Nicaragua officially the Republic of Nicaragua (Spanish: República de Nicaragua, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa] ( listen). is the largest country in the Central American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands, wet, cooler central highlands, and the Caribbean lowlands(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). On the Pacific side of the country are the two largest fresh water lakes in Central America—Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. Surrounding these lakes and extending to their northwest along the rift valley of the Gulf of Fonseca are fertile lowland plains, with soil highly enriched by ash from nearby volcanoes of the central highlands(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery). Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot.The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua achieved its independence from Spain in 1821. Since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery), military intervention by the United States, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Prior to the revolution, Nicaragua was one of Central America's wealthiest and most developed countries. The revolutionary conflict, paired with a 1972 earthquake, reversed the country's prior economic standing(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). Nicaragua is a representative democratic republic, and has experienced economic growth and political stability in recent years. In 1990, Nicaragua elected Violeta Chamorro as its president, making it the first country in Latin American history and the second in the Western Hemisphere to democratically elect a female head of state(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery).The population of Nicaragua, approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Roughly a quarter of the population lives in the capital city, Managua; it is the second-largest city in Central America. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast, Europeans, Africans, Asians, and people of Middle Eastern origin(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). The main language is Spanish, although native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama, as well as English Creole. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art and literature, particularly the later given the various literary contributions of Nicaraguan writers(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery), including Rubén Darío, Ernesto Cardenal, and Gioconda Belli.[6] The biological diversity, warm tropical climate, and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination.[7][8]EtymologyThe origin of the name "Nicaragua" is somewhat unclear; in one theory it is a portmanteau coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, chief of the most populous indigenous tribe and agua, the Spanish word for water(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery).[9] Another theory is that it may have meant "surrounded by water" or "sweet sea" in an indigenous language.[10] The surrounding water might refer to the country's two largest lakes, Lake Nicaragua—the largest in Central America and the 19th largest in the world—and Lake Managua. Alternatively, it might refer to its east and west ocean boundaries(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery).[edit]HistoryMain article: History of NicaraguaSee also: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Political history of Nicaragua[edit]Pre-Columbian history2,100-year-old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near Lake ManaguaIn pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area, between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions, and within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery). It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, such as the ones found on the island of Zapatera in Lake Nicaragua and petroglyphs found on Ometepe island(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery). The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 B.C.[11]By the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture to the Mesoamerican civilizations of the Aztec and Maya, and by language to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area.[12] They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms(Sony VAIO VGN-AW235J/B battery).Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and nearby areas.[13] They lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering.[14] Joined by waters(Sony VAIO VGN-AW270Y/Q battery), the people of eastern Nicaragua traded with, and were influenced by, other native peoples of the Caribbean. Round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were commonly crafted and used in eastern Nicaragua.In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery), or Nicaragua. The wealthy ruler lived in Nicaraocali, site of the present-day city of Rivas. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. Without women in their parties, the Spanish conquerors took Niquirano and Chorotega wives and partners, beginning the multi-ethnic mix of native and European stock now known as mestizo(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery), which constitutes the great majority of population in western Nicaragua.[12] Within three decades after European contact, what had been an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted. Scientists and historians estimate approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new infectious diseases carried by the Spaniards(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31XY/Q battery), such as smallpox and measles, to which the Indians had no immunity. The indigenous people of the Caribbean coast escaped the epidemics due to the remoteness of their area. Their societies continued more culturally intact as a result.[12][edit]The Spanish conquestMain article: ConquistaFarthest extent of Spanish colonization in America.Red: Farthest extent of Spanish colonies under the House of Bourbon in the 1790s.Pink: Disputed claims of Spanish colonial administration.Purple: Portuguese colonies under dual Spanish colonial administration- conquest, settlement and political rule over much of the Western Hemisphere(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31ZJ/B battery)Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery).In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama. On his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Misquito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua.[15] The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila,[16] who arrived in Panama in January 1520(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery).González claimed to have converted some 30,000 indigenous peoples to Christianity and discovered a possible trans-isthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys, González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by the chief Diriangén(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery).[17] González later returned to Panama, where Governor Pedro Arias Dávila tried to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. González escaped to Santo Domingo.It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded.[16] Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua's principal towns in 1524(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery): Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and attacked against incursions by the other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery).[18]The clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains.[19] By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadors came out winners, while they executed or murdered others(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery). Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner—although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony.[18]The land was parceled out to the conquistadors, who were most interested in the western portion(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). They enslaved many indigenous people as labor to develop and maintain estates there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, some were killed in warfare. The great majority were sold as slaves, and shipped to other Spanish colonies in the New World, at a significant profit to the newly landed aristocracy(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery). Many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence.[16][edit]Colonization to independenceCorn Island off the Atlantic Coast was a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest of the Mosquito Coast to NicaraguaThe Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring Granada from pirate attacks. Today, it is one of the country's main tourist attractions( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery) .Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua 1901In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery) .During the American Revolutionary War, Central America was subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery) . Horatio Nelson led expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and the San Juan in 1780, which had temporary success before being abandoned due to disease. In turn, the Spanish colonial leaders could not completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery) .The Captaincy General of Guatemala was dissolved in September 1821 with the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and Nicaragua became part of the First Mexican Empire. After the monarchy of the First Mexican Empire was overthrown in 1823, Nicaragua joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery) , which was later renamed as the Federal Republic of Central America. Nicaragua finally became an independent republic in 1838.[20]Rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada characterized the early years of independence and often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery) . Invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer and filibuster named William Walker set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election in 1856.[21] Costa Rica, Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out of Nicaragua in 1857, ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery) after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued.Great Britain, which had claimed the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate since 1655, delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. The Mosquito Coast remained an autonomous area until 1894. José Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893–1909( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery) , negotiated the annexation of the Mosquito Coast to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honor, the region was named Zelaya Department.In the 19th century, Nicaragua attracted many immigrants, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium emigrated to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery) , such as coffee and sugar-cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks.Throughout the late 19th century, the United States (and several European powers) considered a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua, linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.[24] A bill was put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, which failed to pass; construction of the Panama Canal was begun instead( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery) .[edit]United States intervention (1909–33)See also: United States occupation of Nicaragua and Nicaragua CanalAugusto César SandinoIn 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery) . On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year.In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery) , resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that... ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery) “In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic.[25] ”U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933,[26] except for a nine month period beginning in 1925( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery) . From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery) .[27] Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines.[28]From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery) , who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years.