sony VPCEH2L9E battery, many of the suburban homes having been nationalized by the Cuban government to serve as schools, hospitals, and government offices. Several private country clubs were converted to public recreational centres. Miramar, located west of Vedado along the coast, remains Havana's exclusive area; mansions, foreign embassies, diplomatic residences, upscale shops, and facilities for wealthy foreigners are common in the area.[27] The International School of Havana is located in the Miramar neighborhood Sony VPCEH2J1E battery. In the 1980s many parts of Old Havana, including the Plaza de Armas, became part of a projected 35-year multimillion-dollar restoration project, for Cubans to appreciate their past and boost tourism. In the past ten years, with the assistance of foreign aid and under the support of local city historian Eusebio Leal Spengler, large parts of Habana Vieja have been renovated. Sony VPCEH2H1E battery The city is moving forward with their renovations, with most of the major plazas (Plaza Vieja, Plaza de la Catedral, Plaza de San Francisco and Plaza de Armas) and major tourist streets (Obispo and Mercaderes) near completion. [edit]Districts The city is divided into 15 municipalities[28] – or boroughs, which are further subdivided into 105 wards[29] (consejos populares). (Numbers refer to map) Sony VPCEH2F1E battery. Playa: Santa Fé, Siboney, Cubanacán, Ampliación Almendares, Miramar, Sierra, Ceiba, Buena Vista. Plaza de la Revolución : El Carmelo, Vedado-Malecón, Rampa, Príncipe, Plaza, Nuevo Vedado-Puentes Grandes, Colón-Nuevo Vedado, Vedado. Centro Habana: Cayo Hueso, Pueblo Nuevo, Los Sitios, Dragones, Colon. La Habana Vieja : Prado, Catedral, Plaza Vieja, Belén, San Isidro, Jesús Maria, Tallapiedra. Regla : Guacanimar, Loma Modelo, Casablanca. La Habana del Este : Camilo Cienfuegos, Cojimar, Guiteras, Alturas de Alamar, Alamar-Este, Guanabo, Campo Florido, Alamar-Playa. Sony VPCEH2E0E batteryGuanabacoa : Mañana-Habana Nueva, Villa I, Villa II, Chivas-Roble, Debeche-Nalon, Hata-Naranjo, Peñalver-Bacuranao, Minas-Barreras. San Miguel del Padrón: Rocafort, Luyanó Moderno, Diezmero, San Francisco de Paula, Dolores-Veracruz, Jacomino. Diez de Octubre : Luyanó, Jesús del Monte, Lawton, Vista Alegre, Acosta, Sevillano, Vibora, Santos Suárez, Tamarindo Sony VPCEH2D0E battery. Cerro: Latinoamericano, Pilar-Atares, Cerro, Las Cañas, El Canal, Palatino, Armada. Marianao : CAI-Los Ángeles, Pocito-Palmas, Zamora-Cocosolo, Libertad, Pogoloti-Belén-Finlay, Sta Felicia. La Lisa : Alturas de La Lisa, Balcón Arimao, Cano-Bello26-Valle Grande, Punta Brava, Arroyo Arenas, San Agustín, Versalles Coronela. Boyeros: Santiago de Las Vegas, Nuevo Santiago, Boyeros, Wajay, Calabazar, Altahabana-Capdevila, Armada-Aldabo Sony VPCEH2C0E battery. Arroyo Naranjo: Los Pinos, Poey, Víbora Park, Mantilla, Párraga, Calvario-Fraternidad, Guinera, Eléctrico, Managua, Callejas. El Cotorro: San Pedro-Centro Cotorro, Santa Maria del Rosario, Lotería, Cuatro Caminos, Magdalena-Torriente, Alberro. The Focsa residential skyscraper Due to Havana's almost five hundred year existence, the city boasts some of the most diverse styles of architecture in the world, from castles built in the late 16th century to modernist present-day high-rises Sony VPCEH1M1E battery. Neoclassical Neoclassism was introduced into the city in the 1840s, at the time including Gas public lighting in 1848 and the railroad in 1837. In the second half of the 18th century, sugar and coffee production increased rapidly, which became essential in the development of Havana's most prominent architectural style. Many wealthy Habaneros took their inspiration from the French Sony VPCEH1L9E battery; this can be seen within the interiors of upper class houses such as the Aldama Palace built in 1844. This is considered the most important neoclassical residential building in Cuba and typifies the design of many houses of this period with portales of neoclassical columns facing open spaces or courtyards. In 1925 Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, the head of urban planning in Paris moved to Havana for five years to collaborate with architects and landscape designers Sony VPCEH1L8E battery. In the master planning of the city his aim was to create a harmonic balance between the classical built form and the tropical landscape. He embraced and connected the city's road networks while accentuating prominent landmarks. His influence has left a huge mark on Havana although many of his ideas were cut short by the great depression in 1929 Sony VPCEH1L0E battery. During the first decades of the 20th century Havana expanded more rapidly than at any time during its history. Great wealth prompted architectural styles to be influenced from abroad. The peak of Neoclassicism came with the construction of the Vedado district (begun in 1859). This whole neighbourhood is littered with set back well-proportioned buildings Sony VPCEH1J8E battery. Colonial and Baroque Riches were brought from the colonialists into and through Havana as it was a key transshipment point between the new world and old world. As a result Havana was the most heavily fortified city in the Americas. Most examples of early architecture can be seen in military fortifications such as La Fortaleza de San Carlos de la Cabana (1558–1577) designed by Battista Antonelli and the Castillo del Morro (1589–1630) Sony VPCEH1J1E battery. This sits at the entrance of Havana Bay and provides an insight into the supremacy and wealth at that time. Old Havana was also protected by a defensive wall begun in 1674 but had already overgrown its boundaries when it was completed in 1767, becoming the new neighbourhood of Centro Habana. The influence from different styles and cultures can be seen in Havana's colonial architecture, with a diverse range of Moorish architecture, Spanish Sony VPCEH1E1E battery, Italian, Greek and Roman. The San Carlos and San Ambrosio Seminary (18th century) is a good example of early Spanish influenced architecture. The Havana cathedral (1748–1777) dominating the Plaza de la Catedral (1749) is the best example of Cuban Baroque. Surrounding it are the former palaces of the Count de Casa-Bayona (1720–1746) Marquis de Arcos (1746) and the Marquis de Aguas Claras (1751–1775) Sony VPCEH1AJ battery. Art Deco and Eclectic The first echoes of the Art Deco movement in Havana started in 1927, in the residential area of Miramar.[30] The Edificio Bacardi (1930) is thought to be the best example of Art-deco architecture in the city and first tall Art Deco building as well,[30] followed by the Hotel Nacional de Cuba (1930) and The Lopez Serrano building built in 1932 by Ricardo Mira inspired by the Rockefeller Center in New York Sony VPCCA2S1E battery. The year 1928 marked the beginning of the reaction against the Spanish Renaissance style architecture, Art Deco started in the lush and wealthy suburbs of Miramar, Marianao, and Vedado.[30] The city's eclectic architectural sights begins in Centro Habana.[31] The Central Railway Terminal (1912), and the Museum of the Revolution (1920) are example of Eclectic architecture Sony VPCCA2S0E battery. Modernism Many high-rise office buildings, and apartment complexes, along with some hotels built in the 1950s dramatically altered the skyline. Modernism, therefore, transformed much of the city and should be noted for its individual buildings of high quality rather than its larger key buildings. Examples of the latter are Habana Libre (1958), which before the revolution was the Havana Hilton Hotel and La Rampa movie theater (1955) Sony VPCCA2AJ battery. Famous architects such as Walter Gropius, Richard Neutra and Oscar Niemeyer all passed through the city,[32] while strong influences can be seen in Havana at this time from Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[33] The Edificio Focsa (1956) represents Havana's economic dominance at the time. This 35-story complex was conceived and based on Corbusian ideas Sony VPCCA1S1E/W battery of a self-contained city within a city. It contained 400 apartments, garages, a school, a supermarket, and restaurant on the top floor. This was the tallest concrete structure in the world at the time (using no steel frame) and the ultimate symbol of luxury and excess. The Havana Riviera Hotel (1957) designed by Irving Feldman, a twenty-one-story edifice, when it opened, the Riviera was the largest purpose-built casino-hotel in Cuba or anywhere in the world, outside Las Vegas (the Havana Hilton (1958) surpassed its size a year later) Sony VPCCA1S1E/P battery. Landmarks and historical centres Habana Vieja: contains the core of the original city of Havana. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Piazza (or main square) in central Havana in 1762 The Lighthouse and the Castle of Tres Reyes del Morro, has become a symbols of Havana. Plaza Vieja: a plaza in Old Havana, it was the site of executions, processions, bullfights, and fiestas Sony VPCCA1S1E/G battery. Fortress San Carlos de la Cabaña, a fortress located on the east side of the Havana bay, La Cabaña is the most impressive fortress from colonial times, particularly its walls constructed at the end of the 18th century. El Capitolio Nacional: built in 1929 as the Senate and House of Representatives, the colossal building is recognizable by its dome which dominates the city's skyline. Inside stands the third largest indoor statue in the world, La Estatua de la República Sony VPCCA1S1E/D battery. Nowadays, the Cuban Academy of Sciences headquarters and the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (the National Museum of Natural History) has its venue within the building and contains the largest natural history collection in the country. El Morro Castle: is a fortress guarding the entrance to Havana bay; Morro Castle was built because of the threat to the harbor from pirates Sony VPCCA1S1E/B battery. Fortress San Salvador de la Punta: a small fortress built in the 16th century, at the western entry point to the Havana harbour, it played a crucial role in the defence of Havana during the initial centuries of colonisation. It houses some twenty old guns and military antiques. Christ of Havana: Havana's 20-meter (66 ft) marble statue of Christ (1958) blesses the city from the east hillside of the bay, much like the famous Cristo Redentor in Rio de Janeiro Sony VPCCA1S1E battery. The Great Theatre of Havana: is an opera house famous particularly for the National Ballet of Cuba, it sometimes hosts performances by the National Opera. The theater is also known as concert hall, García Lorca, the biggest in Cuba. The Malecon/Sea wall: is the avenue that runs along the north coast of the city, beside the seawall. The Malecón is the most popular avenue of Havana, it is known for its sunsets Sony VPCCA1C5E battery. Hotel Nacional de Cuba: an Art Deco National Hotel famous in the 1950s as a gambling and entertainment complex. Museo de la Revolución: located in the former Presidential Palace, with the yacht Granma on display behind the museum. Necrópolis Cristóbal Colón: a cemetery and open air museum,[34] it is one of the most famous cemeteries in Latin America Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery, known for its beauty and magnificence. The cemetery was built in 1876 and has nearly one million tombs. Some gravestones are decorated with sculpture by Ramos Blancos, among others. Havana, by far the leading cultural centre of the country, offers a wide variety of features that range from museums, palaces, public squares, avenues, churches Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery, fortresses (including the largest fortified complex in the Americas dating from the 16th through 18th centuries), ballet and from art and musical festivals to exhibitions of technology. The restoration of Old Havana offered a number of new attractions, including a museum to house relics of the Cuban revolution. The government placed special emphasis on cultural activities, many of which are free or involve only a minimal charge Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. Old Havana, (La Habana Vieja in Spanish), contains the core of the original city of Havana, with more than 2,000 hectares it exhibits almost all the Western architectural styles seen in the New World. La Habana Vieja was founded by the Spanish in 1519 in the natural harbor of the Bay of Havana. It became a stopping point for the treasure laden Spanish Galleons on the crossing between the New World and the Old World Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. In the 17th century it was one of the main shipbuilding centers. The city was built in baroque and neoclassic style. Many buildings have fallen in ruin but a number are being restored. The narrow streets of old Havana contain many buildings, accounting for perhaps as many as one-third of the approximately 3,000 buildings found in Old Havana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C batteryOld Havana is the ancient city formed from the port, the official center and the Plaza de Armas. Alejo Carpentier called Old Havana the place "de las columnas" (of the columns). The Cuban government is taking many steps to preserve and to restore Old Havana, through the Office of the city historian, directed by Eusebio Leal.[36] Old Havana and its fortifications were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Further information: Chinese Cuban The city's Chinatown (Barrio Chino), once Latin America's largest and most vibrant Chinatown incorporated into the city by the early part of the 20th century when hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers were brought in by Spanish settlers from Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong, and Macau via Manila, Philippines[41] starting in the mid-19th century and the following decades to replace and / or work alongside African slaves. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery After completing 8-year contracts, many Chinese immigrants settled permanently in Havana. The first 206 Chinese-born arrived in Havana on June 3, 1847.[43] The Chinatown neighborhood was booming with Chinese restaurants, laundries, banks, pharmacies, theaters and several Chinese-language newspapers, the neighborhood comprised 44 square blocks during its prime. The heart of Havana's Chinatown is on el Cuchillo de Zanja (or The Zanja Canal) Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The strip is a pedestrian-only street adorned with many red lanterns, dancing red paper dragons and other Chinese cultural designs, there is a great number of restaurants that serve a full spectrum of Chinese dishes – unfortunately that 'spectrum' is said by many not to be related to real Chinese cuisine. The Chinatown district has two paifang, a large one located on Calle Dragones, the People's Republic of China donated the materials in the late 1990s, Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery it has a well defined written welcoming sign in Chinese and Spanish. The smaller arch is located on Zanja strip. The Cuban's Chinese boom ended when Fidel Castro's 1959 revolution seized private businesses, sending tens of thousands of business-minded Chinese fleeing, mainly to the United States. Descendants are now making efforts to preserve and revive the culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. The National Museum of Fine Arts (Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes) is a Fine Arts museum that exhibits Cuban and International art collections. The museum houses one of the largest collections of paintings and sculpture from Latin America and is the largest in the Caribbean region.[45] Under the Cuban Ministry of Culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery, it occupies two locations in the vicinity of Havana's Paseo del Prado, these are the Palace of Fine Arts, devoted to Cuban art and the Palace of the Asturian Center, dedicated to universal art.[46] Its artistic heritage is made up of over 45,000 pieces.[47] The Museum of the Revolution (Museo de la Revolución), designed in Havana by Cuban architect Carlos Maruri, and the Belgian Paul Belau, who came up with an eclectic design Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery, harmoniously combines Spanish, French and German architectural elements. The museum was the Presidential Palace in the capital; today, its displays and documents outline Cuba's history from the beginning of the neo-colonial period. The neo-classical mansion of the Countess of Revilla de Camargo, today it is the Museum of Decorative Arts (Museo de Artes Decorativas), known as the "small French Palace of Havana" built between 1924 and 1927 Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery, it was designed in Paris inspired in French Renaissance.[48] The museum has been exhibiting more than 33,000 works dating from the reigns of Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Napoleon III; as well as 16th to 20th century Oriental pieces, among many other treasures.[49] The Museum has ten permanent exhibit halls. Among them are prominent porcelain articles from the factories in Sèvres and Chantilly, France; Meissen, Germany; and Wedgwood, England Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery, as well as Chinese from the Qianlong Emperor period and Japanese from the Imari. The furniture comes from Stéphane Boudin, Jean Henri Riesener and several others. Several museums in Old Havana houses furniture, silverware, pottery, glass and other items from the colonial period. One of these is the Palacio de los Capitanes Generales, where Spanish governors once lived. The Casa de Africa presents another aspect of Cuba's history, it houses a large collection of Afro-Cuban religious artifacts Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Other museums in the city include Casa de los Árabes (House of Arabs) and the Casa de Asia (House of Asia) with Middle and Far Eastern collections. Havana's Museo del Automobil has an impressive collection of vehicles dating back to a 1905 Cadillac. While most museums of Havana are situated in Old Havana, few of them can also be found in Vedado. In total, Havana has around 50 museums, including the National Museum of Music Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery; the Museum of Dance and Rum; the Cigar Museum; the Napoleonic, Colonial and Oricha Museums; the Museum of Anthropology; the Ernest Hemingway Museum; the José Martí Monument; the Aircraft Museum (Museo del Aire). There are also museums of Natural Sciences, the City, Archeology, Gold-and-Silverwork, Perfume, Pharmaceuticals, Sports, Numismatics, and Weapons Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. Facing Havana's Central Park is the baroque Great Theatre of Havana, a prominent theatre built in 1837.[50] It is now home of the National Ballet of Cuba and the International Ballet Festival of Havana, one of the oldest in the New World. The façade of the building is adorned with a stone and marble statue. There are also sculptural pieces by Giuseppe Moretti, (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery) representing allegories depicting benevolence, education, music and theatre. The principal theatre is the García Lorca Auditorium, with seats for 1,500 and balconies. Glories of its rich history; the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso sang, the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova danced, and the French Sarah Bernhardt acted. Other important theatres in the city includes the National Theater of Cuba, housed in a huge modern building located in Plaza de la Revolucion (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery), decorated with works by Cuban artists. The National Theater includes two main theatre stages, the Avellaneda Auditorium and the Covarrubias Auditorium, as well as a smaller theatre workshop space on the ninth floor. The Karl Marx Theater with its large auditorium have a seating capacity of 5,500 spectators, is generally used for concerts and other events, it is also one of the venues for the annual Havana Film Festival (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery).
Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles. It is 34 kilometres (21 mi) in length and up to 23 kilometres (14 mi) in width, covering an area of 431 square kilometres (166 sq mi). It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic and 100 kilometres (62 mi) east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; ( Dell D6400 battery)therein, it is about 168 kilometres (104 mi) east of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) north-east of Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Barbados was initially visited by the Spanish around the late 1400s to early 1500s and first appears on a Spanish map from 1511.[6] The Spanish explorers may have plundered the island of whatever native peoples resided therein to become slaves. ( Dell HF674 battery) The Portuguese visited in 1536, but they too left it unclaimed, with their only remnants being an introduction of wild hogs for a good supply of meat whenever the island was visited. The first English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1624. They took possession of it in the name of the British king James I. Two years later in 1627 the first permanent settlers arrived from England and it became an English and later British colony. ( Dell N3010 battery) Barbados has an estimated population of 284,000 people,[8] with around 80,000 living in or around Bridgetown, the largest city and the country's capital.[9] In 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State.[10] Barbados is one of the Caribbean's leading tourist destinations and is one of the most developed islands in the region, with an HDI number of 0.788( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery). In 2011 Barbados ranked 2nd in The Americas (16th globally) on Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index[11] Etymology According to accounts by descendants of the indigenous Arawakan-speaking tribes in other regional areas, the original name for Barbados was Ichirouganaim, with possible translations including "Red Land with White Teeth",[12] "Redstone island with teeth outside (reefs)",[13] or simply "Teeth"( Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery). The reason for the later name Barbados is controversial. According to some sources the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, while others say it was the Spanish which gave the Spanish name "Los Barbudos". The word Barbados means "bearded ones", but it is a matter of conjecture whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the bearded fig-tree (Ficus citrifolia), indigenous to the island( Dell Inspiron 1200 battery); to allegedly bearded Caribs once inhabiting the island; or, more fancifully, to the foam spraying over the outlying reefs giving the impression of a beard. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position. Furthermore, an island in the Leewards which is very close in name to Barbados is Barbuda and was once named Las Barbuadas by the Spanish( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery). Other names or nicknames associated with Barbados include "Bim" and "Bimshire". The origin is uncertain but several theories exist. The National Cultural Foundation of Barbados says that "Bim" was a word commonly used by slaves and that it derives from the phrase "bi mu" or either ("bem", "Ndi bem", "Nwanyi ibem" or "Nwoke ibem")( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery) from an Igbo phrase meaning "my people". In colloquial or literary contexts, "Bim" can also take a more deific tone, referring to the "goddess" Barbados. The word Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary and Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionaries. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, The Rev. N. Greenidge ( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery) (father of one of the island's most famous scholars, Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire".[19] Lastly in the Daily Argosy (of Demerara, i.e. Guyana) of 1652 it referred to Bim as a possible corruption of the word "Byam", who was a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims and became a word for all Barbadians. ( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery) Main articles: History of Barbados and Timeline of Barbadian history The Barbadoes mulatto girl, c. 1764 Amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th century AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid.[20] In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America.[21] The Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries, and may have seized the Arawaks on Barbados and used them as slave labour. ( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery) Other Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands. Apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese left little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from Guyana in the 1800s and continue to live in Barbados. From the arrival of the first English settlers in 1627–1628 until independence in 1966, Barbados was under uninterrupted British governance ( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery) (and was the only Caribbean island that did not change hands during the colonial period). In the very early years, the majority of the population was white and male, with African slaves providing little of the workforce. Cultivation of tobacco, cotton, ginger and indigo was handled primarily by European indentured labour until the start of the sugar cane industry in the 1640s( Dell inspiron 1525 battery). As Barbados' economy grew, Barbados developed a large measure of local autonomy through its founding as a proprietary colony. Its House of Assembly began meeting in 1639. Among the initial important figures was Anglo-Dutchman Sir William Courten. The 1780 hurricane killed over 4,000 people. In addition, a cholera epidemic killed over 20,000 people in 1854. ( Dell inspiron 1526 battery) At emancipation in the late 1830s, the size of the slave population was approximately 83,000. Between 1946 and 1980, Barbados' rate of population growth was diminished by one-third because of emigration to Britain.[25] Government and politics Main articles: Government of Barbados and Politics of Barbados Barbados has been an independent country since 30 November 1966. It functions as a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery), modelled on the British Westminster system, with Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, as head of state, represented locally by the Governor-General, Elliott Belgrave, and the Prime Minister as the head of the government. The number of representatives within the House of Assembly has gradually increased from 24 at independence to its present composition of 30 seats( Dell Inspiron 2000 battery). During the 1990s, at the suggestion of Trinidad and Tobago's Patrick Manning, Barbados attempted a political union with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The project stalled after the then Prime Minister of Barbados Lloyd Erskine Sandiford became ill and his party (the Democratic Labour Party) lost the next general election. ( Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery) Barbados continues to share close ties with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, claiming the highest number of Guyanese immigrants after the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. Barbados functions as a two-party system, the two dominant parties being the ruling Democratic Labour Party and the opposition, Barbados Labour Party. Until 2003, each party had served two terms in office alternately. ( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery) The election of 2003 gave the BLP a third term victory, at which time the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) achieved being in government for 14 years, (1994 until the 2008 elections). Under that administration, the former Prime Minister, The Right Honourable Owen S. Arthur acted as the Regional Leader of the CSM (Caribbean Single Market). The Honourable David Thompson, who was elected Prime Minister of Barbados in 2008, died of pancreatic cancer on 23 October 2010. He was succeeded by Deputy Prime Minister Freundel Stuart, who was sworn in the same day. ( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery) Barbados has had several third parties over a period of time since independence: The People's Pressure Movement formed in the early 1970s and contested the 1976 elections; The National Democratic Party, which contested the 1994 elections; and the People's Democratic Congress, which contested the 2008 elections. Apart from these there were several independents who contested the elections, but independents are yet to win a seat in Parliament( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery). The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the nation.[31] The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary. Historically, Barbadian law was based entirely on English common law with a few local adaptations. At the time of independence, the British Parliament ceased having the ability to change local legislation at its own discretion. British law and various legal statutes within British law at this time( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery), and other prior measures adopted by the Barbadian Parliament, became the basis of the modern-day law system. More recently, however, local Barbadian legislation may be shaped or influenced by such organisations as the United Nations, the Organization of American States, or other international fora to which Barbados has obligatory commitments by treaty( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery). Additionally, through international cooperation, other institutions may supply the Barbados Parliament with key sample legislation to be adapted to meet local circumstances before crafting it as local law. Laws are passed by the Barbadian Parliament, whereby upon their passage, are given official royal assent by the Governor-General to become law. In Barbados, camouflage clothing is reserved for military use and forbidden for civilians to wear, including children( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery). Barbados is outlined as one of the nations where the International Press Instutute would like to see the removal of libel from the criminal court.[32] Main article: Judiciary of Barbados The local court system of Barbados is made-up of: Magistrates' Courts: Covering Criminal, Civil, Domestic, Domestic Violence, and Juvenile matters. But can also take up matters dealing with Coroner's Inquests, Liquor Licences, and civil marriages. Further, the Magistrates' Courts deal with Contract and Tort law where claims do not exceed $10,000.00( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery). The Supreme Court: is made up of High Court and Court of Appeals. High Court: Consisting of Civil, Criminal, and Family law divisions. Court of Appeal: Handles appeals from the High Court and Magistrates' Court. It hears appeals in both the civil, and criminal law jurisdictions. It may consist of a single Justice of Appeal sitting in Chambers; or may sit as a Full Court of three Justices of Appeals. The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), (based in Port Of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago), is the court of last resort (final jurisdiction) over Barbadian law( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery). It replaced the London-based Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC). The CCJ may resolve other disputed matters dealing with the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy (CSME). Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Barbados Barbados is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) ( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery), and the Association of Caribbean States (ACS).[34] Organization of American States (OAS), Commonwealth of Nations, and the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which currently pertains only to Barbados, Belize and Guyana. In 2001 the Caribbean Community heads of government voted on a measure declaring that the region should work towards replacing the UK's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery). Barbados is an original Member (1995) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and participates actively in its work. It grants at least MFN treatment to all its trading partners. As of December 2007, Barbados is linked by an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Commission. The pact involves the Caribbean Forum (CARIFORUM) subgroup of the Group of African( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery), Caribbean, and Pacific states (ACP). CARIFORUM presently the only part of the wider ACP-bloc that has concluded the full regional trade-pact with the European Union. Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognising that most domestic needs are best met by imports. The Barbados Defence Force has roughly 600 members; within it, 12-to-18-year-old youngsters make up the Barbados Cadet Corps. The defence preparations of the island nation are closely tied to defence treaties with the United Kingdom, the United States, and the People's Republic of China. ( Dell Inspiron 710m battery) Beach near Bridgetown Barbados is the easternmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It is flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west, the Windward Islands. The island rises gently to the central highland region, with the highpoint of the nation being Mount Hillaby, in the geological Scotland District, 340 metres (1,120 ft) above sea level. The island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies Islands( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). In the parish of Saint Michael lies Barbados' capital and main city, Bridgetown. Other major towns scattered across the island include Holetown, in the parish of Saint James; Oistins, in the parish of Christ Church; and Speightstown, in the parish of Saint Peter. Barbados lies on the boundary of the South American and the Caribbean Plates.[36] The shift of the South American plate beneath the Caribbean plate scrapes sediment from the South American plate and deposits it above the subduction zone forming an accretionary prism( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery). The rate of this depositing of material allows Barbados to rise at a rate of about 25 millimetres (0.98 in) per 1,000 years.[37] This subduction means geologically the island is composed of coral roughly (90 m/300 ft thick), where reefs formed above the sediment. The land slopes in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. A large proportion of the island is circled by coral reefs( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery). The erosion of limestone rock in the North East of the island, in the Scotland District, has resulted in the formation of various caves and gullys, some of which have become popular tourist attractions such as Harrison's Cave and Welchman Hall Gully. On the Atlantic East coast of the island coastal landforms, including stacks, have been created due to the limestone composition of the area( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery). Bathsheba on the east coast of the island The country generally experiences two seasons, one of which includes noticeably higher rainfall. Known as the "wet season", this period runs from June to November. By contrast, the "dry season" runs from December to May. The annual precipitation ranges between 40 inches (1,000 mm) and 90 inches (2,300 mm). From December to May the average temperatures range from 21 to 31 °C (70 to 88 °F), while between June and November, they range from 23 to 31 °C (73 to 88 °F). ( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery) On the Köppen climate classification scale, much of Barbados is regarded as a Tropical monsoon climate (Am). However, gentle breezes of 12–16 kilometres per hour (8–10 mph) abound throughout the year and give Barbados a warm climate which is moderately tropical. Infrequent natural hazards include earthquakes, landslips, and hurricanes. Barbados is often spared the worst effects of the region's tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery). The far eastern location in the Atlantic Ocean puts the country just outside the principal hurricane strike zone. On average, a major hurricane strikes about once every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955, and more recently in 2010 the island was struck by Hurricane Tomas, but this only caused minor damage across the country( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery). Environmental issues The island is susceptible to environmental pressures. As one of the world's most densely populated isles, the government worked during the 1990s[40] to aggressively integrate the growing south coast of the island into the Bridgetown Sewage Treatment Plant to reduce contamination of offshore coral reefs.[41][42] As of the 2000s, a second treatment plant has been proposed along the islands' west coast( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery). With such a dense populace, Barbados has placed large efforts on protecting its underground aquifers. As a coral-limestone island, Barbados is highly permeable to seepage of surface water into the earth. As such, a major emphasis by the government has been placed on protecting the catchment areas (in specific surface areas known as buffer zones) that lead directly into the huge network of underground aquifers and streams. ( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery)On occasion illegal squatters have breached these areas, and the government has removed squatters in order to preserve the cleanliness of the underground springs for islands drinking water.[44] The government has placed a huge emphasis on keeping Barbados clean with the aim of protecting the environment and preserving offshore coral reefs which surround the island( Dell Latitude D400 battery). Many initiatives to mitigate human pressures on the coastal regions of Barbados and seas is the Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU).[45] Barbados has nearly 90 km of coral reefs just offshore and two protected marine parks have been established off the west coast.[46] Overfishing is another threat which faces Barbados( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery). Barbados is host to four species of nesting turtles (green turtles, loggerheads, and leatherbacks) and has the second largest hawksbill turtle breeding population in the Caribbean.[48] The driving of vehicles on beaches can crush nests buried in the sand and such activity should be avoided in nesting areas( Dell Vostro 1400 battery). Though on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and some 3000 miles west of Africa, Barbados is one of many places in the American continent which experiences heightened levels of mineral dust from the Sahara Desert.[50] Some particularly intense dust episodes have been blamed partly for the impacts on the health of coral reefs surrounding Barbados or asthmatic episodes,[52] but evidence has not wholly supported the former such claim( Dell Vostro 1500 battery). Administrative divisions Graphical depiction of the national product exports in 28 color coded categories. Barbados is the 51st richest country in the world in terms of GDP (Gross domestic product) per capita,[2] has a well-developed mixed economy, and a moderately high standard of living. According to the World Bank, Barbados is classified as being in its 66 top High income economies of the world. ( Dell XPS M1210 battery) A 2012 self-study in conjunction with the Caribbean Development Bank revealed 20% of Barbadians live in poverty, and nearly 10% cannot meet their basic daily food needs.[55] Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but in the late 1970s and early 1980s it has diversified into the manufacturing and tourism sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners( Dell XPS M1330 battery), and there is a healthy light manufacturing sector. Since the 1990s the Barbados Government has been seen as business-friendly and economically sound.[citation needed] The island has seen a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes. Recent government administrations have continued efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage foreign direct investment, and privatise remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment has been reduced to 10.7 in 2003( Dell XPS 1340 battery). The economy contracted in 2001 and 2002 due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the 11 September 2001 attacks, but rebounded in 2003 and has shown growth since 2004.[1] Traditional trading partners include Canada, the Caribbean Community (especially Trinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom and the United States( Dell XPS M1530 battery). Business links and investment flows have become substantial: as of 2003 the island saw from Canada CA$ 25 billion in investment holdings, placing it as one of Canada's top five destinations for Canadian foreign direct investment (FDI). Businessman Eugene Melnyk of Toronto, Canada, is said to be Barbados' richest permanent resident. ( Dell XPS M170 battery) It has been reported that the year 2006 would have been one of the busiest years for building construction ever in Barbados, as the building-boom on the island entered the final stages for several multi-million dollar commercial projects.[56] The European Union is presently assisting Barbados with a €10 million programme of modernisation of the country's International Business and Financial Services Sector. ( Dell XPS M1710 battery) Barbados maintains the third largest stock exchange in the Caribbean region. At present, officials at the stock exchange are investigating the possibility of augmenting the local exchange with an International Securities Market (ISM) venture.[58] Main articles: Demographics of Barbados and Barbadian people Barbados has a population of about 281,968 and a population growth rate of 0.33% (Mid-2005 estimates). It currently ranks as: the 4th most densely populated country in the Americas (18th globally), and the 10th most populated island country in the region, (101st globally) ( Dell XPS M1730 battery). Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as "Bajan") are of African descent ("Afro-Bajans") and mixed-descent. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans") mainly from the United Kingdom and Ireland, along with Asians, mostly Chinese and Indians (both Hindu and Muslim). Other groups in Barbados include people from the United Kingdom( Dell XPS M2010 battery), United States and Canada. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the U.S. and children born in America to Bajan parents are called "Bajan Yankees", a term considered derogatory by some.[59] Generally, Bajans recognise and accept all "children of the island" as Bajans, and refer to each other as such( Dell Latitude E5400 battery). The biggest communities outside the Afro-Caribbean community are: The Indo-Guyanese, an important part of the economy due to the increase of immigrants from partner country Guyana. There are reports of a growing Indo-Bajan diaspora originating from Guyana and India. They introduced roti and other Indian dishes to Barbados' culture. Mostly from southern India and Hindu states, they are growing in size but smaller than the equivalent communities in Trinidad & Guyana( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). Euro-Bajans (4% of the population)[1] have settled in Barbados since the 16th century, originating from England, Ireland and Scotland. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados (86% of the population).[60] More commonly they are known as "White Bajans". Euro-Bajans introduced folk music, such as Irish music and Highland music, and certain place names( Dell Latitude E6400 battery), such as "Scotland", a mountainous region. Among White Barbadians there exists an underclass known as Redlegs; the descendants of indentured servants, and prisoners imported to the island.[61] Many additionally moved on to become the earliest settlers of modern-day North and South Carolina in the United States. Chinese-Barbadians (or, as they are known on the island, "Bajan-Chineys") are a small portion of Barbados' Asian demographics( Dell Latitude E6500 battery), smaller than the equivalent communities of Jamaica and Trinidad. Most if not all first arrived in the 1940s during the Second World War, originating mainly from the then British territory of Hong Kong. Many Chinese-Bajans have the surnames Chin, Chynn or Lee, although other surnames prevail in certain areas of the island. Chinese food and culture is becoming part of everyday Bajan culture( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery). Lebanese and Syrians form the Arab community on the island, and the Muslim minority among them make up a small percentage of the Muslim population. The majority of the Lebanese and Syrians arrived in Barbados through trade opportunities. However, the numbers are dwindling due to emigration and immigration to other countries( Dell XPS M140 battery). Jewish people arrived in Barbados just after the first settlers in 1627. Bridgetown is the home of Nidhe Israel Synagogue, the oldest Jewish synagogue in the Americas, dating from 1654, though the current structure was erected in 1833 replacing one ruined by the hurricane of 1831. Tombstones in the neighbouring cemetery date from the 1630s. Now under the care of the Barbados National Trust, the site was deserted in 1929 but was subsequently saved and restored by the Jewish community beginning in 1986( Dell XPS 13 battery). The Muslim-Indian Barbadian community is largely of Gujarati ancestry. Many small businesses in Barbados are run and operated by Muslim-Indian Bajans. The average life expectancy is 72 years for males and 77 years for females.[1] Barbados and Japan have the highest per capita occurrences of centenarians in the world. English is the root official language of Barbados, and is used for communications, administration, and public services all over the island( Dell XPS 16 battery). In its capacity as the official language of the country, the standard of English tends to conform to the vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions akin to, but not exactly the same as, those of British English. A regional variant of English, referred to locally as Bajan, is spoken by most Barbadians in everyday life, especially in informal settings. In its fully-fledged form, Bajan sounds markedly different from the Standard English heard on the island( Dell XPS 1640 battery). The degree of intelligibility between Bajan and general English changes depending on the speakers' origins and the "rawness" of accent. In rare instances, a Bajan speaker may be completely unintelligible to an outside English speaker if sufficient slang terminology is present in a sentence. Bajan is somewhat differentiated from, but highly influenced by other Caribbean English dialects( Dell XPS 1645 battery); it is a fusion of British English and elements borrowed from the languages of West Africa. Hindi and Bhojpuri are also spoken on the island by a small Indo-Bajan minority. Spanish is considered the most popular second language on the island, followed by French. Main article: Religion in Barbados Most Barbadians of African and European descent are Christians (95%), chiefly Anglicans (40%). Other Christian denominations with significant followings in Barbados are the Catholic Church, Pentecostals (Evangelicals) Jehovah's Witnesses( Dell XPS 1647 battery), Seventh-Day Adventist and Spiritual Baptists. The Church of England was the official state religion until its legal disenfranchisement by the Parliament of Barbados following independence.[63] Religious minorities include Hindus, Muslims, the Baha'i Faith,[64] Jews and Wiccans. International pop star Rihanna, a native of Barbados Main article: Culture of Barbados See also: Music of Barbados, Rihanna, and Cover Drive The influence of the English on Barbados is more noticeable than on other islands in the West Indies. A good example of this is the island's national sport: cricket( Dell Latitude 131L battery). Barbados has brought forth several great cricketers, including Sir Garfield Sobers and Sir Frank Worrell. Citizens are officially called Barbadians. The term "Bajan" (pronounced "beijan) may have come from a localised pronunciation of the word Barbadian which at times can sound more like "Bar-bajan"( Dell Latitude C400 battery). The largest carnival-like cultural event which takes place on the island is the Crop Over festival. As in many other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Crop Over is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to the island to participate in the annual events. The festival includes musical competitions and other traditional activities( Dell Latitude C500 battery), and features the majority of the island's homegrown calypso and soca music for the year. The male and female Barbadian who harvested the most sugarcane are also crowned as the King and Queen of the crop.