[29] When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery) ,[30] a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan Bautista Sacasa( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery) .After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery) .[31] But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino.[30][32][33] Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by soldiers of the National Guard( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery) . Hundreds of men, women, and children from Sandino's agricultural colony were executed later.[34][edit]The Somoza dynasty (1936–79)Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Luis Somoza Debayle (left) and Anastasio Somoza Debayle (right).Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest being the hereditary dictatorship of the Somoza family for much of the 20th century. The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery) , or the National Guard, to replace the US marines that had long reigned in the country.[35] Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election.[30] Somoza was 35 at the time( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery) .Nicaragua declared war on Germany on December 8, 1941, during World War II.[36] Although war was formally declared, no soldiers were sent to the war, but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately owned luxury resort and casino( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery) .[37] In 1945 Nicaragua was among the first countries to ratify the United Nations Charter.[38]Throughout his years as dictator, "Tacho" Somoza 'ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm'.[34] He had three main sources for his power: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the US. When Somoza used the National Guard to take power in 1937, he destroyed any potential armed resistance( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery) .[39] Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power.Despite his complete control, on September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery) . He died eight days later. After his father's death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country.[30] He is remembered by some for being moderate, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick Gutiérrez whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas"( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery) .[40] Somoza's brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick.Nicaragua experienced economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s largely as a result of industrialization,[41] and became one of Central America's most developed nations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery) . Due to its stable and high growth economy, foreign investments grew, primarily from U.S. companies such as Citigroup, Sears, Westinghouse, Coca Cola, Bank of America, Chase Manhattan Bank, "Morgan Guaranty Trust and Wells Fargo Bank.[citation needed] Other investors included London Bank and the Bank of Montreal. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery) The capital city of Managua suffered a major earthquake in 1972 which destroyed nearly 90% of the city, creating major losses,[42] and leveling a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see the 1972 earthquake that devastated Managua as the final 'nail in the coffin' for Somoza( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery) . Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery) , but he died enroute in an airplane accident.[43] Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,[44] and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result.In 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery) . Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery) . The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty.[edit]Nicaraguan RevolutionMain articles: Nicaraguan Revolution, FSLN, and Junta of National ReconstructionIn 1961 Carlos Fonseca turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with two others founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN).[30] Fonseca turned to the KGB and Cuba's DGI for arms and assistance( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery) . The FSLN was a small party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza's apparent hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger.[citation needed] ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery) After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza's apparent corruption, alleged mishandling of relief aid, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose.[39] These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the main hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery) .In December 1974, a group of FSLN, in an attempt to kidnap U.S. Ambassador Tuner Shelton, held some Managuan partygoers hostage (after killing the host, former Agriculture Minister Jose Maria Castillo), until the Somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to Cuba. Somoza granted this( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery) , then subsequently sent his National Guard out into the countryside to look for the perpetrators of the kidnapping, described by opponents of the kidnapping as 'terrorists'. While searching, the National Guard allegedly pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. This led to the Roman Catholic Church withdrawing support of the Somoza regime( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery) . Around this time, Chilean president Salvador Allende was removed from power in a military coup that prompted Allende to take his own life as the presidential palace came under fire. With right-wing Augusto Pinochet in power in Chile, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery) .[45]On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated.[46] This allegedly led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza. It is alleged that the planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator's son( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery) , "El Chiguin" ("The Kid"), the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a Cuban expatriate and close ally, who commercialized blood plasma.[46]Nicaraguan refugees, 1979The Sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional governments (including Panama, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Venezuela), took power in July 1979. The Carter administration( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery) , refusing to act unilaterally, decided to work with the new government, while attaching a provision for aid forfeiture if it was found to be assisting insurgencies in neighboring countries.[47] A group of prominent citizens known as Los Doce, "the Twelve", denounced the Somoza regime and said that "there can be no dialogue with Somoza( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery) ... because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding ... through the long dark history of Somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it", Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery) .[48]To begin the task of establishing a new government, the Sandinistas created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction of five members: Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ER/S Battery) , and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). Sandinista supporters thus comprised three of the five members of the junta.The non-Sandinistas Robelo and Chamorro later resigned because they had little actual power in the junta. Sandinista mass organizations were also powerful: including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery) , the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos).On the Atlantic Coast a small uprising occurred in support of the Sandinistas. A group of Creoles led by a native of Bluefields, Dexter Hooker (known as Commander Abel) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery) , raided a Somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join Sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of El Rama. The 'Black Sandinistas' returned to Bluefields on July 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. The Black Sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo Sandinista fighters( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery) . The ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the Black Sandinistas occupying the National Guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the Town Hall (Palacio), gave the revolution on the Atlantic Coast a racial dimension absent from events in other parts of the country( SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery) . The Black Sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the Palacio group by the arrival of the Simón Bolívar International Brigade from Costa Rica.One of the brigade's members, an Afro-Costa-Rican called Marvin Wright (known as Kalalu) became known for his rousing speeches, which included elements of Black Power ideology, in his attempts to unite all black militias that had formed in Bluefields( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery) . The introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the Sandinista National Directorate, which expelled Kalalu and the rest of the brigade from Nicaragua and sent them to Panama.[49][edit]Sandinistas and the ContrasMain articles: FSLN, Contras, Iran-Contra scandal, and Nicaragua v. United StatesARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery) Robert Pastor, President Carter's National Security Advisor on Latin America explained why the administration had to back Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza untill he could no longer be sustained to then move to bar the FSLN from power through the "preservation of existing institutions, especially the National Guard" [50] even though it had been massacring the population "with a brutality a nation usually reserves for its enemy. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery) ":"The United States did not want to control Nicaragua or the other nations in the region, but it also did not want to allow developments to get out of control. It wanted Nicaraguans to act independently, except when doing so would affect U.S. interests adversely." ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR94VS battery) Shortly after Somoza fled to Miami, National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski declared that "we have to demonstrate that we are still the decisive force in determining the political outcomes in Central America." [52] As the Sandinista forces entered the capital, the Carter administration "began setting the stage for a counter revolution( Sony VAIO VGN-SR94HS battery) ," Peter Kornbluh observes. On July 19, a U.S. plane disguised with Red Cross markings evacuated the remnants of the National Guard to Miami. The old Guardia was then built into the counter revolutionary force known as the 'Contras' by the C.I.A. [53]On assuming office in 1981, US President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador( Sony VAIO VGN-SR94GS battery) . Reagan said he was also concerned about the growing Soviet and Cuban presence in Nicaragua, and the Soviet hope to turn Nicaragua into a "second Cuba".In contrast to the administration's warnings of a 'Soviet beachead' in Nicaragua, the June 1984 Bureau of Intelligence and Research report, "Soviet Attitudes Towards, Aid to, and Contacts with Central American Revolutionaries( Sony VAIO VGN-SR94FS battery) ," reported that "Soviet military aid to Nicaragua is unobtrusive and sometimes ephemeral." The author of the report, Dr. Carl Jacobsen found that "the limited amounts of truly modern equipment acquired by the Sandinistas . . . came from Western Europe not the Eastern bloc." ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR93YS battery) The report concluded that "all too many US claims proved open to question" and that "the scope and nature of the Kremlin's intrusion are far short of justifying the President's exaggerated alarms." [54]Furthermore, the International Court of Justice determined that "the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that( Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG battery) , since the early months of 1981, assistance has continued to reach the Salvadorian armed opposition from the territory of Nicaragua on any significant scale, or that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow ofarms at either period." [55]Under the Reagan Doctrine, his administration authorized the CIA to have paramilitary officers from their elite Special Activities Division begin financing, arming( Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H battery) , training and advising rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish).[56] This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. Edén Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces unassociated with the "Somozistas" also resisted the Sandinistas( Sony VAIO VGN-SR55TF/B battery) . The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south.[56] As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's Port of Corinto( Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF battery) ,[57] an action condemned by the International Court of Justice as illegal.[58] The US also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo.[59]US support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Economic Community, religious groups sent to monitor the election( Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W battery) , and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. The Reagan administration disputed these results, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time( Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B battery) .The Reagan administration critisized the elections as a "sham" based on the charge that Arturo Cruz, the candidate nominated by the Coordinadora Democrática Nicaragüense, comprising three rightwing political parties, did not participate in the elections. However, the administration privately argued against Cruz's participation for fear his involvement would legitimize the elections( Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S battery) . U.S. officials admitted to the New York Times that "The Administration never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race because then the Sandinistas could justifiably claim that the elections were legitimate, making it much harder for the United States to oppose the Nicaraguan Government." ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P battery) After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran–Contra affair).[61] When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras( Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H battery) ; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame.Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems."[62] According to the National Security Archive( Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D battery) , Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force.[63] He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992.( Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/Q battery) In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the Contras.[65] Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials( Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/J battery) , including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 led to the same conclusions; major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations.[66]The International Court of Justice, in regard to the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, found( Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J battery) ; "the United States of America was under an obligation to make reparation to the Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused to Nicaragua by certain breaches of obligations under customary international law and treaty-law committed by the United States of America".[67] United States however rejected and did not comply with the judgement under the 'Connally Amendment'( Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/J battery) (part of the conditional participation of USA in the International court of Justice, which excludes from ICJ's jurisdiction "disputes with regard to matters that are essentially within the jurisdiction of the United States of America, as determined by the United States of America").[68][edit]1990s and the post-Sandinista eraVioleta Barrios de Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas( Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/B battery) .The Nicaraguan general election, 1990 saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas, as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory( Sony VAIO VGN-SR46TD/B battery) , and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people.[69] The unexpected result was subject to extensive analysis and comment. Commentators such as Noam Chomsky and Brian Willson attributed the outcome to the U.S./Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power( Sony VAIO VGN-SR46MD/B battery) , the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation.[citation needed]During the run-up to Nicaragua's elections in 1990, the Bush administration continued the strategy of trying to terrorize the population into voting the government out.The C.I.A. manual, "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare" under the subheading( Sony VAIO VGN-SR46GD battery) , "Implicit and Explicit Terror" instructs the Contras that "If the government police cannot put an end to the guerrilla activities, the population will lose confidence in the government, which has the inherent mission of guaranteeing the safety of citizens." [70]"The United States wanted the contras kept intact in their Honduran bases to ensure Nicaraguan compliance with commitments to democratic and electoral change," the Washington Post reported( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/W battery) . [71] Boston Globe editor Randolph Ryan observed, Washington is sending "an implicit message..to the Nicaraguan electorate: If you want a secure peace, vote for the opposition." [72]The Canadian Observer Mission's four-week investigation of the electoral process in Nicaragua reported that the U.S. "is doing everything it can to disrupt the elections set for next year"( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery) : "American intervention is the main obstacle to the attainment of free and fair elections in Nicaragua," the report stated. It added further that the Contras are "waging a campaign of intimidation with the clear message,`if you support the (Sandinista government), we will be back to kill you'." The observer mission estimates that the contras killed 42 people in "election violence" in October( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery) . [73] In it's review of 1989, Human Rights Watch condemned the Bush administration for trying to sabotage the elections with terror tactics by sustaining the death squads with aid and encouraging attacks on the electoral process. [74]On November 8, 1989, the White House announced that the embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery) . [75] The Bush administration also financed Chamorro's campaign with a $9 million election aid package through the National Endowment for Democracy. Edgar Chamorro, a former Contra leader who later became a critic of the CIA-Contra war, said 'For Nicaraguans, the choice was simple( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery) : continued war, poverty and inflation or opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro'.."They were not electing a president, they were electing a way out." President elect Chamorro surmised that ensuing problems such as 16,000% inflation "eroded the credibility of the government" and led people to realize that "if the Sandinistas won, the pain would continue." ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery) Time Magazine noted that U.S. policy was to:"wreck the economy and prosecute a long and deadly proxy war until the exhausted natives overthrow the unwanted government themselves. Since 1985 Washington has strangled Nicaraguan trade with an embargo. It has cut off Nicaragua's credit at the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery) . The contra war cost Managua tens of millions and left the country with wrecked bridges, sabotaged power stations and ruined farms. The impoverishment of the people of Nicaragua was a harrowing way to give the National Opposition Union (U.N.O.) a winning issue. Nicaragua had been devastated by a 40% drop in G.N.P. ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery) , an inflation rate running at 1,700% a year and constant shortages of food and basic necessities. At least 30,000 people had been killed in the war, and 500,000 more had fled." [77]Thomas Walker, a specialist on Central America, writes: "The voters chose a candidate of Washington's choice with a 'gun held to their heads', as was clear to many impartial observers." ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery) P. J. O'Rourke countered the US-centered criticism in his book Give War a Chance, saying "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery) Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury ..."[79]Exit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro's victory over Ortega was achieved with 55% majority( Sony VAIO VGN-SR3CW/B battery) .[80] Violeta Chamorro was the first female President of Nicaragua, and also the first woman to be popularly elected for this position in any American nation. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39XN/S battery) . Ortega vowed that he would govern desde abajo (from below);[81] in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president.President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, in 2008Chamorro came to office with an economy in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery) , and a huge government debt had ascended to US$12 billion, primarily due to the financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government.[82] Much to the surprise of the U.S. and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista Popular Army, although the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery) . Chamorro's main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country. This provided the stability which the country had lacked for over ten years.In the next election, the Nicaraguan general election, 1996, Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery) .In the 2001 elections, the Bush administration attempted to link the Sandinistas with the "War on Terror" as a way of intimidating the population into voting for the U.S. candidate. A State Department press release declared "we have grave reservations about the FSLN's history( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery) ."John F. Keane, Director of the Office of Central American Affairs at the State Department warned: "It would be dishonest of me not to acknowledge that the possibility of the election of a Sandinista government is disconcerting to the US government. We cannot forget that Nicaragua became a refuge for violent political extremists from the Middle East( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38 battery) , from Europe and from Latin America. We are reminded of it daily by the continuing presence of some members of the FSLN leadership, including some very close to candidate Ortega, such as Tomás Borge, Lenín Cerna and Álvaro Baltodano, who perpetrated many of these abominations( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery) . Given their past record, why should we believe their statements that they have changed if they have done nothing concrete to demonstrate it…? We are confident that the Nicaraguan people will reflect on the nature and history of the candidates and choose wisely."In response, Daniel Ortega maintained, "We have already expressed our readiness to support the fight against international terrorism( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/P battery) . But any action must be based on the consensus of the international community, respect for international law, and not run counter to the system of the United Nations." [83] [84]In the 2001 elections, the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. President Bolaños subsequently brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/B battery) . The ex-president was convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption.[85] Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members, stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment( Sony VAIO VGN-SR37TN/B battery) .The Washington Post explained the victory. The U. S. supported candidate "focused much of his campaign on reminding people of the economic and military difficulties of the Ortega era." [86]The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/S battery) .