[65] It gets under way from the beginning of July, and ends with the costumed parade on Kadooment Day, held on the first Monday of August( Dell Latitude C510 battery). In the music business, Rihanna (born Robyn Fenty) is currently one of Barbados' best-known Grammy winning artists. As of 2009 she was appointed as an official Honorary Ambassador of youth and culture for Barbados by the late Prime Minister, David Thompson. The band Cover Drive also originates from Barbados( Dell Latitude C540 battery). Grandmaster Flash (born Joseph Saddler) is a hugely influential musician of Barbadian origin, pioneering hip-hop DJing, cutting, and mixing in 1970s New York. He began experimenting with DJ equipment as a teenager, eventually developing and mastering a number of key innovations that are still considered standard DJing techniques today( Dell Latitude C600 battery). In the film and television business the iconic actress Stacey Dash is of Barbadian origin as well. Similar to other nations within the Commonwealth of Nations all Barbadian citizens are covered by national healthcare. Barbados has over twenty polyclinics throughout the country in addition to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital (General Hospital) located in Bridgetown( Dell Latitude C610 battery). In 2011 the Government of Barbados signed a Memorandum of Understanding to lease its 22-acre Saint Joseph Hospital to Denver, Colorado based America World Clinics. Under the deal the group will use Barbados as one of its main destinations for medical tourism at that facility. The government also announced it would begin constructing a new $800 million dollar state-of-the-art hospital to replace the QEH( Dell Latitude C640 battery). Education and literacy Main article: Education in Barbados Barbados' literacy rate is ranked close to 100%, with both UNESCO and the Minister of Education stating that Barbados was in the top 5 countries worldwide for literacy rate.[66] thus placing the country alongside many of the industrialised nations of the world. The mainstream public education system of Barbados is fashioned after the British model( Dell Latitude C800 battery). The government of Barbados spends 6.7% of the GDP on education (2008).[1] All young people in the country must attend school until age 16. Barbados has over 70 primary schools, and over 20 secondary schools throughout the island. There are also a number of private schools catering to various teaching models including Montessori and International Baccalaureate. Degree level education in the country is provided by the Barbados Community College( Dell Latitude C810 battery), the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic, and a local Cave Hill campus of the University of the West Indies The Kensington Oval, in Bridgetown hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup final.Cricket is one of the most followed games in the nation and the Kensignton Oval is often referred to as the "Mecca in Cricket" due to its significance and contributions to the sport( Dell Latitude C840 battery). As in other Caribbean countries of British colonial heritage, cricket is very popular on the island. Barbadians play on the West Indies cricket team. In addition to several warm-up matches and six "Super Eight" matches, and the country hosted the final of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. They have had many great cricketers such as Sir Garfield Sobers, Sir Frank Worrell, Sir Clyde Walcott, Sir Everton Weekes, Gordon Greenidge, Joel Garner and Malcolm Marshall( Dell Latitude D410 battery). Horse racing takes place at the Historic Garrison Savannah close to Bridgetown. Spectators can pay for admission to the stands, or else can watch races from the public "rail", which encompasses the track. Obadele Thompson is a world-class sprinter from Barbados; he won a bronze medal at Olympic Games over 100m in 2000. Ryan Brathwaite, a hurdler, reached the 2008 Olympic semi-finals in Beijing( Dell Latitude D420 battery). Brathwaite also earned Barbados its first ever medal at the world championships in Berlin, Germany on 20 August 2009, when he won the men's 110 meter hurdles title. The 21-year-old timed a national record of 13.14 seconds to win the Gold Medal. Polo is very popular amongst the rich elite on the island and the "High-Goal" Apes Hill team is based in the St James's Club.[67] It is also played at the private Holders Festival ground( Dell Latitude D430 battery). In golf, the Barbados Open is an annual stop on the European Seniors Tour. In December 2006 the WGC-World Cup took place at the country's Sandy Lane resort on the Country Club course, an 18-hole course designed by Tom Fazio. The Barbados Golf Club is the other main course on the island. Sanctioned by the PGA European Tour to host a PGA Seniors Tournament in 2003 and it has also hosted the Barbados Open on several occasions( Dell Latitude D500 battery). Basketball is a popular sport, played at school or college, and is increasing in popularity, as is volleyball, though volleyball is mainly played indoors. Motorsports also play a role, with Rally Barbados occurring each summer and currently being listed on the FIA NACAM calendar. The presence of the trade winds along with favourable swells make the southern tip of the island an ideal location for wave sailing (an extreme form of the sport of windsurfing). Netball is also popular with women in Barbados( Dell Latitude D505 battery). Barbadian team The Flyin' Fish, are the 2009 Segway Polo World Champions.[68] Typical ZR-van with markings indicating that it serves the number 11 route. In addition to being one of the world's most densely populated countries, Barbados also has one of the most dense road networks in the world. Although Barbados is only about 34 kilometres (21 mi) at its widest point, a car journey from Six Cross Roads in St. Philip (south-east) to North Point in St. Lucy (north-central) can take one and a half hours or longer, thanks to the country's narrow, winding and rough roads( Dell Latitude D510 battery). Barbados has half as many registered cars as citizens in the country. The first letter of a vehicle's licence plate designates its usage or owner's registered parish of residence. "Z" and "ZR" are for taxis; "H" for rental cars; "B" for buses and minibuses; "CD" for diplomatic cars; and "3D" or "7D" for defence force vehicles, while "ML" or "MP" with green plates usually designate military( Dell Latitude D520 battery), police or government vehicles. As regards residence, "X" is for Christ Church; "A" for St. Andrew; "G" for St. George; "S" for St. James; "J" for St. John; "O" for St. Joseph; "L" for St. Lucy; "M" for St. Michael; "E" for St. Peter; "P" for St. Philip; and "T" for St. Thomas. Public transport on the island is relatively convenient, with 'route taxis', called "ZRs" (pronounced "Zed-Rs"), travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, as passengers are generally never turned down( Dell Latitude D600 battery), regardless of the number. However, they will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. They generally depart from the capital Bridgetown or from Speightstown in the northern part of the island. Old Barbados Transport Board bus in Bridgetown. Including the ZRs there are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays). There's ZRs, the yellow minibuses and the blue Transport Board buses. A ride on any of them costs BBD$2.00. The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems( Dell Latitude D610 battery) ("ZRs" and "minibuses") can give change; the larger blue buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot, but do give receipts. Children in school uniform ride for free on the government buses and for $1.50 on the minibuses and ZRs. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. Some drivers within the competitive privately owned systems are reluctant to advise persons to use competing services, even if those would be more suitable( Dell Latitude D620 battery). A Mini Moke at Speightstown beach Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island from outside the hotel lobby. There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados but there are no multi-national companies. The island's lone airport is the Grantley Adams International Airport. It receives daily flights by several major airlines from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters( Dell Latitude D630 battery). The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the eastern Caribbean. In the first decade of 21st century it underwent a US$100 million upgrade and expansion. There is also a helicopter shuttle service, which offers air taxi services to a number of sites around the island, mainly on the West Coast tourist belt. Air and maritime traffic is regulated by the Barbados Port Authority( Dell Latitude D800 battery). Guatemala (US i/ˌɡwɑːtəˈmɑːlə/ gwah-tə-mah-lə, UK /ˌɡwætɪˈmɑːlə/ gwa-ti-mah-lə), officially the Republic of Guatemala (Spanish: República de Guatemala [reˈpuβlika ðe ɣwateˈmala]), is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. Its area is 108,890 km2 (42,043 mi2) with an estimated population of 13,276,517( Dell Latitude D810 battery). A representative democracy, its capital is Guatemala de la Asunción, also known as Guatemala City. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot.[4] The former Mayan civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization, which continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish( Dell Latitude D820 battery). The Mayas live in Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, the southern part of Mexico and northern parts of El Salvador. Guatemala became independent from Spain in 1821. After it became an independent country in its own right, it was ruled by a series of dictators, assisted by the United Fruit Company. The late 20th century saw Guatemala embroiled in a 36-year-long civil war. Following the war, Guatemala has witnessed both economic growth and successful democratic elections( Dell Latitude D830 battery). In the most recent election, held in 2011, Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party won the presidency. Etymology The name "Guatemala" comes from Nahuatl Cuauhtēmallān, "place of many trees", a translation of K'iche' Mayan K'iche' , "many trees".[5][6] This was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory( Dell Latitude 2100 battery). Main article: History of Guatemala Pre-Columbian The first evidence of human settlers in Guatemala demonstrates a presence at least as early as 12,000 BC. Some evidence suggests a presence as early as 18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various parts of the country.[7] There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC. ( Dell Latitude 2110 battery) Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast. Archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the pre-Classic period (2000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD), and the Calistic from 900 to 1500 AD.[9] Until recently the Pre-Classic was regarded as a formative period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts, and few permanent buildings( Dell Latitude E4300 battery). However, this notion has been challenged by recent discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, from 1000 BC; ceremonial sites at Miraflores and El Naranjo from 801 BC; the earliest monumental masks; and the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, El Tintal, Wakná and El Mirador( Dell Vostro 1310 battery). El Mirador was by far the most populated city in pre-Columbian America.[citation needed] Both the El Tigre and Monos pyramids encompass a volume greater than 250,000 cubic meters.[10] Mirador was the first politically organized state in America, named the Kan Kingdom in ancient texts. There were 26 cities, all connected by Sacbeob (highways), which were several kilometers long, up to 40 meters wide, and two to four meters above the ground( Dell Vostro 1320 battery), paved with stucco, that are clearly distinguishable from the air in the most extensive virgin tropical rain forest in Mesoamerica. The Tikal Mayan Ruins The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization, and is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala, although the largest concentration is in Petén. This period is characterized by heavy city-building, the development of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures( Dell Vostro 1510 battery). This lasted until around 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed.[11] The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine.[12] Scientists debate the cause of the Classic Maya Collapse, but gaining currency is the Drought Theory discovered by physical scientists studying lakebeds, ancient pollen( Dell Vostro 1520 battery), and other tangible evidence.[13] A series of prolonged droughts, among other reasons (such as overpopulation), in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya, who were primarily reliant upon regular rainfall.[14] The Post-Classic period is represented by regional kingdoms, such as the Itzá and Ko'woj in the lakes area in Petén, and the Mam( Dell Vostro 2510 battery), Ki'ch'es, Kack'chiquel, Tz'utuh'il, Pokom'chí, Kek'chi and Chortí in the Highlands. These cities preserved many aspects of Mayan culture, but would never equal the size or power of the Classic cities. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya( Dell Vostro 1014 battery); however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected from Honduras, Guatemala, Northern El Salvador and to as far as central Mexico, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from the Maya area. Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to result from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). Colonial (1519-1821) See also: Spanish conquest of Guatemala Calle del Arco in the city of Antigua Guatemala. After arriving in what was named the New World, the Spanish started several expeditions to Guatemala, beginning in 1519. Before long, Spanish contact resulted in an epidemic that devastated native populations. Hernán Cortés, who had led the Spanish conquest of Mexico, granted a permit to Captains Gonzalo de Alvarado and his brother, Pedro de Alvarado, to conquer this land( Dell Vostro 1015 battery). Alvarado at first allied himself with the Kaqchikel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' (Quiché) nation. Alvarado later turned against the Kaqchikel, and eventually held the entire region under Spanish domination.[15] Several families of Spanish descent subsequently rose to prominence in colonial Guatemala, including the surnames de Arrivillaga, Arroyave, Alvarez de las Asturias, González de Batres, Coronado, Gálvez Corral, Mencos, Delgado de Nájera, de la Tovilla, and Varón de Berrieza( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery). During the colonial period, Guatemala was an Audiencia and a Captaincy General (Capitanía General de Guatemala) of Spain, and a part of New Spain (Mexico).[17] The first capital was named Tecpan Guatemala, founded on July 25, 1524 with the name of Villa de Santiago de Guatemala and was located near Iximché, the Kaqchikel capital city( Dell Vostro A840 battery). It was moved to Ciudad Vieja on November 22, 1527, when the Kaqchikel attacked the city. On September 11, 1541 the city was flooded when the lagoon in the crater of the Agua Volcano collapsed due to heavy rains and earthquakes, and was moved 4 miles (6 km) to Antigua Guatemala, on the Panchoy Valley, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This city was destroyed by several earthquakes in 1773–1774( Dell Vostro A860 battery), and the King of Spain granted the authorization to move the capital to the Ermita Valley, named after a Catholic church to the Virgen de El Carmen, in its current location, founded on January 2, 1776. Independence and 19th century Zunil, a regional city. On September 15, 1821, the Captaincy-general of Guatemala (formed by Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras) officially proclaimed its independence from Spain which was dissolved two years later. ( Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery)This region had been formally subject to New Spain throughout the colonial period, but as a practical matter was administered separately. It was not until 1825 that Guatemala created its own flag.[19] The Guatemalan provinces formed the United Provinces of Central America, also called the Central American Federation (Federacion de Estados Centroamericanos). That federation dissolved in civil war from 1838 to 1840( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union.[20] During this period a region of the Highlands, Los Altos, declared independence from Guatemala, but was annexed by Carrera, who dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala.[22] Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador( SONY PCG-F305 battery). From 1898 to 1920, Guatemala was ruled by the dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera, whose access to the presidency was helped by the United Fruit Company. It was during his long presidency that the United Fruit Company became a major force in Guatemala.[23] 1944 to the end of the civil war A view of Antigua Guatemala from Cerro de la Cruz (Hill of the Cross), 2009. On July 4, 1944, dictator Jorge Ubico Castañeda was forced to resign his office in response to a wave of protests and a general strike( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). His replacement, General Juan Federico Ponce Vaides, was later also forced out of office on October 20, 1944 by a coup d'état led by Major Francisco Javier Arana and Captain Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán. About 100 people were killed in the coup. The country was led by a military junta made up of Arana, Arbenz, and Jorge Toriello Garrido( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). The Junta called Guatemala's first free election, which was won with a majority of 85% by the prominent writer and teacher Juan José Arévalo Bermejo, who had lived in exile in Argentina for 14 years. Arévalo was the first democratically elected president of Guatemala to fully complete the term for which he was elected. His "Christian Socialist" policies, inspired by the U.S. New Deal, were criticized by landowners and the upper class as "communist." ( SONY PCG-5K2L battery) This period was also the beginning of the Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR, which was to have a considerable influence on Guatemalan history. From the 1950s through the 1990s, the U.S. government directly supported Guatemala's army with training, weapons, and money. Guatemala City at night. In 1954, Arévalo's democratically elected successor, Jacobo Árbenz, was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). He considered himself a socialist. After his land reform, the CIA intervened because it feared that a socialist government would become a Soviet beachhead in the Western Hemisphere.[24] Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas was installed as president in 1954 and ruled until he was assassinated by a member of his personal guard in 1957. Substantial evidence points to the role of the American United Fruit Company (which changed its name in 1970 to Chiquita Brands International Inc) ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery) as instrumental in this coup, as the land reforms of Jacobo Arbenz were threatening the company's interests in Guatemala and it had several direct ties to the White House and the CIA. (See United Fruit Company – History in Central America). In the election that followed, General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes assumed power. He is most celebrated for challenging the Mexican president to a gentleman's duel on the bridge on the south border to end a feud on the subject of illegal fishing by Mexican boats ( SONY PCG-6S3L battery)on Guatemala's Pacific coast, two of which were sunk by the Guatemalan Air Force. Ydigoras authorized the training of 5,000 anti-Castro Cubans in Guatemala. He also provided airstrips in the region of Petén for what later became the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961. Ydigoras' government was ousted in 1963 when the Guatemalan Air Force attacked several military bases. The coup was led by his Defense Minister, Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia( SONY PCG-6V1L battery). Calle Santander tourist street in Panajachel, 2009. In 1966, Julio César Méndez Montenegro was elected president of Guatemala under the banner "Democratic Opening". Mendez Montenegro was the candidate of the Revolutionary Party, a center-left party which had its origins in the post-Ubico era. It was during this time that rightist paramilitary organizations, such as the "White Hand" (Mano Blanca), and the Anticommunist Secret Army, (Ejército Secreto Anticomunista), were formed( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). Those organizations were the forerunners of the infamous "Death Squads". Military advisers from the United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets) were sent to Guatemala to train troops and help transform its army into a modern counter-insurgency force, which eventually made it the most sophisticated in Central America( SONY PCG-7111L battery). In 1970, Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio was elected president. A new guerrilla movement entered the country from Mexico, into the Western Highlands in 1972. In the disputed election of 1974, General Kjell Laugerud García defeated General Efraín Ríos Montt, a candidate of the Christian Democratic Party, who claimed that he had been cheated out of a victory through fraud( SONY PCG-71511M battery). On February 4, 1976, a major earthquake destroyed several cities and caused more than 25,000 deaths. In 1978, in a fraudulent election, General Romeo Lucas García assumed power. The 1970s saw the birth of two new guerrilla organizations, The Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP) and the Organization of the People in Arms (ORPA), who began and intensified by the end of the seventies, guerrilla attacks that included urban and rural guerrilla warfare, mainly against the military and some of the civilian supporters of the army( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). In 1979, the U.S. president, Jimmy Carter, ordered a ban on all military aid to the Guatemalan Army because of the widespread and systematic abuse of human rights. In 1980, a group of indigenous K'iche' took over the Spanish Embassy to protest army massacres in the countryside. The Guatemalan government launched an assault that killed almost everyone inside as a result of a fire that consumed the building( SONY PCG-7113L battery). The Guatemalan government claimed that the activists set the fire and immolated themselves.[25] However, the Spanish ambassador, who survived the fire, disputed this claim, claiming that the Guatemalan police intentionally killed almost everyone inside and set the fire to erase traces of their acts. As a result of this incident, the government of Spain broke diplomatic relations with Guatemala( SONY PCG-7133L battery). This government was overthrown in 1982. General Ríos Montt was named President of the military junta, continuing the bloody campaign of torture, forced disappearances, and "scorched earth" warfare. The country became a pariah state internationally. Ríos Montt was overthrown by General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who called for an election of a national constitutional assembly to write a new constitution( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery), leading to a free election in 1986, which was won by Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party. In 1982, the four guerrilla groups, EGP, ORPA, FAR and PGT, merged and formed the URNG, influenced by the Salvadoran guerrilla FMLN, the Nicaraguan FSLN and Cuba's government, in order to become stronger. As a result of the Army's "scorched earth" tactics in the countryside( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) , more than 45,000 Guatemalans fled across the border to Mexico. The Mexican government placed the refugees in camps in Chiapas and Tabasco. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberta Menchú for her efforts to bring international attention to the government-sponsored genocide against the indigenous population( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). Outdoor market in Chichicastenango, 2009 The Guatemalan Civil War ended in 1996 with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government, negotiated by the United Nations through intense brokerage by nations such as Norway and Spain. Both sides made major concessions. The guerrilla fighters disarmed and received land to work. According to the U.N.-sponsored truth commission the( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) ("Commission for Historical Clarification"), government forces and state-sponsored paramilitaries were responsible for over 93 percent of the human rights violations during the war.[26] Over the last few years, millions of documents related to crimes committed during the civil war were found abandoned by the former Guatemalan police. Among millions of documents found, there was evidence that the former police chief of Guatemala( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), Hector Bol de la Cruz had been involved in the kidnapping and murder of 27-year-old student Fernando Garcia in 1984. The evidence was used to prosecute the former police chief. The families of over 45,000 Guatemalan activists are now reviewing the documents (which have been digitized) and this could lead to further legal actions. Paradoxically( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery), the current democratically elected president, Otto Pérez Molina, could be a barrier to further legal action as he, a retired general, was the head of intelligence in Guatemala during the civil war.[27] During the first ten years, the victims of the state-sponsored terror were primarily students, workers, professionals, and opposition figures, but in the last years they were thousands of mostly rural Mayan farmers and non-combatants( SONY PCG-7112L battery). More than 450 Mayan villages were destroyed and over 1 million people became displaced within Guatemala or refugees. Over 200,000 people, mostly Mayan, lost their lives during the civil war. In certain areas, such as Baja Verapaz, the Truth Commission considered that the Guatemalan state engaged in an intentional policy of genocide against particular ethnic groups in the Civil War. ( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) In 1999, U.S. president Bill Clinton stated that the United States was wrong to have provided support to Guatemalan military forces that took part in the brutal civilian killings.[30] Since the peace accords, Guatemala has witnessed both economic growth and successive democratic elections, most recently in 2011. In the 2011 elections, Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party, won the presidency. He assumed office on January 14, 2012. He named Roxana Baldetti as his vice president( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). On January 12, 2012, Efrain Rios Montt, former President of Guatemala during the military dictatorship, appeared in a Guatemalan court on genocide charges. During the hearing, the government presented evidence of over 100 incidents involving at least 1,771 deaths, 1,445 rapes, and the displacement of nearly 30,000 Guatemalans during his 17-month rule from 1982-1983( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery), according to the Washington Post, BBC, Siglo XXI (in Spanish), and the LA Times. The prosecution wanted him incarcerated because of his potential for flight but the judge ruled that he can remain out on bail. He has now been placed under house arrest and will be watched by the Guatemalan National Civil Police (PNC). The trial, now under way, is expected to last at least a year( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery). The estimated median age in Guatemala is 20 years old, 19.4 for males and 20.7 years for females.[32] This is the lowest median age of any country in the Western Hemisphere and comparable to most of central Africa and Iraq. Main article: Politics of Guatemala Guatemala is a constitutional democratic republic whereby the President of Guatemala is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Otto Perez Molina is the current President of Guatemala. Guatemala is heavily centralized. Transportation, communications, business, politics, and the most relevant urban activity takes place in Guatemala City. Guatemala City has about 2 million inhabitants within the city limits and more than 5 million within the urban area( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). This is a significant percentage of the population (14 million).[32] The highlands of Quetzaltenango Guatemala lies between latitudes 13° and 18°N, and longitudes 88° and 93°W. The country is mountainous with small desert and sand dune patches, hilly valleys, except for the south coastal area and the vast northern lowlands of Petén department. Two mountain chains enter Guatemala from west to east, dividing the country into three major regions: the highlands( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery), where the mountains are located; the Pacific coast, south of the mountains; and the Petén region, north of the mountains. All major cities are located in the highlands and Pacific coast regions; by comparison, Petén is sparsely populated. These three regions vary in climate, elevation, and landscape, providing dramatic contrasts between hot, humid tropical lowlands and colder, drier highland peaks. Volcán Tajumulco, at 4,220 m, is the highest point in the Central American states( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). The rivers are short and shallow in the Pacific drainage basin, larger and deeper in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico drainage basins, which include the Polochic and Dulce Rivers, which drain into Lake Izabal, the Motagua River, the Sarstún that forms the boundary with Belize, and the Usumacinta River, which forms the boundary between Petén and Chiapas, Mexico( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery). Guatemala has long claimed all or part of the territory of neighbouring Belize, formerly part of the Spanish colony, and currently an independent Commonwealth Realm which recognises Queen Elizabeth II as its Head of State. Due to this territorial dispute, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence until 1990, but the dispute is not resolved. Negotiations are currently underway under the auspices of the Organization of American States and the Commonwealth of Nations to conclude it. ( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery) [edit]Natural disasters Guatemala's location between the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean makes it a target for hurricanes, such as Hurricane Mitch in 1998 and Hurricane Stan in October 2005, which killed more than 1,500 people. The damage was not wind related, but rather due to significant flooding and resulting mudslides. The most recent was Tropical Storm Agatha in late May 2010 that killed more than 200( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). A town along the Pan-American Highway and in close proximity to a volcanic crater Guatemala's highlands lie along the Motagua Fault, part of the boundary between the Caribbean and North American tectonic plates. This fault has been responsible for several major earthquakes in historic times, including a 7.5 magnitude tremor on February 4, 1976, which killed more than 25,000 people. In addition, the Middle America Trench( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery), a major subduction zone lies off the Pacific coast. Here, the Cocos Plate is sinking beneath the Caribbean Plate, producing volcanic activity inland of the coast. Guatemala has 37 volcanoes, four of them are active: Pacaya, Santiaguito, Fuego and Tacaná. Fuego and Pacaya erupted in 2010( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery). Natural disasters have a long history in this geologically active part of the world. For example, two of the three moves of the capital of Guatemala have been due to volcanic mudflows in 1541 and earthquakes in 1773. Volcano Pacaya On Thursday May 27, 2010, the Pacaya volcano started erupting lava and rocks, blanketing Guatemala City with black sand (and forcing the closure of the international airport). It was declared a "state of calamity." ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) The Pacaya volcano left about 8 cm (3 in) of ash and sand through all of Guatemala City. Cleaning works are done. The country has 14 ecoregions ranging from mangrove forests to both ocean littorals with 5 different ecosystems. Guatemala has 252 listed wetlands, including 5 lakes, 61 lagoons, 100 rivers, and 4 swamps.[35] Tikal National Park was the first mixed UNESCO World Heritage Site( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). Guatemala is a country of distinct fauna. It has some 1246 known species. Of these, 6.7% are endemic and 8.1% are threatened. Guatemala is home to at least 8681 species of vascular plants, of which 13.5% are endemic. 5.4% of Guatemala is protected under IUCN categories I-V. In the department of Petén lies the Maya Biosphere Reserve of 2,112,940 ha,[36] making it the second largest forest in Central America after Bosawas( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). Further information: Guatemala Biodiversity Demographics Main article: Demographics of Guatemala Tz'utujil men in Santiago Atitlán. Guatemalan women in Antigua Guatemala. According to the CIA World Fact Book, Guatemala has a population of 13,824,463 (2011 est). About 59% of the population is Ladino, also called Mestizo and European (mixed Amerindian and Spanish). Amerindian populations include the K'iche' 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9% and Q'eqchi 6.3%. 8.6% of the population is "other Mayan," 0.4% is indigenous non-Mayan, making the indigenous community in Guatemala about 40.5% of the population( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery). There are smaller communities present. The Garífuna, who are descended primarily from Black Africans who lived with and intermarried with indigenous peoples from St. Vincent, live mainly in Livingston and Puerto Barrios. Those communities have other blacks and mulattos descended from banana workers. There are also Asians, mostly of Chinese descent( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Other Asian groups include Arabs of Lebanese and Syrian descent. There is also a growing Korean community in Guatemala City and in nearby Mixco, currently numbering about 10,000.[37] Guatemala's German population is credited with bringing the tradition of a Christmas tree to the country.[38] In 1900, Guatemala had a population of 885,000.[39] Over the course of the twentieth century the population of the country grew, the fastest growth in the Western Hemisphere( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). The ever-increasing pattern of emigration to the U.S. has led to the growth of Guatemalan communities in California, Florida, Illinois, New York, Texas, Rhode Island and elsewhere since the 1970s. The Civil War forced many Guatemalans to start lives outside of their country. The majority of the Guatemalan diaspora is located in the United States, with estimates ranging from 480,665 to 1,489,426. ( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery) The difficulty in getting accurate counts for Guatemalans abroad is because many of them are refugee claimants awaiting determination of their status.[43] Below are estimates for certain countries: Main article: Economy of Guatemala An indoor market in the regional city of Zunil. According to the CIA World Factbook, Guatemala's GDP (PPP) per capita is US$5,200; however, this developing country still faces many social problems and is one of the poorest countries in Latin America( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). The distribution of income remains highly unequal with more than half of the population below the national poverty line and just over 400,000 (3.2%) unemployed. The CIA World Fact Book considers 56.2% of the population of Guatemala to be living in poverty. Remittances from Guatemalans who fled to the United States during the civil war now constitute the largest single source of foreign income (two thirds of exports and one tenth of GDP). ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) In recent years the exporter sector of nontraditional products has grown dynamically representing more than 53% of global exports. Some of the main products for export are fruits, vegetables, flowers, handicrafts, cloths and others. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2010 was estimated at $70.15 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 63%, followed by the industry sector at 23.8% and the agriculture sector at 13.2% (2010 est.) ( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). Mines produce gold, silver, zinc, cobalt and nickel.[47] The agricultural sector accounts for about two-fifths of exports, and half of the labor force. Organic coffee, sugar, textiles, fresh vegetables, and bananas are the country's main exports. Inflation was 3.9% in 2010. The 1996 peace accords that ended the decades-long civil war removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. Tourism has become an increasing source of revenue for Guatemala( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery). In March 2006 Guatemala's congress ratified the Dominican Republic – Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) between several Central American nations and the United States.[48] Guatemala also has free trade agreements with Taiwan and Colombia. Main article: Culture of Guatemala Guatemalan girls in their traditional clothing in Chichicastenango. Guatemala City is home to many of the nation's libraries and museums, including the National Archives, the National Library( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery), and the Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, which has an extensive collection of Maya artifacts. There are private museums, such as the Ixchel, which focuses on textiles, and the Popol Vuh, which focuses on Maya archaeology. Both museums are housed inside the Universidad Francisco Marroquín campus. Almost each of the 329 municipalities in the country has a small museum( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). Guatemala has produced many indigenous artists who follow centuries-old Pre-Columbian traditions. However, reflecting Guatemala's colonial and post-colonial history, encounters with multiple global art movements also have produced a wealth of artists who have combined the traditional so-called "primitivism" or "naive" aesthetic with European, North American, and other traditions( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). The Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas "Rafael Rodríguez Padilla" is the country's leading art school, and several leading indigenous artists, also graduates of that school, are in the permanent collection of the Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno in the capital city. Contemporary Guatemalan artists who have gained reputations outside of Guatemala include Dagoberto Vásquez, Luis Rolando Ixquiac Xicara, Carlos Mérida,[49] Aníbal López, Roberto González Goyri, and Elmar René Rojas. ( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) The Iglesia de Santo Tomás, a church built around 1545. The Guatemala National Prize in Literature is a one-time only award that recognizes an individual writer's body of work. It has been given annually since 1988 by the Ministry of Culture and Sports. Miguel Ángel Asturias won the literature Nobel Prize in 1967. Among his famous books is El Señor Presidente, a novel based on the government of Manuel Estrada Cabrera( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). Rigoberta Menchu, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for fighting oppression of indigenous people in Guatemala, is famous for her books I, Rigoberta Menchu and Crossing Borders. The music of Guatemala comprises a number of styles and expressions. Guatemalan social change has been empowered by music scenes such as Nueva cancion, which blend together histories, present day issues( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery), and political values and struggles of common people. The Maya had an intense musical practice, as is documented by iconography. Guatemala was also one of the first regions in the New World to be introduced to European music, from 1524 on. Many composers from the Renaissance, baroque, classical, romantic, and contemporary music styles have contributed works of all genres( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). The marimba is the national instrument that has developed a large repertoire of very attractive pieces that have been popular for more than a century. The Historia General de Guatemala has published a series of CDs of historical music of Guatemala, in which every style is represented, from the Maya, colonial period, independent and republican eras to current times. There are many contemporary music groups in Guatemala from Caribbean music, salsa, punta (Garifuna influenced), Latin pop, Mexican regional, and mariachi( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). There is also a vibrant scene for what is known in the Hispanic world as rock en Español (Rock in Spanish). Main article: Guatemalan cuisine Many traditional foods in Guatemalan cuisine are based on Maya cuisine and prominently feature corn, chilis and beans as key ingredients. There are also foods that are commonly eaten on certain days of the week. For example, it is a popular custom to eat paches (a kind of tamale made from potatoes) on Thursday( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). Certain dishes are also associated with special occasions, such as fiambre for All Saints Day on November 1 and tamales, which are common around Christmas. See also: Central American Spanish and Guatemalan Spanish A language map of Guatemala, according to the Comisión de Oficialización de los Dialectos Indígenas de Guatemala. The "Castilian" areas represent Spanish. Although Spanish is the official language, it is not universally spoken among the indigenous population( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery), nor is it often spoken as a second language by the elderly indigenous. Twenty-one Mayan languages are spoken, especially in rural areas, as well as two non-Mayan Amerindian dialects, Xinca, an indigenous dialect, and Garifuna, an Arawakan dialect spoken on the Caribbean coast. According to Decreto Número 19-2003, twenty-three dialects are unrecognized as National Languages.[51][not in citation given (See discussion.) ( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery)] As a first and second language, Spanish is spoken by 93% of the population. The peace accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords) and mandate the provision of interpreters in legal cases for non-Spanish speakers( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). The accord also sanctioned bilingual education in Spanish and indigenous languages. It is common for indigenous Guatemalans to learn or speak between two to five of the nation's other languages, and Spanish. Main article: Religion in Guatemala Catedral Metropolitana in Guatemala City, In Guatemala 50–60% of the population is Catholic, 40% Protestant, 3% Eastern Orthodox and 1% follow the indigenous Mayan faith( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). Catholicism was the official religion during the colonial era.[when?] However, Protestantism has increased markedly in recent decades. More than one third of Guatemalans are Protestant, chiefly Evangelicals and Pentecostals. It is common for relevant Mayan practices to be incorporated into Catholic ceremonies and worship when they are sympathetic to the meaning of Catholic belief a phenomenon known as inculturation. ( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery) The practice of traditional Mayan religion is increasing as a result of the cultural protections established under the peace accords. The government has instituted a policy of providing altars at every Mayan ruin found in the country so that traditional ceremonies may be performed there. Antigua Guatemala Processions There are also small communities of Jews estimated between 1200 and 2000,[55] Muslims (1200), Buddhists at around 9000 to 12000,[56] and members of other faiths and those who do not profess any faith( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints currently has over 215,000 members in Guatemala, accounting for approximately 1.65% of the country's estimated population in 2008.[57] The first member of the LDS Church in Guatemala was baptized in 1948. Membership grew to 10,000 by 1966, and 18 years later, when the Guatemala City Temple was dedicated in 1984, membership had risen to 40,000( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). By 1998 membership had quadrupled again to 164,000. The LDS Church continues to grow in Guatemala; it has announced and begun the construction of the Quetzaltenango Guatemala Temple,[60] the LDS Church's second temple in the country.[61] Recently, it was announced that 520,000 members of the Orthodox Catholic Church of Guatemala (OCCG) were received into communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The OCCG has an approximate membership of 527,000 faithful and catechumens( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery), overwhelmingly indigenous, with 334 churches in Guatemala and southern Mexico, with 12 (formerly OCCG) clergymen and 14 seminarians, who are assisted in their pastoral ministry by 250 lay ministers and 380 catechists. The administrative offices of the OCCG are located on 280 acres (113 ha) of land, with a community college and 2 schools with 12 professors/teachers( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). Additionally, the OCCG has an established monastery located on 480 acres (194 ha) of land. Fourteen students from Guatemala, with full scholarship, are now enrolled in the St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Theological Institute Licentiate degree program. The seminary is fully accredited by the Holy Metropolis’ Department of Education( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Church in San Andrés Xecul Funeral traditions When people pass away in Guatemala, they are usually buried as soon as possible, so as to provide a quick passage to heaven. Funerals generally include candles and rum, and despite the local superstition that loud mourning and crying will slow down the deceased's journey to the next world; mourners usually cry very loudly, except at funerals for children. Deceased are buried with their treasured items to dissuade them from returning to haunt the people( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). Main article: Education in Guatemala The government runs a number of public elementary and secondary-level schools. These schools are free, though the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and transportation makes them less accessible to the poorer segments of society and significant numbers of poor children do not attend school. Many middle and upper-class children go to private schools( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery). The country also has one public university (USAC or Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala), and nine private ones (see List of universities in Guatemala). USAC was one of the first universities in America. It was officially declared a university on January 31, 1676 by royal command of King Charles II of Spain. Only 74.5% of the population aged 15 and over are literate, the lowest literacy rate in Central America( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). Although it has the lowest literacy rate, Guatemala is expected to change this within the next 20 years.[62] Organizations such as Child Aid, which trains teachers in villages throughout the Central Highlands region, are working to improve educational outcomes for children. Lack of training for rural teachers is one of the key contributors to the country's low literacy rates( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery). Medical anthropology and pluralism In the 1950s, medical anthropologists such as Richard N. Adams, Benjamin D. Paul, and Lois Paul wrote monographs dedicated to the Maya medical beliefs and practices. Richard N. Adams, albeit secondary to his work, described the chasm between Maya medical beliefs and practices and Western science, and showed why Mayans rejected projects applied by the Institute of Nutrition for Central America and Panama (INCAP) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). His work is seen as setting the stage for four decades for medical anthropology in Guatemala by diagnosing the communication breakdown caused by “ignorance of local beliefs and practices.” Many of those once affiliated with INCAP have since published works on various topics of interest to medical anthropology in Guatemala( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). In the 20th century, several things came to undermine the indigenous way of practicing medicine. First, the religious persecution first administered by Catholic Action, then Protestant evangelical religions, and finally by Catholic Charismatics resulted in the prohibition of their members from consulting traditional healers. Secondly, certain elements of Guatemalan society systematically killed the upper rank of the Maya priests( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery). Third, starting in the 1980s, the Guatemalan national health care system, based heavily on Western medicine, began to suppress traditional healers by banning them from practicing. While the health care system made efforts to train local midwives, some persons accused those programs of not giving culturally appropriate, high-quality services( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). The disparity between Western biomedicine and traditional care has created tensions, i.e., NGO programs primarily focus today on those with higher education levels—those who speak Spanish—and rivalries hamper communication between Western-trained health care providers and traditional practitioners. Additionally, the medical professionals of Western biomedicine neglect the social experience of the patients( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery), as well as the social construction of disease. Studies conducted in Mexico, Guatemala, and other rural areas support the position that many Western biomedical practitioners shun remote areas either because they cannot earn enough money there or because they discriminate against ethnic minorities( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery). Today, patients must choose between the two systems based on the complex conditions surrounding the ailment and decide which medical system most likely will provide a cure for their ailment.[63] Rigoberta Menchú won the Nobel Peace prize in 1992 for her very important work in favor of the Mayan people, and the Mayan refugees in Mexico and the US. Miguel Ángel Asturias won the Nobel prize in Literature in 1967 for his entire body of work( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery), including the novel El Señor Presidente, which was controversial during Guatemala's civil war, since it portrayed the horrors of life under authoritarian rule. Cayala City, Zone 16 There are seven national newspapers in TV are Noti7, Telecentro Trece and Noticiero Guatevision. The Guatemala Times is a digital English news magazine.
Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east Sony PCG-71313M battery. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands; wet, cooler central highlands; and the Caribbean lowlands. On the Pacific side of the country are the two largest fresh water lakes in Central America—Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. The Island of Ometepe Island is located inside Lake Nicaragua Sony PCG-71212M battery, and is well known for its popularity among tourists. Surrounding these lakes and extending to their northwest along the rift valley of the Gulf of Fonseca are fertile lowland plains, with soil highly enriched by ash from nearby volcanoes of the central highlands. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. Nicaragua is one of the richest countries in Central America Sony PCG-71311M battery. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua achieved its independence from Spain in 1821. Since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a representative democratic republic Sony PCG-71213M battery, and has experienced economic growth and political stability in recent years. In 1990, Nicaragua elected Violeta Chamorro as its president, making it the first country in Central American history and the second in the Western Hemisphere to democratically elect a female head of state. The population of Nicaragua, approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Roughly a quarter of the population lives in the capital city, Managua; it is the third-largest city in Central America. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast Sony PCG-61211M battery, Europeans, Africans, Asians, and people of Middle Eastern origin. The main language is Spanish, although native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama, as well as English Creole. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art and literature, particularly the latter given the various literary contributions of Nicaraguan writers, including Rubén Darío, Ernesto Cardenal, and Gioconda Belli. Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery The biological diversity, warm tropical climate, and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The origin of the name "Nicaragua" is somewhat unclear; in one theory it is a portmanteau coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, chief of the most populous indigenous tribe and agua, the Spanish word for water. Main article: History of Nicaragua See also: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Political history of Nicaragua 2,100-year-old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near Lake Managua Sony VAIO PCG-31113M batteryIn pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area, between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions, and within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, such as the ones found on the island of Zapatera in Lake Nicaragua and petroglyphs found on Ometepe island. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC Sony VAIO PCG-31111M batteryBy the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture to the Mesoamerican civilizations of the Aztec and Maya, and by language to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and nearby areas. They lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering.[13] Joined by waters, the people of eastern Nicaragua traded with Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery, and were influenced by, other native peoples of the Caribbean. Round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were commonly crafted and used in eastern Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua. The wealthy ruler lived in Nicaraocali, site of the present-day city of Rivas SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. Without women in their parties, the Spanish conquerors took Niquirano and Chorotega wives and partners, beginning the multi-ethnic mix of native and European stock now known as mestizo, which constitutes the great majority of population in western Nicaragua.[11] Within three decades after European contact SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery, what had been an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted. Scientists and historians estimate approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new infectious diseases carried by the Spaniards, such as smallpox and measles, to which the Indians had no immunity. The indigenous people of the Caribbean coast escaped the epidemics due to the remoteness of their area. Their societies continued more culturally intact as a result SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. The Spanish conquest Main article: Conquista Farthest extent of Spanish colonization in America. Red: Farthest extent of Spanish colonies under the House of Bourbon in the 1790s. Pink: Disputed claims of Spanish colonial administration. Purple: Portuguese colonies under dual Spanish colonial administration- conquest, settlement and political rule over much of the Western Hemisphere Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama. On his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Misquito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520 SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. González claimed to have converted some 31,000 indigenous peoples to Christianity and discovered a possible trans-isthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys, González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by the chief Diriangén. SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery González later returned to Panama, where Governor Pedro Arias Dávila tried to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. González escaped to Santo Domingo. It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded.[15] Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua's principal towns in 1524: Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and attacked against incursions by the other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered during 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo. Sony VAIO PCG-81112M batteryThe clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains.[18] By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadors came out winners, while they executed or murdered others. Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner—although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony.[17] The land was parceled out to the conquistadors, who were most interested in the western portion. They enslaved many indigenous people as labor to develop and maintain estates there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, some were killed in warfare. The great majority were sold as slaves SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery, and shipped to other Spanish colonies in the New World, at a significant profit to the newly landed aristocracy. Many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence.[15] Colonization to independence Corn Island off the Atlantic Coast was a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua SONY VAIO PCG-7195M batteryThe Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring Granada from pirate attacks. Today, it is one of the country's main tourist attractions. Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua 1901 In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León. During the American Revolutionary War, Central America was subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua. Horatio Nelson led expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and the San Juan in 1780, which had temporary success before being abandoned due to disease SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. In turn, the Spanish colonial leaders could not completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast. The Captaincy General of Guatemala was dissolved in September 1821 with the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and Nicaragua became part of the First Mexican Empire. After the monarchy of the First Mexican Empire was overthrown in 1823 SONY PCG-8113M battery, Nicaragua joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America, which was later renamed as the Federal Republic of Central America. Nicaragua finally became an independent republic in 1838. Rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada characterized the early years of independence and often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s SONY PCG-8112M battery . Invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer and filibuster named William Walker set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election in 1856. Costa Rica, Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out of Nicaragua in 1857, after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued SONY PCG-7134M battery. Great Britain, which had claimed the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate since 1655, delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. The Mosquito Coast remained an autonomous area until 1894. José Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893–1909, negotiated the annexation of the Mosquito Coast to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honor, the region was named Zelaya Department SONY PCG-7131M battery. In the 19th century, Nicaragua attracted many immigrants, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium emigrated to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses, such as coffee and sugar-cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks SONY PCG-7122M battery . Throughout the late 19th century, the United States (and several European powers) considered a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua, linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.[23] A bill was put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, which failed to pass; construction of the Panama Canal was begun instead SONY PCG-7121M battery. United States intervention (1909–33) See also: United States occupation of Nicaragua and Nicaragua Canal Augusto César Sandino In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) SONY PCG-7113M batterywere executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that SONY PCG-7112M battery... In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic. U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses. Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years. SONY PCG-8Z1M battery When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard),[29] a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan Bautista Sacasa SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year.[30] But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza SONY PCG-8Y2M battery to order the assassination of Sandino. Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by soldiers of the National Guard. Hundreds of men, women, and children from Sandino's agricultural colony were executed later.[33] Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Luis Somoza Debayle (left) and Anastasio Somoza Debayle (right) SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest being the hereditary dictatorship of the Somoza family, who ruled for 43 years during 20th century.[34] The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional, or the National Guard, to replace the US marines that had long reigned in the country. SONY PCG-6W2M battery Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election.[29] Somoza was 35 at the time. Nicaragua declared war on Germany on December 8, 1941, during World War II.[36] Although war was formally declared, no soldiers were sent to the war, but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans SONY PCG-5J5M battery, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately owned luxury resort and casino.[37] In 1945 Nicaragua was among the first countries to ratify the United Nations Charter.[38] Throughout his years as dictator, "Tacho" Somoza 'ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm'.[33] He had three main sources for his power SONY PCG-5K2M battery: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the US. When Somoza used the National Guard to take power in 1937, he destroyed any potential armed resistance.[39] Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power SONY PCG-5K1M battery. On September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency. He died eight days later. After his father's death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country.[29] He is remembered by some for being moderate SONY PCG-5J4M battery, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick Gutiérrez whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas".[40] Somoza's brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick SONY PCG-5J1M battery . In the 1950s, Nicaragua experienced some agricultural diversification. With the help of foreign advice, production figures increased: bananas, sugarcane, livestock and cotton. By the mid-1950s, cotton had become the nation's second largest source of income, after coffee. Import-substitution industrialization provided for some additional economic growth in the 1960s which was halted when regional integration failed in 1969 SONY PCG-5G2M battery. The economy continued to grow through the 1970s, yet rather as a reflection of fluctuation in demand. The biggest rise in the GDP of 13% in 1974 was largely due to the jump in construction after the 1972 earthquake in Managua, which destroyed much of Nicaragua's industrial infrastructure. This boom mainly benefited construction, in great parts owned by the Somoza family. The public expenses were covered by foreign loans and in the late 1970s, Nicaragua had the highest level of foreign indebtedness in the region Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. The Somoza family was among a few families or groups of influential firms which reaped most of the benefits of the country's growth from the 1950s to the 1970s. Most notably the Somozas with wide holdings in almost every segment of society controlled most of Nicaragua's production. The other major players were the Banamérica Group, owned by the conservative elite of Granada with strong interests in sugar, rum, cattle, coffee Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, and retailing and the Banic Group with its roots in the liberal families of León tied to the Nicaraguan Bank of Industry and Commerce (Banco Nicaragüense de Industria y Comercio—Banic) and the cotton, coffee, beer, lumber, construction, and fishing industries. The Somoza's finances were handled by the Central Bank of Nicaragua (Banco Central de Nicaragua) as if it were a commercial bank Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. It frequently made personal loans to the Somozas, often never repaid. The Somozas managed to guard their financial interests by controlling the government and its institutions. The family owned approx. 10 to 20% of the country's arable land, was heavily involved in Nicaragua's food processing and in control of import-export licenses. It also controlled the nation's transportation industry Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, either through ownership, or at least through controlling interest in the country's main seaports, the national airline and the maritime fleet. A large part of the profits was reinvested in real estate holdings in the U. S. and Latin America. It has been estimated that by the mid-1970s, the Somozas owned or controlled 60% of the nation's economic activity. When Anastasio Somoza Debayle was deposed by the Sandinistas in 1979, the family's worth was estimated to be between US$ 500 million and US$ 1.5 billion Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. The 1972 earthquake destroyed nearly 90% of Managua, creating major losses, and leveling a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see this earthquake as the final 'nail in the coffin' for Somoza. Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident.[43] Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,[44] and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. In 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth. Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN) Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty. Nicaraguan Revolution Main articles: Nicaraguan Revolution, FSLN, and Junta of National Reconstruction In 1961 Carlos Fonseca turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with two others (one of which was believed to be Casimiro Sotelo who was later assassinated) founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery Fonseca turned to the KGB and Cuba's DGI for arms and assistance. The FSLN was a small party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza's apparent hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza's apparent corruption, alleged mishandling of relief aid, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose.[39] These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the main hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. In December 1974, a group of FSLN, in an attempt to kidnap U.S. Ambassador Tuner Shelton, held some Managuan partygoers hostage (after killing the host, former Agriculture Minister Jose Maria Castillo), until the Somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to Cuba. Somoza granted this, then subsequently sent his National Guard out into the countryside to look for the perpetrators of the kidnapping Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, described by opponents of the kidnapping as 'terrorists'. While searching, the National Guard allegedly pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. This led to the Roman Catholic Church withdrawing support of the Somoza regime. Around this time, Chilean president Salvador Allende was removed from power in a military coup that prompted Allende to take his own life as the presidential palace came under fire Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. With right-wing Augusto Pinochet in power in Chile, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua.[45] On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated.[46] This allegedly led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. It is alleged that the planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator's son, "El Chiguin" ("The Kid"), the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a Cuban expatriate and close ally, who commercialized blood plasma Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Nicaraguan refugees, 1979 The Sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional governments (including Panama, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Venezuela), took power in July 1979. The Carter administration, refusing to act unilaterally, decided to work with the new government, while attaching a provision for aid forfeiture if it was found to be assisting insurgencies in neighboring countries. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery A group of prominent citizens known as Los Doce, "the Twelve", denounced the Somoza regime and said that "there can be no dialogue with Somoza ... because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding ... through the long dark history of Somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it", Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980 Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party. To begin the task of establishing a new government, the Sandinistas created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction of five members: Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). Sandinista supporters thus comprised three of the five members of the junta Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. The non-Sandinistas Robelo and Chamorro later resigned because they had little actual power in the junta. Sandinista mass organizations were also powerful: including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos) Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. On the Atlantic Coast a small uprising occurred in support of the Sandinistas. A group of Creoles led by a native of Bluefields, Dexter Hooker (known as Commander Abel), raided a Somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join Sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of El Rama Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. The 'Black Sandinistas' returned to Bluefields on July 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. The Black Sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo Sandinista fighters. The ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the Black Sandinistas occupying the National Guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the Town Hall (Palacio), gave the revolution on the Atlantic Coast a racial dimension absent from events in other parts of the country Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. The Black Sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the Palacio group by the arrival of the Simón Bolívar International Brigade from Costa Rica. One of the brigade's members, an Afro-Costa-Rican called Marvin Wright (known as Kalalu) became known for his rousing speeches, which included elements of Black Power ideology, in his attempts to unite all black militias that had formed in Bluefields. The introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the Sandinista National Directorate Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, which expelled Kalalu and the rest of the brigade from Nicaragua and sent them to Panama.