[87] This "slow motion coup d'état" was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents, who vowed not to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños; the U.S., the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the "slow motion coup d'état".[88] The proposed constitutional changes, to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/P battery) , were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. One day before they were due to be enforced, the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008.Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/B battery) . President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, and signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006.[89] As a result, Nicaragua is one of five countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with Chile, Malta, El Salvador,[90] and the Vatican City.In the 2006 elections, Paul Trivelli, the US ambassador to Nicaragua issued a vigorous warning to the electorate against supporting Daniel Ortega( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35M/B battery) . The ambassador said that an Ortega administration talked of a mixed economy and renegotiating CAFTA, the trade agreement between the U.S. and Central America – would force Washington to "re-evaluate" relations. "He has made it pretty clear what kind of model he would put in place. And I think that under those conditions . . . ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/S battery) would definitely be re-examined – and not only by the executive or the State Department or the White House but by the US Congress," he said.The Financial Times emphasized: "It is no secret that the US is determined to prevent the spread of populist politics along the lines practised by Mr Chávez." [91]Roger Noriega, the Bush administration’s onvoy to Latin America, in the Managua newspaper La Prensa warned the population that Nicaragua will "sink like a stone and reach depths such as those of Cuba" if the Sandinistas returned to office - Refering to the 50 year old United States embargo against Cuba( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/P battery) .Otto Reich, former head the illegal domestic propaganda operation in the Office of Public Diplomacy declared: "If he [Ortega] wins, there will be no foreign investment and no US aid." [92]Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery) . This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory).[93]Nicaragua's 2011 general election resulted in re-election of Daniel Ortega.[edit]GovernmentMain article: Politics of NicaraguaPolitics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery) . Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.Between 2007–2009, Nicaragua's major political parties discussed the possibility of going from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. Their reason: there would be a clear differentiation between the head of government (Prime Minister)( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery) and the head of state (President). Nevertheless, it was later argued that the true reason behind this proposal was to find a legal way for current President Ortega to stay in power after January 2012 (this is when his second and last government period ends).[edit]Presidential electionCid GallupMilitaryMain article: Military of NicaraguaC-47 is used in Nicaragua and Air Force equipment.The armed forces of Nicaragua consists of various military contingencies. Nicaragua has an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are roughly 14,000 active duty personnel( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery) , which is much less compared to the numbers seen during the Nicaraguan Revolution. Although the army has had a rough military history, a portion of its forces, which were known as the National Guard became integrated with what is now the National Police of Nicaragua. In essence, the police became a gendarmerie( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery) . The National Police of Nicaragua are rarely, if ever, labeled as a gendarmerie. The other elements and manpower that were not devoted to the National Police were sent over to cultivate the new Army of Nicaragua.The age to serve in the armed forces is 17 and conscription is not imminent. As of 2006, the military budget was roughly 0.7% of Nicaragua's expenditures( Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery) .[edit]Departments and municipalitiesMain articles: Departments of Nicaragua and Municipalities of NicaraguaDepartments of NicaraguaNicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S battery) . The two autonomous regions are 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' and 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively; until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya.[97]Geography and climateMain articles: Geography of Nicaragua and Climate of NicaraguaSee also: Volcanoes of Nicaragua and Wildlife of Nicaragua( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S battery) Mombacho Volcano Natural ReserveNicaragua occupies a landmass of 130,967 km2 (50,567 sq mi), comparable to that of Greece or the state of Alabama. It lies between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 82° and 88°W.Nearly one fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves, and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east( Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/Q battery) , Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Geophysically, Nicaragua is surrounded by the Caribbean Plate, an oceanic tectonic plate underlying Central America and the Cocos Plate. Since Central America is a major subduction zone, Nicaragua hosts most of the Central American Volcanic Arc( Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/J battery) .Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific lowlands, fertile valleys which the Spanish colonists settled, the Amerrisque Mountains (North-central highlands), and the Mosquito Coast (Atlantic lowlands). The low plains of the Atlantic Coast are 60 miles wide in areas. They have long been exploited for their natural resources( Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/B battery) .[edit]Pacific lowlandsNicaragua is known as the land of lakes and volcanoes; pictured is Concepción volcano, as seen from Maderas volcano.In the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Cordillera Los Maribios mountain range( Sony VAIO VGN-SR27TN/B battery) , including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León. The lowland area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua's Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. Lake Nicaragua is the largest freshwater lake in Central America (20th largest in the world),[98] and is home to some of the world's only freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26MN/B battery) ).[99] The Pacific lowlands region is the most populous, with over half of the nation's population. The capital city of Managua is the most populous and is the only city with over 1.5 million inhabitants.Scarlet Tanager passing through Nicaragua around April, and again around October.The eruptions of western Nicaragua's 40 volcanoes, many of which are still active, have sometimes devastated settlements but also have enriched the land with layers of fertile ash( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26GN/B battery) . The geologic activity that produces vulcanism also breeds powerful earthquakes. Tremors occur regularly throughout the Pacific zone, and earthquakes have nearly destroyed the capital city, Managua, more than once.[100]Most of the Pacific zone is tierra caliente, the "hot land" of tropical Spanish America at elevations under 2,000 feet (610 m). Temperatures remain virtually constant throughout the year, with highs ranging between 85 and 90 °F (29.4 and 32.2 °C) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/S battery) . After a dry season lasting from November to April, rains begin in May and continue to October, giving the Pacific lowlands 40 to 60 inches (1,016 to 1,524 mm) of precipitation. Good soils and a favorable climate combine to make western Nicaragua the country's economic and demographic center. The southwestern shore of Lake Nicaragua lies within 15 miles (24 km) of the Pacific Ocean( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery) . Thus the lake and the San Juan River were often proposed in the 19th century as the longest part of a canal route across the Central American isthmus. Canal proposals were periodically revived in the 20th and 21st centuries.[100][101] Roughly a century after the opening of the Panama Canal, the prospect of a Nicaraguan ecocanal remains a topic of interest. ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery) In addition to its beach and resort communities, the Pacific lowlands contains most of Nicaragua's Spanish colonial architecture and artifacts. Cities such as León and Granada abound in colonial architecture; founded in 1524, Granada is the oldest colonial city in the Americas( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery) .[106][edit]North-central highlandsThe central highlands are a significantly less populated and economically developed area in the north, between Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Forming the country's tierra templada, or "temperate land", at elevations between 2,000 and 5,000 feet (610 and 1,524 m), the highlands enjoy mild temperatures with daily highs of( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery) 75 to 80 °F (23.9 to 26.7 °C). This region has a longer, wetter rainy season than the Pacific lowlands, making erosion a problem on its steep slopes. Rugged terrain, poor soils, and low population density characterize the area as a whole, but the northwestern valleys are fertile and well settled. ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery) The area has a cooler climate than the Pacific lowlands. About a quarter of the country's agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. Oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the cloud forests of the region.Bird life in the forests of the central region includes Resplendent Quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays and toucanets( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery) .Toucans such as this Keel-billed Toucan are common in Nicaragua's rainforests[edit]Caribbean lowlandsThis large rainforest region is irrigated by several large rivers and is sparsely populated. The area has 57% of the territory of the nation and most of its mineral resources. It has been heavily exploited, but much natural diversity remains. The Rio Coco is the largest river in Central America; it forms the border with Honduras( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/S battery) . The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart; lagoons and deltas make it very irregular.Nicaragua's Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is in the Atlantic lowlands; it protects 1,800,000 acres (728,434 ha) of La Mosquitia forest – almost seven percent of the country's area – making it the largest rainforest north of the Amazon in Brazil( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/P battery) .[107]Nicaragua's tropical east coast is very different from the rest of the country. The climate is predominantly tropical, with high temperature and high humidity. Around the area's principal city of Bluefields, English is widely spoken along with the official Spanish. The population more closely resembles that found in many typical Caribbean ports than the rest of Nicaragua( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/B battery) .A great variety of birds can be observed including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. Animal life in the area includes different species of monkeys, anteaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs.[edit]EconomyMain article: Economy of Nicaragua[edit]ExportsThe seaport in Corinto, Nicaragua is the country's only deep-water port capable of handling container ships and tankers( Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B battery) Trains were once the main mode of transport for goods. tracks were sold for scrap. The remaining train engines in Nicaragua now serve as tourist attractions, as seen here in Granada, Nicaragua.Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately US $2.0 billion( Sony VAIO VGN-SR240J/B battery) .[108] In addition, Nicaragua's Flor de Caña rum is renowned as among the best in Latin America, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded. Nicaragua's agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as coffee, beef and tobacco. Light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding( Sony VAIO VGN-SR23H/B battery) . Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006.Nicaragua has always been a predominantly agricultural country. On the Pacific side, coffee and cotton are by far the most important commercial crops. In 1992, more land was devoted to coffee than to any other crop, and it is the nation's leading export in terms of value( Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/H battery) . Nearly two-thirds of the coffee crop comes from the northern part of the central highlands, in the area north and east of the town of Estelí.[100]In the early 1980s, cotton became Nicaragua's second-largest export earner. Production is centered on large farms along the central Pacific coast. Unfortunately, the growth of the cotton industry has created serious problems. Soil erosion and pollution from the heavy use of pesticides have become serious concerns in the cotton district( Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/B battery) . Yields and exports have both been declining since 1985.[100]Plantation crops are significant in the Caribbean lowlands. After disease wiped out most of the region's banana plants in the years before 1945, attempts were made to diversify crops. Today most of Nicaragua's bananas are grown in the northwestern part of the country near the port of Corinto( Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery) ; sugarcane is also grown in the same district.[100] Subsistence farms, where food is grown mainly for the consumption of the farm family instead of for sale, are found throughout Nicaragua. Favorite food crops grown on such farms include rice, beans, maize, citrus fruits, and cassava. Cassava, a root crop somewhat similar to the potato( Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN battery) , is an important food in tropical regions. The plant's roots can be eaten boiled and sliced, or ground into flour. Cassava is also the main ingredient in tapioca pudding.[100]The Pacific lowlands and the middle and southern parts of the Central highlands are the principal cattle-grazing areas. An especially large number of cattle are found to the east of Lake Nicaragua( Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN battery) .Nicaragua's economy has also grown due to the emigration of retirees from parts of North America and Europe. The influx of incoming residents has generated the construction of residencies and commercial services throughout the country. Illustrated above are the residencies of Viejo Santo Domingo, which are some of the country's high-end residencies( Sony VAIO VGN-SR190F battery) .Beginning in the 1960s, shrimp became big business on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The main shrimping centers on the Pacific coast are Corinto and San Juan del Sur. Fishing boats on the Caribbean side bring shrimp as well as lobsters into processing plants at Puerto Cabezas, Bluefields, and Laguna de Perlas. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L battery) The lumber industry, concentrated mainly in the eastern third of the country, has been lethargic since 1980, with its activities limited by several problems. First, the best trees in the most accessible places have already been cut down. In addition, pure groves of trees are uncommon in tropical forests. Hundreds of species per acre are generally the rule, complicating the task of harvesting( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G battery) . Moreover, the most valuable dense hardwoods will not float. As a result, these trees must be trucked out of the forest rather than floated downriver to a sawmill. Finally, more restrictions are being placed on lumbering due to increased environmental concerns about destruction of the rain forests. But lumbering continues despite these obstacles( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17 battery) ; indeed, a single hardwood tree may be worth thousands of dollars.[100]Political turmoil has had a severe impact on the mining industry. Exports of gold are down, and little effort has been made to develop the large copper deposits of the northeast. Fighting during the revolution destroyed nearly one-third of Nicaragua's industry. As it rebuilds, the government is trying to change the industrial mix of the country and achieve decentralization( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E/B battery) . Before the revolution, more than 60 percent of the nation's industrial production, by value, was concentrated in Managua. The industrial-decentralization policy may help to slow the growth of the largest cities, while assisting in the redistribution of income and development of economies in impoverished areas( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E battery) . Major industries include food processing, cement production, metal fabrication, and oil refining. The Centroamérica power plant on the Tuma River in the Central highlands has been expanded, and other hydroelectric projects have been undertaken to help provide electricity to the nation's newer industries( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S battery) .[100]The economic core of Nicaragua is in the Pacific zone, and the railway and highway network reflects that concentration of activity. The government-owned rail system—an inefficient money loser—is gradually being replaced by truck transport. Transportation throughout the rest of the nation is often inadequate. For example( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M battery) , one cannot travel all the way by highway from Managua to the Caribbean coast. The road ends at the town of Rama. Travelers have to transfer and make the rest of the trip by riverboat down the Río Escondido—a five-hour journey.[100]Corinto is the only modern deepwater port in Nicaragua. It handles both agricultural exports and general-cargo imports( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L battery) . Petroleum is unloaded at Puerto Sandino, from which it travels by pipeline to a refinery in Managua. Trade with other nations in Central America has increased in recent years. Nicaragua has long been considered as a possible site for a new sea-level canal that could supplement the Panama Canal. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15 battery) [edit]Components of the economyGross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion USD.[109] The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents 17% of GDP, the highest percentage in Central America [110] (2008 est.) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ145E battery) . Remittances account for over 15% of the Nicaraguan GDP. Close to one billion dollars are sent to the country by Nicaraguans living abroad.[111] Nicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industrial sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N battery) .[edit]AgricultureA Nicaraguan farmerAfter 1950 the scope of capital-intensive modern agriculture increased greatly. This growth was concentrated in export crops, while crops destined for domestic use continued to be produced by traditional labor-intensive methods. The shift to industrialized agriculture also significantly reduced the proportion of the population directly dependent on agriculture( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N/B battery) .Commercial agriculture thrives in the Pacific lowlands, where cotton and sugarcane are the staple crops. Although coffee is grown in the Pacific zone at elevations over 1,000 feet (300 meters), the most important coffee zone is the northwestern part of the Central highlands, from Matagalpa to Jinotega. Cattle for the export of beef are raised in the southeastern part of the highlands( SONY VGP-BPS10/S battery) . The overall expansion of export production by large landholders pushed the smallholders who produced the country's maize, beans, and other dietary staples onto marginal lands, with the result that food production could not keep up with population increase.In the 1990s the government initiated efforts to diversify agriculture. Some of the new export-oriented crops were peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions( SONY VGP-BPS10/B battery) .[100]Nicaragua's agricultural sector has benefited because of the country's strong ties to Venezuela. It is estimated that Venezuela will import approximately $200 million in agricultural goods.[112][edit]Fishing and forestryShrimp is one of the main marine export products of the Nicaraguan economy.Forestry and fishing are the bases of the eastern seaboard's commercial economy. In national terms, neither sector was important until the take-off of the fishing industry in the late 20th century( SONY VGP-BPS10A/B battery) . Mahogany was harvested commercially on the Atlantic coast beginning early in the 19th century. In the 20th century pine stands began to be exploited. In neither case, though, was the resource managed so as to ensure a sustained yield.Nicaragua's fishing industry operates off both coasts and in freshwater Lake Nicaragua. The lake also has an aquaculture industry( SONY VGP-BPS10A battery) . The most valuable catches are shrimp and spiny lobster. The government expanded the size of the fishing fleet in the 1980s, which permitted a rapid expansion of shrimp and lobster exports in the 1990s. A turtle fishery thrived on the Caribbean coast before it collapsed from overexploitation( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery) .[100][edit]Mining and the production of energyMining is not a major industry in Nicaragua,[113] contributing less than 1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Still, gold and silver mines in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country are important elements of regional economies and constitute sources of revenue. Important domestic sources of electrical energy are hydropower and geothermal power( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery) , the latter from the volcano Momotombo, near Managua. But most commercial electricity is generated by imported petroleum.[edit]ManufacturingAlthough the manufacturing sector of the economy contributes somewhat more to GDP than agriculture, it employs far fewer people. It was traditionally concerned largely with the processing of agricultural products, and it supplied the domestic market with foods, beverages, edible oils, cigarettes, and textile goods( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery) . Also manufactured were light metal goods, construction materials, wood and paper products, and chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides.The manufacturing sector was expanded beyond these areas in the 1990s with the introduction of maquila industries, in which imported parts are assembled for reexport. The principal products were garments, footwear( Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery) , aluminum frames, and jewelry. Growth in the maquila sector slowed in the first decade of the 21st century with rising competition from Asian markets, particularly China.[100][edit]Economic development in the 21st centuryNicaragua has widespread underemployment and the second lowest per capita income in the Americas. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods( Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/TC battery) . Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua's exports, but recent increases in the minimum wage have a strong possibility of eroding Nicaragua's comparative advantage in this industry. Nicaragua's minimum wage is among the lowest in the Americas and in the World. ( Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B battery) Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal and external debt financing obligations. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative. In October 2007, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program. Despite the support( Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF battery) , severe budget shortfalls resulting from the suspension of large amounts of direct budget support from foreign donors concerned with recent political developments has caused a slowdown in PRGF disbursements.Similarly, private sector concerns surrounding Daniel Ortega's handling of economic issues have dampened investment. Economic growth has slowed in 2009( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF battery) , due to decreased export demand from the US and Central American markets from the overall recession, lower commodity prices for key agricultural exports, and low remittance growth. Remittances are equivalent to roughly 15% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. ( Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W battery) [edit]PovertyNicaragua, the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Hemisphere, has widespread underemployment and poverty. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W battery) . Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua's exports, but increases in the minimum wage during the Ortega administration will likely erode its comparative advantage in this industry. Ortega's promotion of mixed business initiatives, owned by the Nicaraguan and Venezuelan state oil firms, together with the weak rule of law( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF battery) , could undermine the investment climate for domestic and international private firms in the near-term. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal- and external-debt financing obligations. Foreign donors have curtailed this funding, however, in response to November 2008 electoral fraud( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF battery) . In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Managua still struggles with a high public debt burden, however, it succeeded in reducing that burden substantially in 2011. The economy grew at a rate of about 4% in 2011( Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S battery) .[118]Nicaragua is among the poorest countries in the Americas.[119][120][121] Nicaragua's nominal GDP stands at 6.554 for 2009 and increasing to 8.532 by 2014.[citation needed] Nicaragua's GDP (PPP) 16.709 billion and the GDP per capita is $1,028 for Nicaragua. ( Sony VAIO VGN-NW battery) According to the PNUD, 48% of the population in Nicaragua live below the poverty line,[122] 79.9% of the population live with less than $2 per day,[123] unemployment is 3.9%, and another 46.5% are underemployed (2008 est.). As in many other developing countries, a large segment of the economically poor in Nicaragua are women( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery) . In addition, a relatively high proportion of Nicaragua's homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of rural homes. According to UN figures, 80% of the indigenous people (who make up 5% of the population) live on less than $1 per day.[124] According to the FAO, 27% of all Nicaraguans are suffering from undernourishment; the highest percentage in Central America( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery) .[edit]InfrastructureDuring the war between the US-backed Contras and the government of the Sandinistas in the 1980s, much of the country's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed.[125] Inflation averaged 30% throughout the 1980s. After the United States imposed a trade embargo in 1985, which lasted 5 years, Nicaragua's inflation rate rose dramatically( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery) . The 1985 annual rate of 220% tripled the following year and rose to more than 13,000% in 1988, the highest rate for any country in the Western Hemisphere in that year.The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms to improve profits for foreign businesses, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005 finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua's foreign debt( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery) , as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank, Nicaragua's GDP was around $4.9 billion US dollars. In March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s.[126] Since the end of the war almost two decades ago( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery) , more than 350 state enterprises have been privatized. Inflation reduced from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and the foreign debt was cut in half.[127]According to the World Bank, Nicaragua ranked as the 62nd best economy for starting a business: making it the second best in Central America, after Panama.[128] Nicaragua's economy is "62.7% free" with high levels of fiscal, government, labor, investment, financial, and trade freedom( Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery) .[129] It ranks as the 61st freest economy, and 14th (of 29) in the Americas.[edit]CurrencyMain article: Nicaraguan córdobaNicaragua uses polymer banknotes in its circulated currency. Illustrated here is a 50 córdoba banknote.During the era of the Spanish colonial rule, and for more than 50 years afterward, Nicaragua used Spanish coins that were struck for use in the "New World". The first unique coins for Nicaragua were issued in 1878 in the peso denomination( Sony Vaio VGN-CR220E/R Battery) . The córdoba became Nicaragua's currency in 1912 and was initially equal in value to the U.S. dollar. The Córdoba was named after Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, the national founder. The front of each of Nicaragua's circulating coins features the national coat of arms. The five volcanoes represent the five Central American countries at the time of Nicaragua's independence; the rainbow at the top symbolizes peace( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/R Battery) ; and the cap in the center is a symbol of freedom. The design is contained within a triangle to indicate equality. The back of each coin features the denomination, with the inscription En Dios Confiamos (In God We Trust).Nicaragua is the first country in the Americas to successfully overhaul production of its paper currency in favor of polymer banknotes( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery) . Polymer banknotes were issued in 2009 to reduce the need to reprint banknotes, combat counterfeiting and introduce a more hygienic currency. The previously issued banknotes are still accepted as legal tender. However, unlike previous banknote series, the current series does not have any illustration of politicians. Rather, the current currency series celebrates the country's landmarks, history and culture( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery) .[edit]Conversion to the SUCREMain articles: Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and SUCRE (currency)Nicaragua is currently a member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, which is also known as ALBA. ALBA has proposed creating a new currency, the Sucre for use among its members. In essence, this means that the Nicaraguan córdoba will be replaced with the Sucre. Members must make their local currency deposits in Caracas( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery) , to enter into force on sucre. The monetary union first will be virtual, to be used only among the states for inter-regional trade. It will then be used in print form. The ALBA-Sucre union is similar to that of the Euro of the European Union.Other nations that will follow a similar pattern include: Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras, Cuba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica and Antigua and Barbuda. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery) View of León[edit]TourismMain article: Tourism in NicaraguaBy 2006, tourism in Nicaragua had become the second largest industry in the nation,[131] over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%–16% annually.[132] Nicaragua had seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade, and it became the first largest industry in 2007( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery) . The increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years.[133] The growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry.gazebo of Selva Negra Mountain Resort in Matagalpa.Every year about 60,000 U.S. citizens visit Nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery) .[134] Some 5,300 people from the U.S. reside in the country now. The majority of tourists who visit Nicaragua are from the U.S., Central or South America, and Europe. According to the Ministry of Tourism of Nicaragua (INTUR),[135] the colonial city of Granada is the preferred spot for tourists. Also, the cities of León, Masaya( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery) , Rivas and the likes of San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe, Mombacho Volcano, the Corn Islands, and others are main tourist attractions. In addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to Nicaragua.According to TV Noticias (news program) on Canal 2, a Nicaragua television station, the main attractions in Nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as León and Granada( Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery) , and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in Northern Nicaragua.[132] As a result of increased tourism, Nicaragua has seen its foreign direct investment increase by 79.1% from 2007 to 2009.[136][edit]DemographicsMain articles: Nicaraguans and Demographics of Nicaragua[edit]PopulationAccording to the CIA World Factbook, Nicaragua has a population of 5,891,199; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 5% Amerindian, 9.0% black and other races and this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 84% urban( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/W Battery) .Nicaraguan women at a concert in Managua.According to the CIA World Factbook, Nicaragua's life expectancy was 71.90 years in 2011,[137] a figure roughly equivalent to that of Vietnam and Palau. The infant mortality rate stood at 25.5, roughly equivalent to that of the Marshall Islands and Paraguay( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/R Battery) .[138]Nicaragua appears ranked 91st in the international mortality rate, which places it between the world average and Panama.[139]The most populous city in Nicaragua is the capital, Managua, with a population of 1.8 million (2005) and an estimated 2.2 by 2010 and more than 2.5 mill for the metro area. As of 2005, over 7.0 million inhabitants live in the Pacific, Central and North regions( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/P Battery) , 5.5 in the Pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the Caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000.[140]There is a growing expatriate community[141] the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from all across the world, such as from the US, Canada, Taiwan, and various European countries; the majority have settled in Managua, Granada and San Juan del Sur( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/L Battery) .Many Nicaraguans live abroad, particularly in the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Canada.[142]Nicaragua has a population growth rate of 1.8% as of 2008.[citation needed] This is the result of one of the highest birth rates in the Western Hemisphere: 24.9 per 1,000 according to the United Nations for the period 2005–2010.[citation needed] The death rate is 4.1 per 1,000 during the same period according to the United Nations. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR190 Battery) [edit]Ethnic groupsAn African-Nicaraguan.The majority of the Nicaraguan population, (86% or approximately 5.06 million people), is either Mestizo or White. 69% are Mestizos (mixed Amerindian and European) and 17% of European origin, the majority of Spanish, German, Italian, English or French ancestry. Mestizos and Whites mainly reside in the western region of the country( Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery) .About 9% of Nicaragua's population are black, and mainly reside on the country's sparsely populated Caribbean or Atlantic coast. The black population is mostly composed of black English-speaking Creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of Scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as Campbell, Gordon, Downs and Hodgeson( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery) . Although many Creoles supported Somoza because of his close association with the US, they rallied to the Sandinista cause in July 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of 'westernization' and imposition of central rule from Managua.