[49] Sandinistas and the Contras Main articles: FSLN, Contras, Iran-Contra scandal, and Nicaragua v. United States ARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987 Robert Pastor, President Carter's National Security Advisor on Latin America explained why the administration had to back Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza until he could no longer be sustained to then move to bar the FSLN from power through the "preservation of existing institutions, especially the National Guard" Sony VAIO PCG-8152L batteryeven though it had been massacring the population "with a brutality a nation usually reserves for its enemy.": "The United States did not want to control Nicaragua or the other nations in the region, but it also did not want to allow developments to get out of control. It wanted Nicaraguans to act independently, except when doing so would affect U.S. interests adversely." Shortly after Somoza fled to Miami, National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski declared that "we have to demonstrate that we are still the decisive force in determining the political outcomes in Central America." Sony VAIO PCG-8141L batteryAs the Sandinista forces entered the capital, the Carter administration "began setting the stage for a counter revolution," Peter Kornbluh observes. On July 19, a U.S. plane disguised with Red Cross markings evacuated the remnants of the National Guard to Miami. The old Guardia was then built into the counter revolutionary force known as the 'Contras' by the CIA and Argentine trainers Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. On assuming office in 1981, US President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. Reagan said he was also concerned about the growing Soviet and Cuban presence in Nicaragua, and the Soviet hope to turn Nicaragua into a "second Cuba" Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. In contrast to the administration's warnings of a 'Soviet beachhead' in Nicaragua, the June 1984 Bureau of Intelligence and Research report, "Soviet Attitudes Towards, Aid to, and Contacts with Central American Revolutionaries," reported that "Soviet military aid to Nicaragua is unobtrusive and sometimes ephemeral." The author of the report, Dr. Carl Jacobsen found that "the limited amounts of truly modern equipment acquired by the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. .. came from Western Europe not the Eastern bloc." The report concluded that "all too many US claims proved open to question" and that "the scope and nature of the Kremlin's intrusion are far short of justifying the President's exaggerated alarms."[54] Furthermore, the International Court of Justice determined that "the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that, since the early months of 1981 Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery, assistance has continued to reach the Salvadorian armed opposition from the territory of Nicaragua on any significant scale, or that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow of arms at either period."[55] Under the Reagan Doctrine, his administration authorized the CIA to have paramilitary officers from their elite Special Activities Division begin financing, arming Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery, training and advising rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista paramilitaries that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish).[56] This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. Edén Pastora and many of the indigenous paramilitary forces unassociated with the "Somozistas" also resisted the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's Port of Corinto,[57] an action condemned by the International Court of Justice as illegal. Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery The US also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo. US support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Economic Community, religious groups sent to monitor the election, and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery The Reagan administration disputed these results, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time. The administration criticized the elections as a "sham" based on the charge that Arturo Cruz, the candidate nominated by the Coordinadora Democrática Nicaragüense, comprising three rightwing political parties, did not participate in the elections Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. However, the administration privately argued against Cruz's participation for fear his involvement would legitimize the elections. U.S. officials admitted to the New York Times that "The Administration never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race because then the Sandinistas could justifiably claim that the elections were legitimate, making it much harder for the United States to oppose the Nicaraguan Government Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery." Other criticisms of the election, according to a detailed study by Martin Kriele, included that the election was “no more subject to approval by vote than the Central Committee of the Communist Party is in countries of the East Bloc,” since the 1984 election was for posts subordinate to the Sandinista Directorate. Also by evading the secret ballot, “the authorities had had the opportunity to check on how individuals had voted.” Sony VAIO PCG-61112L batteryAlso, “the finally announced results of the election were determined through administrative manipulation – that is, they were rigged,” according to Martin Kriele. After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran–Contra affair). When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems."[67] According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force. He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the Contras Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 led to the same conclusions; major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. The International Court of Justice, in regard to the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, found; "the United States of America was under an obligation to make reparation to the Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused to Nicaragua by certain breaches of obligations under customary international law and treaty-law committed by the United States of America" Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. United States however rejected and did not comply with the judgement under the 'Connally Amendment' (part of the conditional participation of USA in the International court of Justice, which excludes from ICJ's jurisdiction "disputes with regard to matters that are essentially within the jurisdiction of the United States of America, as determined by the United States of America") Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. 1990s and the post-Sandinista era (movement towards Socialism) Violeta Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas. The Nicaraguan general election, 1990 saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery, as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory, and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people.[75] The unexpected result was subject to extensive analysis and comment. Commentators such as Noam Chomsky and Brian Willson attributed the outcome to the U.S./Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power, the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. The C.I.A. manual, "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare" under the subheading, "Implicit and Explicit Terror" instructs the Contras that "If the government police cannot put an end to the guerrilla activities, the population will lose confidence in the government, which has the inherent mission of guaranteeing the safety of citizens." Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery "The United States wanted the contras kept intact in their Honduran bases to ensure Nicaraguan compliance with commitments to democratic and electoral change," the Washington Post reported. Boston Globe editor Randolph Ryan observed, Washington is sending "an implicit message..to the Nicaraguan electorate: If you want a secure peace, vote for the opposition." Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L batteryThe Canadian Observer Mission's four-week investigation of the electoral process in Nicaragua reported that the U.S. "is doing everything it can to disrupt the elections set for next year": "American intervention is the main obstacle to the attainment of free and fair elections in Nicaragua," the report stated. It added further that the Contras are "waging a campaign of intimidation with the clear message Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery,`if you support the (Sandinista government), we will be back to kill you'." The observer mission estimates that the contras killed 42 people in "election violence" in October.[80] In its review of 1989, Human Rights Watch condemned the Bush administration for trying to sabotage the elections by sustaining the death squads with aid and encouraging attacks on the electoral process Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. On November 8, 1989, the White House announced that the embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. The Bush administration also financed Chamorro's campaign with a $9 million election aid package through the National Endowment for Democracy. Edgar Chamorro, a former Contra leader who later became a critic of the CIA-Contra war Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery, said 'For Nicaraguans, the choice was simple: continued war, poverty and inflation or opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro'.."They were not electing a president, they were electing a way out." President elect Chamorro surmised that ensuing problems such as 16,000% inflation "eroded the credibility of the government" and led people to realize that "if the Sandinistas won, the pain would continue." Sony VAIO PCG-51513L batteryTime Magazine acknowledges that U.S. policy was to: "wreck the economy and prosecute a long and deadly proxy war until the exhausted natives overthrow the unwanted government themselves. Since 1985 Washington has strangled Nicaraguan trade with an embargo. It has cut off Nicaragua's credit at the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The contra war cost Managua tens of millions and left the country with wrecked bridges Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery, sabotaged power stations and ruined farms. The impoverishment of the people of Nicaragua was a harrowing way to give the National Opposition Union (U.N.O.) a winning issue. Nicaragua had been devastated by a 40% drop in G.N.P., an inflation rate running at 1,700% a year and constant shortages of food and basic necessities. At least 30,000 people had been killed in the war, and 500,000 more had fled Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery." Thomas Walker, a specialist on Central America, writes: "The voters chose a candidate of Washington's choice with a 'gun held to their heads', as was clear to many impartial observers." P. J. O'Rourke countered the US-centered criticism in his book Give War a Chance, saying "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury ..." Sony VAIO PCG-51312L batteryExit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro's victory over Ortega was achieved with 55% majority.[87] Violeta Chamorro was the first female President of Nicaragua, and also the first woman to be popularly elected for this position in any American nation. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. Ortega vowed that he would govern desde abajo (from below);[88] in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president. President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, in 2008 Chamorro came to office with an economy in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery, and a huge government debt had ascended to US$12 billion, primarily due to the financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government.[89] Much to the surprise of the U.S. and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista Popular Army, although the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army. Chamorro's main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. This provided the stability which the country had lacked for over ten years. In the next election, the Nicaraguan general election, 1996, Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC). 11 years after toppling the Sandinistas, Nicaragua remained the second poorest country in the Western Hemisphere next to Haiti, its 5 million residents beset by hunger, crime, and unemployment Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. For much of the campaign, Ortega had been leading in the polls, and many observers expected him to regain the presidency. In "The Lost Revolution", Mother Jones reports: "Ortega's political resurrection alarmed the Bush administration, which dispatched diplomat Lino Gutierrez to Managua in June to rail against the front-runner. "If the CIA had any brains," says one political analyst in Managua Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery, "they'd have figured out by now that the Sandinistas not only don't represent a Marxist threat, but that long ago the party was taken over by opportunistic yuppies." Beneath the cynicism, few in Nicaragua see any way out of the current plight. Many prominent Sandinistas have left the party, saying a victory by Ortega holds no promise of meaningful change." Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L batteryIn the 2001 elections, the Bush administration attempted to link the Sandinistas with the "War on Terror" as a means of intimidating the population into voting for the U.S. backed candidate. A State Department press release stated that "we have grave reservations about the FSLN's history Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery." John F. Keane, Director of the Office of Central American Affairs at the State Department warned: "It would be dishonest of me not to acknowledge that the possibility of the election of a Sandinista government is disconcerting to the US government. We cannot forget that Nicaragua became a refuge for violent political extremists from the Middle East, from Europe and from Latin America Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. We are reminded of it daily by the continuing presence of some members of the FSLN leadership, including some very close to candidate Ortega, such as Tomás Borge, Lenín Cerna and Álvaro Baltodano, who perpetrated many of these abominations. Given their past record, why should we believe their statements that they have changed if they have done nothing concrete to demonstrate it…? We are confident that the Nicaraguan people will reflect on the nature and history of the candidates and choose wisely Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery." In response, Daniel Ortega maintained, "We have already expressed our readiness to support the fight against international terrorism. But any action must be based on the consensus of the international community, respect for international law, and not run counter to the system of the United Nations Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery." In the 2001 elections, the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. The Washington Post explained the victory. The U. S. supported candidate "focused much of his campaign on reminding people of the economic and military difficulties of the Ortega era Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery." President Bolaños subsequently brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán. The ex-president was convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption.[94] Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery, stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment. The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN. This "slow motion coup d'état" was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents, who vowed not to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery; the U.S., the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the "slow motion coup d'état".[96] The proposed constitutional changes, to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration, were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. One day before they were due to be enforced, the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008 Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent). President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, and signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006.[97] As a result, Nicaragua is one of five countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with Chile, Malta, El Salvador,[98] and the Vatican City Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. In the 2006 elections, Paul Trivelli, the US ambassador to Nicaragua issued a vigorous warning to the electorate against supporting Daniel Ortega. The ambassador said that an Ortega administration talked of a mixed economy and renegotiating CAFTA, the trade agreement between the U.S. and Central America – would force Washington to "re-evaluate" relations Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. "He has made it pretty clear what kind of model he would put in place. And I think that under those conditions. .. [bilateral relations] would definitely be re-examined – and not only by the executive or the State Department or the White House but by the US Congress," he said. The Financial Times emphasized: "It is no secret that the US is determined to prevent the spread of populist politics along the lines practised by Mr Chávez Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery." Roger Noriega, the Bush administration’s envoy to Latin America, in the Managua newspaper La Prensa warned the population that Nicaragua will "sink like a stone and reach depths such as those of Cuba" if the Sandinistas returned to office – Referring to the 50 year old United States embargo against Cuba. Otto Reich, former Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs declared: "If he [Ortega] wins, there will be no foreign investment and no US aid Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery." Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote. This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory) Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. Nicaragua's 2011 general election resulted in re-election of Daniel Ortega. Main article: Politics of Nicaragua Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. Between 2007–2009, Nicaragua's major political parties discussed the possibility of going from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. Their reason: there would be a clear differentiation between the head of government (Prime Minister) and the head of state (President). Nevertheless, it was later argued that the true reason behind this proposal was to find a legal way for current President Ortega to stay in power after January 2012 Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery (this is when his second and last government period ends). C-47 is used in Nicaragua and Air Force equipment. The armed forces of Nicaragua consists of various military contingencies. Nicaragua has an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are roughly 14,000 active duty personnel, which is much less compared to the numbers seen during the Nicaraguan Revolution. Although the army has had a rough military history, a portion of its forces Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery, which were known as the National Guard became integrated with what is now the National Police of Nicaragua. In essence, the police became a gendarmerie. The National Police of Nicaragua are rarely, if ever, labeled as a gendarmerie. The other elements and manpower that were not devoted to the National Police were sent over to cultivate the new Army of Nicaragua Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. The age to serve in the armed forces is 17 and conscription is not imminent. As of 2006, the military budget was roughly 0.7% of Nicaragua's expenditures. Departments and municipalities Main articles: Departments of Nicaragua and Municipalities of Nicaragua Departments of Nicaragua Nicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities). Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery The two autonomous regions are 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' and 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively; until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya. Nicaragua occupies a landmass of 130,967 km2 (50,567 sq mi), comparable to that of Greece or the state of Alabama Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. It lies between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 82° and 88°W. Nearly one fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves, and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Geophysically, Nicaragua is surrounded by the Caribbean Plate, an oceanic tectonic plate underlying Central America and the Cocos Plate. Since Central America is a major subduction zone Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery, Nicaragua hosts most of the Central American Volcanic Arc. Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific lowlands, fertile valleys which the Spanish colonists settled, the Amerrisque Mountains (North-central highlands), and the Mosquito Coast (Atlantic lowlands). The low plains of the Atlantic Coast are 60 miles wide in areas. They have long been exploited for their natural resources. Nicaragua is known as the land of lakes and volcanoes; pictured is Concepción volcano, as seen from Maderas volcano Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. In the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Cordillera Los Maribios mountain range, including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León. The lowland area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua's Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. Lake Nicaragua is the largest freshwater lake in Central America (20th largest in the world), Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery and is home to some of the world's only freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark).[107] The Pacific lowlands region is the most populous, with over half of the nation's population. The capital city of Managua is the most populous and is the only city with over 1.5 million inhabitants. Scarlet Tanager passing through Nicaragua around April, and again around October. The eruptions of western Nicaragua's 40 volcanoes, many of which are still active, have sometimes devastated settlements but also have enriched the land with layers of fertile ash Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. The geologic activity that produces vulcanism also breeds powerful earthquakes. Tremors occur regularly throughout the Pacific zone, and earthquakes have nearly destroyed the capital city, Managua, more than once. Most of the Pacific zone is tierra caliente, the "hot land" of tropical Spanish America at elevations under 2,000 feet (610 m). Temperatures remain virtually constant throughout the year, with highs ranging between 85 and 90 °F (29.4 and 32.2 °C) Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. After a dry season lasting from November to April, rains begin in May and continue to October, giving the Pacific lowlands 40 to 60 inches (1,016 to 1,524 mm) of precipitation. Good soils and a favorable climate combine to make western Nicaragua the country's economic and demographic center. The southwestern shore of Lake Nicaragua lies within 15 miles (24 km) of the Pacific Ocean Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery. Thus the lake and the San Juan River were often proposed in the 19th century as the longest part of a canal route across the Central American isthmus. Canal proposals were periodically revived in the 20th and 21st centuries. Roughly a century after the opening of the Panama Canal, the prospect of a Nicaraguan ecocanal remains a topic of interest. In addition to its beach and resort communities, the Pacific lowlands contains most of Nicaragua's Spanish colonial architecture and artifacts Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. Cities such as León and Granada abound in colonial architecture; founded in 1524, Granada is the oldest colonial city in the Americas.[114] [edit]North-central highlands The central highlands are a significantly less populated and economically developed area in the north, between Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Forming the country's tierra templada, or "temperate land", at elevations between 2,000 and 5,000 feet (610 and 1,524 m), the highlands enjoy mild temperatures with daily highs of Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery75 to 80 °F (23.9 to 26.7 °C). This region has a longer, wetter rainy season than the Pacific lowlands, making erosion a problem on its steep slopes. Rugged terrain, poor soils, and low population density characterize the area as a whole, but the northwestern valleys are fertile and well settled Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. The area has a cooler climate than the Pacific lowlands. About a quarter of the country's agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. Oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the cloud forests of the region. Bird life in the forests of the central region includes Resplendent Quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays and toucanets Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery. Caribbean lowlands This large rainforest region is irrigated by several large rivers and is sparsely populated. The area has 57% of the territory of the nation and most of its mineral resources. It has been heavily exploited, but much natural diversity remains. The Rio Coco is the largest river in Central America; it forms the border with Honduras. The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart; lagoons and deltas make it very irregular Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery. Nicaragua's Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is in the Atlantic lowlands; it protects 1,800,000 acres (728,434 ha) of La Mosquitia forest – almost 7% of the country's area – making it the largest rainforest north of the Amazon in Brazil.[115] Nicaragua's tropical east coast is very different from the rest of the country. The climate is predominantly tropical, with high temperature and high humidity. Around the area's principal city of Bluefields, English is widely spoken along with the official Spanish Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. The population more closely resembles that found in many typical Caribbean ports than the rest of Nicaragua. A great variety of birds can be observed including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. Animal life in the area includes different species of monkeys, anteaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs. Graphical depiction of Nicaragua's product exports in 28 color coded categories. The seaport in Corinto, Nicaragua is the country's only deep-water port capable of handling container ships and tankers Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W batteryTrains were once the main mode of transport for goods. tracks were sold for scrap. The remaining train engines in Nicaragua now serve as tourist attractions, as seen here in Granada, Nicaragua. Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately US $2.0 billion.[116] In addition, Nicaragua's Flor de Caña rum is renowned as among the best in Latin America Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded. Nicaragua's agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as coffee, beef and tobacco. Light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. On the Pacific side, coffee and cotton are by far the most important commercial crops. In 1992, more land was devoted to coffee than to any other crop, and it is the nation's leading export in terms of value. Nearly two-thirds of the coffee crop comes from the northern part of the central highlands, in the area north and east of the town of Estelí Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery. In the early 1980s, cotton became Nicaragua's second-largest export earner. Production is centered on large farms along the central Pacific coast. Unfortunately, the growth of the cotton industry has created serious problems. Soil erosion and pollution from the heavy use of pesticides have become serious concerns in the cotton district. Yields and exports have both been declining since 1985 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery. Plantation crops are significant in the Caribbean lowlands. After disease wiped out most of the region's banana plants in the years before 1945, attempts were made to diversify crops. Today most of Nicaragua's bananas are grown in the northwestern part of the country near the port of Corinto; sugarcane is also grown in the same district. Subsistence farms, where food is grown mainly for the consumption of the farm family instead of for sale Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery, are found throughout Nicaragua. Favorite food crops grown on such farms include rice, beans, maize, citrus fruits, and cassava. Cassava, a root crop somewhat similar to the potato, is an important food in tropical regions. The plant's roots can be eaten boiled and sliced, or ground into flour. Cassava is also the main ingredient in tapioca pudding Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. The Pacific lowlands and the middle and southern parts of the Central highlands are the principal cattle-grazing areas. An especially large number of cattle are found to the east of Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua's economy has also grown due to the emigration of retirees from parts of North America and Europe. The influx of incoming residents has generated the construction of residencies and commercial services throughout the country Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. Illustrated above are the residencies of Viejo Santo Domingo, which are some of the country's high-end residencies. Beginning in the 1960s, shrimp became big business on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The main shrimping centers on the Pacific coast are Corinto and San Juan del Sur. Fishing boats on the Caribbean side bring shrimp as well as lobsters into processing plants at Puerto Cabezas, Bluefields, and Laguna de Perlas Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The lumber industry, concentrated mainly in the eastern third of the country, has been lethargic since 1980, with its activities limited by several problems. First, the best trees in the most accessible places have already been cut down. In addition, pure groves of trees are uncommon in tropical forests. Hundreds of species per acre are generally the rule Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery, complicating the task of harvesting. Moreover, the most valuable dense hardwoods will not float. As a result, these trees must be trucked out of the forest rather than floated downriver to a sawmill. Finally, more restrictions are being placed on lumbering due to increased environmental concerns about destruction of the rain forests. But lumbering continues despite these obstacles; indeed, a single hardwood tree may be worth thousands of dollars Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery. Political turmoil has had a severe impact on the mining industry. Exports of gold are down, and little effort has been made to develop the large copper deposits of the northeast. Fighting during the revolution destroyed nearly one-third of Nicaragua's industry. As it rebuilds, the government is trying to change the industrial mix of the country and achieve decentralization Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Before the revolution, more than 60% of the nation's industrial production, by value, was concentrated in Managua. The industrial-decentralization policy may help to slow the growth of the largest cities, while assisting in the redistribution of income and development of economies in impoverished areas. Major industries include food processing, cement production, metal fabrication Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery, and oil refining. The Centroamérica power plant on the Tuma River in the Central highlands has been expanded, and other hydroelectric projects have been undertaken to help provide electricity to the nation's newer industries. The economic core of Nicaragua is in the Pacific zone, and the railway and highway network reflects that concentration of activity. The government-owned rail system—an inefficient money loser—is gradually being replaced by truck transport Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery. Transportation throughout the rest of the nation is often inadequate. For example, one cannot travel all the way by highway from Managua to the Caribbean coast. The road ends at the town of Rama. Travelers have to transfer and make the rest of the trip by riverboat down the Río Escondido—a five-hour journey Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Corinto is the only modern deepwater port in Nicaragua. It handles both agricultural exports and general-cargo imports. Petroleum is unloaded at Puerto Sandino, from which it travels by pipeline to a refinery in Managua. Trade with other nations in Central America has increased in recent years. Nicaragua has long been considered as a possible site for a new sea-level canal that could supplement the Panama Canal Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. Components of the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion USD.[3] The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents 17% of GDP, the highest percentage in Central America [117] (2008 est.). Remittances account for over 15% of the Nicaraguan GDP. Close to one billion dollars are sent to the country by Nicaraguans living abroad. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P batteryNicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industrial sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008). A Nicaraguan farmer After 1950 the scope of capital-intensive modern agriculture increased greatly. This growth was concentrated in export crops, while crops destined for domestic use continued to be produced by traditional labor-intensive methods. The shift to industrialized agriculture also significantly reduced the proportion of the population directly dependent on agriculture (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Commercial agriculture thrives in the Pacific lowlands, where cotton and sugarcane are the staple crops. Although coffee is grown in the Pacific zone at elevations over 1,000 feet (300 meters), the most important coffee zone is the northwestern part of the Central highlands, from Matagalpa to Jinotega. Cattle for the export of beef are raised in the southeastern part of the highlands (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). The overall expansion of export production by large landholders pushed the smallholders who produced the country's maize, beans, and other dietary staples onto marginal lands, with the result that food production could not keep up with population increase. In the 1990s the government initiated efforts to diversify agriculture. Some of the new export-oriented crops were peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery)Nicaragua's agricultural sector has benefited because of the country's strong ties to Venezuela. It is estimated that Venezuela will import approximately $200 million in agricultural goods.[119] Shrimp is one of the main marine export products of the Nicaraguan economy. Forestry and fishing are the bases of the eastern seaboard's commercial economy. In national terms, neither sector was important until the take-off of the fishing industry in the late 20th century (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). Mahogany was harvested commercially on the Atlantic coast beginning early in the 19th century. In the 20th century pine stands began to be exploited. In neither case, though, was the resource managed so as to ensure a sustained yield. Nicaragua's fishing industry operates off both coasts and in freshwater Lake Nicaragua. The lake also has an aquaculture industry. The most valuable catches are shrimp and spiny lobster. The government expanded the size of the fishing fleet in the 1980s (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery), which permitted a rapid expansion of shrimp and lobster exports in the 1990s. A turtle fishery thrived on the Caribbean coast before it collapsed from overexploitation. Mining and the production of energy Mining is not a major industry in Nicaragua,[120] contributing less than 1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Still, gold and silver mines in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country are important elements of regional economies and constitute sources of revenue (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). Important domestic sources of electrical energy are hydropower and geothermal power, the latter from the volcano Momotombo, near Managua. But most commercial electricity is generated by imported petroleum. Although the manufacturing sector of the economy contributes somewhat more to GDP than agriculture, it employs far fewer people. It was traditionally concerned largely with the processing of agricultural products (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery), and it supplied the domestic market with foods, beverages, edible oils, cigarettes, and textile goods. Also manufactured were light metal goods, construction materials, wood and paper products, and chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides. The manufacturing sector was expanded beyond these areas in the 1990s with the introduction of maquila industries, in which imported parts are assembled for reexport. The principal products were garments, footwear, aluminum frames, and jewelry( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery). Growth in the maquila sector slowed in the first decade of the 21st century with rising competition from Asian markets, particularly China. Economic development in the 21st century Nicaragua has widespread underemployment and the second lowest per capita income in the Americas. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods. Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua's exports( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery), but recent increases in the minimum wage have a strong possibility of eroding Nicaragua's comparative advantage in this industry. Nicaragua's minimum wage is among the lowest in the Americas and in the World. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal and external debt financing obligations. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). In October 2007, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program. Despite the support, severe budget shortfalls resulting from the suspension of large amounts of direct budget support from foreign donors concerned with recent political developments has caused a slowdown in PRGF disbursements( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery). Similarly, private sector concerns surrounding Daniel Ortega's handling of economic issues have dampened investment. Economic growth has slowed in 2009, due to decreased export demand from the US and Central American markets from the overall recession, lower commodity prices for key agricultural exports, and low remittance growth. Remittances are equivalent to roughly 15% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery) Nicaragua, the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Hemisphere, has widespread underemployment and poverty. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal- and external-debt financing obligations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). Foreign donors have curtailed this funding, however, citing accusations of fraud in the November 2008 elections. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Managua still struggles with a high public debt burden, however, it succeeded in reducing that burden substantially in 2011. The economy grew at a rate of about 4% in 2011( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery). Nicaragua is among the poorest countries in the Americas. Nicaragua's nominal GDP stands at 6.554 for 2009 and increasing to 8.532 by 2014.[citation needed] Nicaragua's GDP (PPP) 16.709 billion and the GDP per capita is $1,028 for Nicaragua. According to the United Nations Development Programme, 48% of the population in Nicaragua live below the poverty line,[128] 79.9% of the population live with less than $2 per day, ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery) unemployment is 3.9%, and another 46.5% are underemployed (2008 est.). As in many other developing countries, a large segment of the economically poor in Nicaragua are women. In addition, a relatively high proportion of Nicaragua's homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of rural homes. According to UN figures, 80% of the indigenous people (who make up 5% of the population) live on less than $1 per day. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery)According to the FAO, 27% of all Nicaraguans are suffering from undernourishment; the highest percentage in Central America. During the war between the US-backed Contras and the government of the Sandinistas in the 1980s, much of the country's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed.[131] Inflation averaged 30% throughout the 1980s. After the United States imposed a trade embargo in 1985, which lasted 5 years, Nicaragua's inflation rate rose dramatically( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery). The 1985 annual rate of 220% tripled the following year and rose to more than 13,000% in 1988, the highest rate for any country in the Western Hemisphere in that year. The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms to improve profits for foreign businesses, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005 finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua's foreign debt( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery), as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank, Nicaragua's GDP was around $4.9 billion US dollars. In March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s. Since the end of the war almost two decades ago, more than 350 state enterprises have been privatized. Inflation reduced from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and the foreign debt was cut in half( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). According to the World Bank, Nicaragua ranked as the 62nd best economy for starting a business: making it the second best in Central America, after Panama.[134] Nicaragua's economy is "62.7% free" with high levels of fiscal, government, labor, investment, financial, and trade freedom.[135] It ranks as the 61st freest economy, and 14th (of 29) in the Americas( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery). Main article: Nicaraguan córdoba Nicaragua uses polymer banknotes in its circulated currency. Illustrated here is a 50 córdoba banknote. During the era of the Spanish colonial rule, and for more than 50 years afterward, Nicaragua used Spanish coins that were struck for use in the "New World". The first unique coins for Nicaragua were issued in 1878 in the peso denomination( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). The córdoba became Nicaragua's currency in 1912 and was initially equal in value to the U.S. dollar. The Córdoba was named after Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, the national founder. The front of each of Nicaragua's circulating coins features the national coat of arms. The five volcanoes represent the five Central American countries at the time of Nicaragua's independence( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery); the rainbow at the top symbolizes peace; and the cap in the center is a symbol of freedom. The design is contained within a triangle to indicate equality. The back of each coin features the denomination, with the inscription En Dios Confiamos (In God We Trust). Nicaragua is the first country in the Americas to successfully overhaul production of its paper currency in favor of polymer banknotes( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Polymer banknotes were issued in 2009 to reduce the need to reprint banknotes, combat counterfeiting and introduce a more hygienic currency. The previously issued banknotes are still accepted as legal tender. However, unlike previous banknote series, the current series does not have any illustration of politicians. Rather, the current currency series celebrates the country's landmarks, history and culture( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery). Conversion to the SUCRE Main articles: Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and SUCRE (currency) Nicaragua is currently a member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, which is also known as ALBA. ALBA has proposed creating a new currency, the Sucre for use among its members. In essence, this means that the Nicaraguan córdoba will be replaced with the Sucre. Members must make their local currency deposits in Caracas, to enter into force on sucre( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). The monetary union first will be virtual, to be used only among the states for inter-regional trade. It will then be used in print form. The ALBA-Sucre union is similar to that of the Euro of the European Union. Other nations that will follow a similar pattern include: Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras, Cuba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica and Antigua and Barbuda. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery) Main article: Tourism in Nicaragua By 2006, tourism in Nicaragua had become the second largest industry in the nation,[137] over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%–16% annually.[138] Nicaragua had seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade, and it became the first largest industry in 2007. The increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery) The growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. Gazebo of Selva Negra Mountain Resort in Matagalpa. Every year about 60,000 U.S. citizens visit Nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives.[140] Some 5,300 people from the U.S. reside in the country now. The majority of tourists who visit Nicaragua are from the U.S., Central or South America, and Europe. According to the Ministry of Tourism of Nicaragua (INTUR), ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery) the colonial cities of León and Granada are the preferred spots for tourists. Also, the cities of Masaya, Rivas and the likes of San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe, Mombacho Volcano, the Corn Islands, and others are main tourist attractions. In addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to Nicaragua( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). According to TV Noticias (news program) on Canal 2, a Nicaragua television station, the main attractions in Nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as León and Granada, and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in Northern Nicaragua.[138] As a result of increased tourism, Nicaragua has seen its foreign direct investment increase by 79.1% from 2007 to 2009( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery). Population According to the CIA World Factbook, population of 5,891,199; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 5% Amerindian, 9.0% black and other races and this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 84% urban[citation needed]. The life expectancy was 71.90 years in 2011,[143] a figure roughly equivalent to that of Vietnam and Palau. The infant mortality rate stood at 25.5, roughly equivalent to that of the Marshall Islands and Paraguay. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery) Nicaraguan girls at a concert in Managua. Nicaragua appears ranked 91st in the international mortality rate, which places it between the world average and Panama.