[143] Nicaragua has the largest African diaspora population in Central America( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery) . There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed West African, Carib and Arawak descent. In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya – consisting of the eastern half of the country – into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery) .The remaining 5% of Nicaraguans are Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, after whom the country is named, were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the Mayans( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery) . The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery) .[edit]ImmigrationPalestinian Nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nicaraguan revolution in Managua waving Palestinian and Sandinista flagsRelative to its overall population, Nicaragua has never experienced any large-scale immigrant waves. The total number of immigrants to Nicaragua, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. The 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere .06% in 10 years( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery) .[140]In the 19th century Nicaragua experienced modest waves of immigration from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, particularly the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation Germans( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery) . They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, newspapers, hotels and banks.Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, Jewish Nicaraguans, and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. There is also an East Asian community mostly consisting of Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery) . The Chinese Nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000.[144] The Chinese arrived in the late 19th century but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s.[edit]DiasporaMain article: Nicaraguan DiasporaThe Civil War forced many Nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. Although many Nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century due to the lack of employment opportunities and poverty( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery) . The majority of the Nicaraguan Diaspora migrated to Costa Rica and the United States, and today one in six Nicaraguans live in these two countries.[145]The diaspora has also seen Nicaraguans settling around in smaller communities in other parts of the world, particularly Western Europe. Small communities of Nicarguans are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Communities also exist in Australia and New Zealand( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery) . Canada, Brazil and Argentina in the Americas also host small groups of these communities. In Asia, Japan also hosts a small Nicaraguan community.Due to extreme poverty in Nicaragua, many Nicaraguans are now living and working in neighboring El Salvador a country that has the US dollar as currency.[146] [147][edit]Maternal and child health careIn June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery) . It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Nicaragua is 100. This is compared with 102.6 in 2008 and 100.8 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 27 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 46( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery) . The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Nicaragua the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 7 and 1 in 300 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery) .[148][edit]CultureMain article: Culture of NicaraguaNicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance. The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence on Nicaraguan clothing.[149]Nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors. Nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery) . The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by Europeans. It was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. The indigenous groups that historically inhabited the Pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery) .The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, the Cayman Islands, etc. Unlike on the west coast( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery) , the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean coast have maintained distinct identities, and some still speak their native languages as first languages.[edit]MusicMain article: Music of NicaraguaNicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish, influences. Musical instruments include the marimba and others common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. He is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery) , guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music. The marimba is made with hardwood plates placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo which is popular throughout the country( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery) . It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May. The Garifuna community (Afro-Indian) is known for its popular music called Punta.Nicaragua enjoys a variety of international influence in the music arena. Bachata, Merengue, Salsa and Cumbia have gained prominence in cultural centers such as Managua, Leon and Granada( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery) . Cumbia dancing has grown popular with the introduction of Nicaraguan artists, including Gustavo Leyton, on Ometepe Island and in Managua. Salsa dancing has become extremely popular in Managua's nightclubs. With various influences, the form of salsa dancing varies in Nicaragua. New York style and Cuban Salsa (Salsa Casino) elements have gained popularity across the country( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery) .Bachata dancing has also gained popularity in Nicaragua. Combinations of styles from the Dominican Republic and the United States can be found throughout the country. The nature of the dance in Nicaragua varies depending on the region. Rural areas tend to have a stronger focus on movement of the hips and turns. Urbanized cities( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery) , on the other hand, focus primarily on more sophisticated footwork in addition to movement and turns. A considerable amount of Bachata dancing influence comes from Nicaraguans living abroad, in cities that include Miami, Los Angeles and, to a much lesser extent, New York City. Tango has also surfaced recently in cultural cities and ballroom dance occasions( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery) .[edit]LiteratureMain article: Literature of NicaraguaRubén Darío, the founder of the modernismo literary movement in Latin America.The literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times; the myths and oral literature formed the cosmogonic view of the world of the indigenous people. Some of these stories are still known in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature( Sony VGN-CR42ZR Battery) . Nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the Spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as Rubén Darío, who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua. He is called the "Father of Modernism" for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century( Sony VGN-CR41SR Battery) .[150] Other literary figures include Carlos Martinez Rivas, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Alberto Cuadra Mejia, Manolo Cuadra, Pablo Alberto Cuadra Arguello, Orlando Cuadra Downing, Alfredo Alegría Rosales, Sergio Ramirez Mercado, Ernesto Cardenal, Gioconda Belli, Claribel Alegría and José Coronel Urtecho, among others( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery) .The satirical drama El Güegüense was the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America's most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as Nicaragua's signature folkloric masterpiece, combining music, dance and theater.[150] The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery) , making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the Western Hemisphere.[151] After centuries of popular performance, the play was first published in a book in 1942.[152][edit]LanguageMain articles: Languages of Nicaragua, Central American Spanish, Nicaraguan Spanish, and VoseoA sign in Bluefields in English (top), Spanish (middle) and Miskito (bottom)Nicaraguan Spanish has many indigenous influences and several distinguishing characteristics. Until the 19th century( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery) , a hybrid form of Nahuat-Spanish was the common language of Nicaragua. Today Nahuat, Mangue, and Mayan words and syntax can be found in everyday speech.[153] The Nicaraguan accent dates back to the 16th century in Andalusia, and the relative isolation of Nicaragua meant that the accent did not change in the same ways that the Andalusian accent has( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery) . For example, some Nicaraguans have a tendency to replace the "s" sound with an "h"" sound when speaking.[153] Other Nicaraguans pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. In the central part of the country, regions such as Boaco pronounce vos without the s sound at the end. The result is vo, similar to vous in French and voi in Italian( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery) .In this map, the use of the voseo form is illustrated, with countries such as Nicaragua, where it is predominant, represented in dark blue. Voseo is also predominant in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, where Rioplatense Spanish is spoken.Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of Nicaragua's population. In Nicaragua, the voseo form of address is dominant in both speech and publications( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery) . The same is true for the Río de la Plata region of South America. Nicaraguan Spanish can be understood everywhere in the Hispanosphere.Nicaraguans, unlike most Spanish-speaking groups, cannot be categorized uniformly in terms of accent and word usage. Although Spanish is spoken throughout the country, the country has great variety( Sony VGN-CR31SR Battery) : vocabulary, accents and colloquial language can vary between towns and departments.[154]In the Caribbean coast, many Afro-Nicaraguans and creoles speak English and creole English as their first language, but as a second language, they speak a fluent Spanish. The language in the North and South Atlantic Regions are influenced by English, Dutch( Sony VGN-CR21SR Battery) , Portuguese, Spanish and French roots. In addition, many of the indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the Miskito, Sumo, Rama and Garifuna language.[155] In addition, many ethnic groups in Nicaragua have maintained ancestral languages, while also speaking Spanish or English; these include Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery) .Spanish is taught as the principal language. English is taught to students during their high school years and tends to be the national second language. Other languages can also be found sporadically, particularly within expatriate communities.Nicaragua was home to three extinct languages, one of which was never classified( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery) . Nicaraguan Sign Language is also of particular interest to linguists as the world's youngest language.[156][edit]ReligionMain article: Religion in NicaraguaWhile Religion in Nicaragua is growing in diversity, the majority of Nicaraguans identify themselves as observers of the Roman Catholic faith. Pictured above is the Leon Cathedral, which is among one of the nation's World Heritage Sites and an active place of religious worship in León, Nicaragua( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery) .Religion is a significant part of the culture of Nicaragua and is referred to in the constitution. Religious freedom, which has been guaranteed since 1939, and religious tolerance are promoted by both the Nicaraguan government and the constitution( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery) .Nicaragua has no official religion. Catholic Bishops are expected to lend their authority to important state occasions, and their pronouncements on national issues are closely followed. They can also be called upon to mediate between contending parties at moments of political crisis( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery) .