[145] The most populous city in Nicaragua is the capital, Managua, with a population of 1.8 million (2005) and an estimated 2.2 by 2010 and more than 2.5 mill for the metro area. As of 2005, over 7.0 million inhabitants live in the Pacific, Central and North regions, 5.5 in the Pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the Caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery) There is a growing expatriate community[147] the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from all across the world, such as from the US, Canada, Taiwan, and various European countries; the majority have settled in Managua, Granada and San Juan del Sur. Many Nicaraguans live abroad, particularly in the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Canada. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery) Nicaragua has a population growth rate of 1.8% as of 2008.[citation needed] This is the result of one of the highest birth rates in the Western Hemisphere: 24.9 per 1,000 according to the United Nations for the period 2005–2010.[citation needed] The death rate is 4.1 per 1,000 during the same period according to the United Nations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery). An African-Nicaraguan The majority of the Nicaraguan population, (86% or approximately 5.06 million people), is either Mestizo or White. 69% are Mestizos (mixed Amerindian and European) and 17% of European origin, the majority of Spanish, German, Italian, English or French ancestry. Mestizos and Whites mainly reside in the western region of the country( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery). About 9% of Nicaragua's population are black, and mainly reside on the country's sparsely populated Caribbean or Atlantic coast. The black population is mostly composed of black English-speaking Creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of Scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as Campbell, Gordon( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery), Downs and Hodgeson. Although many Creoles supported Somoza because of his close association with the US, they rallied to the Sandinista cause in July 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of 'westernization' and imposition of central rule from Managua.[149] Nicaragua has the largest African diaspora population in Central America. There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed West African, Carib and Arawak descent( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya – consisting of the eastern half of the country – into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic. The remaining 5% of Nicaraguans are Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, after whom the country is named( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery), were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the Mayans. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). Palestinian Nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nicaraguan revolution in Managua waving Palestinian and Sandinista flags Relative to its overall population, Nicaragua has never experienced any large-scale immigrant waves. The total number of immigrants to Nicaragua, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. The 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery) .06% in 10 years.[146] In the 19th century Nicaragua experienced modest waves of immigration from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, particularly the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation Germans. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery), newspapers, hotels and banks. Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, Jewish Nicaraguans, and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. There is also an East Asian community mostly consisting of Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese. The Chinese Nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery) The Chinese arrived in the late 19th century but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s. Main article: Nicaraguan Diaspora The Civil War forced many Nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. Although many Nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century due to the lack of employment opportunities and poverty. The majority of the Nicaraguan Diaspora migrated to Costa Rica and the United States, and today one in six Nicaraguans live in these two countries. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery) The diaspora has also seen Nicaraguans settling around in smaller communities in other parts of the world, particularly Western Europe. Small communities of Nicarguans are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Communities also exist in Australia and New Zealand. Canada, Brazil and Argentina in the Americas also host small groups of these communities. In Asia, Japan also hosts a small Nicaraguan community( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). Due to extreme poverty in Nicaragua, many Nicaraguans are now living and working in neighboring El Salvador a country that has the US dollar as currency. Maternal and child health care U.S. medic checks an infant for an ear infection, August 2008 In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Nicaragua is 100. This is compared with 102.6 in 2008 and 100.8 in 1990( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery). The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 27 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 46. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Nicaragua the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 7 and 1 in 300 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery) Main article: Culture of Nicaragua Nicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance. The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence on Nicaraguan clothing. Nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors( SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery). Nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands. The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by Europeans. It was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. The indigenous groups that historically inhabited the Pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery). The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, the Cayman Islands, etc. Unlike on the west coast, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean coast have maintained distinct identities, and some still speak their native languages as first languages( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery). Main article: Music of Nicaragua Nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish, influences. Musical instruments include the marimba and others common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. He is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). The marimba is made with hardwood plates placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo which is popular throughout the country. It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May. The Garifuna community (Afro-Indian) is known for its popular music called Punta( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery). Nicaragua enjoys a variety of international influence in the music arena. Bachata, Merengue, Salsa and Cumbia have gained prominence in cultural centers such as Managua, Leon and Granada. Cumbia dancing has grown popular with the introduction of Nicaraguan artists, including Gustavo Leyton, on Ometepe Island and in Managua. Salsa dancing has become extremely popular in Managua's nightclubs. With various influences( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery), the form of salsa dancing varies in Nicaragua. New York style and Cuban Salsa (Salsa Casino) elements have gained popularity across the country. Bachata dancing has also gained popularity in Nicaragua. Combinations of styles from the Dominican Republic and the United States can be found throughout the country. The nature of the dance in Nicaragua varies depending on the region. Rural areas tend to have a stronger focus on movement of the hips and turns( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery). Urbanized cities, on the other hand, focus primarily on more sophisticated footwork in addition to movement and turns. A considerable amount of Bachata dancing influence comes from Nicaraguans living abroad, in cities that include Miami, Los Angeles and, to a much lesser extent, New York City. Tango has also surfaced recently in cultural cities and ballroom dance occasions( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery). Main article: Literature of Nicaragua Rubén Darío, the founder of the modernismo literary movement in Latin America. The literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times; the myths and oral literature formed the cosmogonic view of the world of the indigenous people. Some of these stories are still known in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery). Nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the Spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as Rubén Darío, who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua. He is called the "Father of Modernism" for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century.[156] Other literary figures include Carlos Martinez Rivas, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Alberto Cuadra Mejia( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery), Manolo Cuadra, Pablo Alberto Cuadra Arguello, Orlando Cuadra Downing, Alfredo Alegría Rosales, Sergio Ramirez Mercado, Ernesto Cardenal, Gioconda Belli, Claribel Alegría and José Coronel Urtecho, among others. The satirical drama El Güegüense was the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America's most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as Nicaragua's signature folkloric masterpiece( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery), combining music, dance and theater.[156] The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century, making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the Western Hemisphere.[157] After centuries of popular performance, the play was first published in a book in 1942. Main articles: Languages of Nicaragua, Central American Spanish, Nicaraguan Spanish, and Voseo A sign in Bluefields in English (top), Spanish (middle) and Miskito (bottom) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery) Nicaraguan Spanish has many indigenous influences and several distinguishing characteristics. Until the 19th century, a hybrid form of Nahuat-Spanish was the common language of Nicaragua. Today Nahuat, Mangue, and Mayan words and syntax can be found in everyday speech. The Nicaraguan accent dates back to the 16th century in Andalusia( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery), and the relative isolation of Nicaragua meant that the accent did not change in the same ways that the Andalusian accent has. For example, some Nicaraguans have a tendency to replace the "s" sound with an "h"" sound when speaking.[159] Other Nicaraguans pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. In the central part of the country, regions such as Boaco pronounce vos without the s sound at the end. The result is vo, similar to vous in French and voi in Italian( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery). In this map, the use of the voseo form is illustrated, with countries such as Nicaragua, where it is predominant, represented in dark blue. Voseo is also predominant in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, where Rioplatense Spanish is spoken. Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of Nicaragua's population. In Nicaragua, the voseo form of address is dominant in both speech and publications. The same is true for the Río de la Plata region of South America( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery). Nicaraguan Spanish can be understood everywhere in the Hispanosphere. Nicaraguans, unlike most Spanish-speaking groups, cannot be categorized uniformly in terms of accent and word usage. Although Spanish is spoken throughout the country, the country has great variety: vocabulary, accents and colloquial language can vary between towns and departments( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery). In the Caribbean coast, many Afro-Nicaraguans and creoles speak English and creole English as their first language, but as a second language, they speak a fluent Spanish. The language in the North and South Atlantic Regions are influenced by English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and French roots. In addition, many of the indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the Miskito, Sumo, Rama and Garifuna language( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery). In addition, many ethnic groups in Nicaragua have maintained ancestral languages, while also speaking Spanish or English; these include Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian. Spanish is taught as the principal language. English is taught to students during their high school years and tends to be the national second language. Other languages can also be found sporadically, particularly within expatriate communities( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38 battery). Nicaragua was home to three extinct languages, one of which was never classified. Nicaraguan Sign Language is also of particular interest to linguists as the world's youngest language.[162] While Religion in Nicaragua is growing in diversity, the majority of Nicaraguans identify themselves as observers of the Roman Catholic faith. Pictured above is the Leon Cathedral, which is among one of the nation's World Heritage Sites and an active place of religious worship in León, Nicaragua( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery). Religion is a significant part of the culture of Nicaragua and is referred to in the constitution. Religious freedom, which has been guaranteed since 1939, and religious tolerance are promoted by both the Nicaraguan government and the constitution. Nicaragua has no official religion. Catholic Bishops are expected to lend their authority to important state occasions( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/P battery), and their pronouncements on national issues are closely followed. They can also be called upon to mediate between contending parties at moments of political crisis. The largest denomination, and traditionally the religion of the majority, is Roman Catholic. The numbers of practicing Roman Catholics have been declining, while members of evangelical Protestant groups and Mormons have been rapidly growing in numbers since the 1990s. There are also strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/B battery). Roman Catholicism came to Nicaragua in the 16th century with the Spanish conquest and remained, until 1939, the established faith. Protestantism and other Christian denominations came to Nicaragua during the 19th century, but only gained large followings in the Caribbean Coast during the 20th century( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/S battery). Popular religion revolves around the saints, who are perceived as intercessors (but not mediators) between human beings and God. Most localities, from the capital of Managua to small rural communities, honor patron saints, selected from the Roman Catholic calendar, with annual fiestas. In many communities, a rich lore has grown up around the celebrations of patron saints( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/P battery), such as Managua's Saint Dominic (Santo Domingo), honored in August with two colorful, often riotous, day-long processions through the city. The high point of Nicaragua's religious calendar for the masses is neither Christmas nor Easter, but La Purísima, a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, during which elaborate altars to the Virgin Mary are constructed in homes and workplaces( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/B battery). The country's close political ties have also encouraged religious ties. Buddhism has increased with a steady influx of immigration. Main article: Cuisine of Nicaragua The Cuisine of Nicaragua is a mixture of criollo food and dishes of pre-Columbian origin. The Spaniards found that the Creole people had incorporated local foods available in the area into their cuisine. Traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast; while the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around local fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast cuisine makes use of seafood and the coconut( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35M/B battery). As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as the nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as sweets and desserts. In addition to corn, rice and beans are eaten very often( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/S battery). Gallo pinto, Nicaragua's national dish, is made with white rice and red beans that are cooked separately and then fried together. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil and/or grated coconut on the Caribbean coast. Most Nicaraguans begin their day with Gallopinto. Gallopinto is most usually served with carne asada, a salad, fried cheese, platains or maduros( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/P battery). Many of Nicaragua's dishes include indigenous fruits and vegetables such as jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote.[165] Nicaraguans also have been known to eat guinea pigs, tapirs, iguanas, turtle eggs, armadillos and boas but efforts are currently underway to curb this tendency( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery). Batter of the Fieras del San Fernando, a Nicaraguan professional baseball team Baseball is the most popular sport played in Nicaragua. Although some professional Nicaraguan baseball teams have folded in the recent past, Nicaragua enjoys a strong tradition of American-style Baseball. Baseball was introduced to Nicaragua at different years during the 19th century. In the Caribbean coast locals from Bluefields were taught how to play baseball in 1888 by Albert Addlesberg, a retailer from the United States. ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery) Baseball did not catch on in the Pacific coast until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed "La Sociedad de Recreo" (Society of Recreation) where they played various sports, baseball being the most popular among them.[166] There are five teams that compete amongst themselves: Indios del Boer (Managua), Chinandega, Tiburones (Sharks) of Granada, León and Masaya( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery). Players from these teams comprise the national team when Nicaragua competes internationally. The country has had its share of MLB players (including current Boston Red Sox pitcher Vicente Padilla and Boston Red Sox pitcher Devern Hansack), but the most notable is Dennis Martínez, who was the first baseball player from Nicaragua to play in Major League Baseball( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery). He became the first Latin-born pitcher to throw a perfect game, and the 13th in major league history, when he played with the Montreal Expos against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium in 1991. Boxing is the second most popular sport in Nicaragua. The country has had world champions such as Alexis Argüello and Ricardo Mayorga among others. Recently, football has gained popularity, especially with the younger population. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has served as a venue for both baseball and football but the first ever national football stadium in Managua is currently under construction( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery). Main article: Education in Nicaragua See also: Universities in Nicaragua and List of Schools in Nicaragua Literacy Campaign Propaganda Poster Nicaragua's first public primary school opened in 1837. By the late 1860s public grade schools existed in most of the larger cities. In 1877, Nicaraguan authorities accepted the principle that such schools should be nationally funded, and that attendance should be free and compulsory. In 1881 education was formally removed from religious control and turned over to government( Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery), but church-run schools continued to operate alongside the public system. Subsequently shortages of facilities and teachers, especially in rural areas, hampered educational development. The Sandinista government sharply increased spending on education and reduced illiteracy significantly, but shortages of facilities and personnel remained a problem. The Sandinistas also added a leftist ideological content to the curriculum, which was removed after 1990( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S battery). Higher education dates from 1818 when the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) was founded in León. A major reform, begun in 1980, reorganized the country's postsecondary system into two universities: the UNAN, with campuses in León and Managua, and the Central American University in Managua. It also restructured the curriculum, giving more emphasis to science and technology, and less to law and commerce( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S battery). Nicaragua also has several more specialized institutions, with a focus on education that will promote economic development. Education is paid via taxes for all Nicaraguans. Elementary education is free and compulsory, but many children in rural areas are unable to attend due to lack of schools and other reasons. Communities on the Caribbean coast have access to education in their native languages( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/S battery). The majority of higher education institutions are in Managua, higher education has financial, organic and administrative autonomy, according to the law. Also, freedom of subjects is recognized.[172] Nicaragua's higher education system consists of 48 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics, computer systems and sciences( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery), agroforestry, construction and trade-related services.[173] The educational system includes 1 U.S. accredited English-language university, 3 Bilingual university programs, 5 Bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree.[174] 18% of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery). As of 1979, the educational system was one of the poorest in Latin America.[175] Under the Somoza dictatorships, limited spending on education and generalized poverty, which forced many adolescents into the labor market, constricted educational opportunities for Nicaraguans. One of the first acts of the newly elected Sandinista government in 1980 was an extensive and successful literacy campaign, using secondary school students( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery), university students and teachers as volunteer teachers: it reduced the overall illiteracy rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months.[176] This was one of a number of large scale programs which received international recognition for their gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and land reform.[177][178] In September 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the Nadezhda Krupskaya award for the literacy campaign( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery). This was followed by the literacy campaigns of 1982, 1986, 1987, 1995 and 2000, all of which were also awarded by UNESCO.[179] Today, the literacy rate in Nicaragua is still below 70%. Communications and media For most Nicaraguans radio and TV are the main sources of news. There are more than 100 radio stations, many of them in the capital, and several TV networks. Cable TV is available in most urban areas( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery). The print media are varied and partisan, representing pro and anti-government positions. La Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio Televicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37 Radio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata: ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery); Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis
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