[157]The largest denomination, and traditionally the religion of the majority, is Roman Catholic. The numbers of practicing Roman Catholics have been declining, while members of evangelical Protestant groups and Mormons have been rapidly growing in numbers since the 1990s. There are also strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery) .Roman Catholicism came to Nicaragua in the 16th century with the Spanish conquest and remained, until 1939, the established faith. Protestantism and other Christian denominations came to Nicaragua during the 19th century, but only gained large followings in the Caribbean Coast during the 20th century( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery) .Popular religion revolves around the saints, who are perceived as intercessors (but not mediators) between human beings and God. Most localities, from the capital of Managua to small rural communities, honor patron saints, selected from the Roman Catholic calendar, with annual fiestas. In many communities, a rich lore has grown up around the celebrations of patron saints, such as Managua's Saint Dominic ( Sony VGN-CR11SR Battery) (Santo Domingo), honored in August with two colorful, often riotous, day-long processions through the city. The high point of Nicaragua's religious calendar for the masses is neither Christmas nor Easter, but La Purísima, a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, during which elaborate altars to the Virgin Mary are constructed in homes and workplaces( Sony VGN-NR110E/W Battery) .[157]The country's close political ties have also encouraged religious ties. Buddhism has increased with a steady influx of immigration.[158][edit]CuisineMain article: Cuisine of NicaraguaThe Cuisine of Nicaragua is a mixture of criollo food and dishes of pre-Columbian origin. The Spaniards found that the Creole people had incorporated local foods available in the area into their cuisine( Sony VGN-NR110E/S Battery) .[159] Traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast; while the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around local fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast cuisine makes use of seafood and the coconut.As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as the nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as sweets and desserts( Sony VGN-NR110E/T Battery) . In addition to corn, rice and beans are eaten very often.Gallo pinto, Nicaragua's national dish, is made with white rice and red beans that are cooked separately and then fried together. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil and/or grated coconut on the Caribbean coast( Sony VGN-NR110E Battery) . Most Nicaraguans begin their day with Gallopinto. Gallopinto is most usually served with carne asada, a salad, fried cheese, platains or maduros.Many of Nicaragua's dishes include indigenous fruits and vegetables such as jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery) .[159]Nicaraguans also have been known to eat guinea pigs, tapirs, iguanas, turtle eggs, armadillos and boas but efforts are currently underway to curb this tendency.[citation needed][edit]SportsBatter of the Fieras del San Fernando, a Nicaraguan professional baseball teamBaseball is the most popular sport played in Nicaragua. Although some professional Nicaraguan baseball teams have folded in the recent past( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery) , Nicaragua enjoys a strong tradition of American-style Baseball. Baseball was introduced to Nicaragua at different years during the 19th century. In the Caribbean coast locals from Bluefields were taught how to play baseball in 1888 by Albert Addlesberg, a retailer from the United States. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery) [160] Baseball did not catch on in the Pacific coast until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed "La Sociedad de Recreo" (Society of Recreation) where they played various sports, baseball being the most popular among them.[160] There are five teams that compete amongst themselves( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery) : Indios del Boer (Managua), Chinandega, Tiburones (Sharks) of Granada, León and Masaya. Players from these teams comprise the national team when Nicaragua competes internationally. The country has had its share of MLB players (including current Boston Red Sox pitcher Vicente Padilla and Boston Red Sox pitcher Devern Hansack) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery) , but the most notable is Dennis Martínez, who was the first baseball player from Nicaragua to play in Major League Baseball.[161] He became the first Latin-born pitcher to throw a perfect game, and the 13th in major league history, when he played with the Montreal Expos against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium in 1991( Sony VAIO VGN-FW465J battery) .[162]Boxing is the second most popular sport in Nicaragua.[163] The country has had world champions such as Alexis Argüello and Ricardo Mayorga among others. Recently, football has gained popularity, especially with the younger population. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has served as a venue for both baseball and football but the first ever national football stadium in Managua is currently under construction( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery) .[164][edit]EducationMain article: Education in NicaraguaSee also: Universities in Nicaragua and List of Schools in NicaraguaLiteracy Campaign Propaganda PosterNicaragua's first public primary school opened in 1837. By the late 1860s public grade schools existed in most of the larger cities. In 1877, Nicaraguan authorities accepted the principle that such schools should be nationally funded, and that attendance should be free and compulsory( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery) . In 1881 education was formally removed from religious control and turned over to government, but church-run schools continued to operate alongside the public system. Subsequently shortages of facilities and teachers, especially in rural areas, hampered educational development( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery) . The Sandinista government sharply increased spending on education and reduced illiteracy significantly, but shortages of facilities and personnel remained a problem. The Sandinistas also added a leftist ideological content to the curriculum, which was removed after 1990.[100]Higher education dates from 1818 when the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) was founded in León( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery) . A major reform, begun in 1980, reorganized the country's postsecondary system into two universities: the UNAN, with campuses in León and Managua, and the Central American University in Managua. It also restructured the curriculum, giving more emphasis to science and technology, and less to law and commerce( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery) . Nicaragua also has several more specialized institutions, with a focus on education that will promote economic development.[100]Education is paid via taxes for all Nicaraguans.[165] Elementary education is free and compulsory, but many children in rural areas are unable to attend due to lack of schools and other reasons. Communities on the Caribbean coast have access to education in their native languages( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery) .The majority of higher education institutions are in Managua, higher education has financial, organic and administrative autonomy, according to the law. Also, freedom of subjects is recognized.[166] Nicaragua's higher education system consists of 48 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery) , computer systems and sciences, agroforestry, construction and trade-related services.[167] The educational system includes 1 U.S. accredited English-language university, 3 Bilingual university programs, 5 Bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery) .[168] 18% of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%.As of 1979, the educational system was one of the poorest in Latin America.[169] Under the Somoza dictatorships, limited spending on education and generalized poverty, which forced many adolescents into the labor market, constricted educational opportunities for Nicaraguans( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery) . One of the first acts of the newly elected Sandinista government in 1980 was an extensive and successful literacy campaign, using secondary school students, university students and teachers as volunteer teachers: it reduced the overall illiteracy rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months.[170] This was one of a number of large scale programs which received international recognition for their gains in literacy( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) , health care, education, childcare, unions, and land reform.[171][172] In September 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the Nadezhda Krupskaya award for the literacy campaign. This was followed by the literacy campaigns of 1982, 1986, 1987, 1995 and 2000, all of which were also awarded by UNESCO( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery) .[173][edit]Communications and mediaFor most Nicaraguans radio and TV are the main sources of news. There are more than 100 radio stations, many of them in the capital, and several TV networks. Cable TV is available in most urban areas.[174]The print media are varied and partisan, representing pro and anti-government positions( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery) .[edit]PrintLa Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio[edit]TelevisionTelevicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery) RadioRadio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata:; Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery)
Bosnia and Herzegovina (i/ˈbɒzniə ən hɛrtsəɡoʊˈviːnə/; Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина), sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Sarajevo( Sony VPC-W21EAG/WI Battery) . Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the 20 kilometres (12 miles) of coastline on the Adriatic Sea surrounding the town of Neum.[8][9] In the central and southern interior of the country the geography is mountainous( Sony VPC-W21AVJ Battery) , in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a geographically larger region and has a moderate continental climate, bookended by hot summers and cold and snowy winters. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography( Sony VGN-FW29/B Battery) .The country that is now Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age. Culturally, politically and socially, the country has one of the richest histories in the region, having been first settled by the Slavic peoples that populate the area today from the 6th through to the 9th centuries AD( Sony VGN-FW27T/H Battery) . They then established the first independent Banate in the 12th century upon the arrival and convergence of people that would eventually come to call themselves Dobri Bošnjani (literally "Good Bosnians"). This evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia in the 14th century, after which it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire( Sony VGN-FW27/W Battery) , under whose rule it would remain from the mid 15th to the late 19th century. The Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until the end of World War I. Following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia( Sony VGN-FW27/B Battery) , the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by a bloody war, lasting until late 1995.Today, the country maintains high literacy, life expectancy and education levels and is one of the most frequently-visited countries in the region.[10] Bosnia and Herzegovina is regionally and internationally renowned for its natural beauty and cultural heritage inherited from six historical civilizations, its cuisine( Sony VGN-FW26T/B Battery) , winter sports, its eclectic and unique architecture and the Sarajevo Film Festival and Sarajevo Jazz Festival, both the largest and most prominent of their kind in Southeastern Europe.[11][12]The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, a term unique for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third. Regardless of ethnicity( Sony VGN-FW25T/B Battery) , a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a regional rather than ethnic distinction, and the region of Herzegovina has no precisely defined borders of its own. Moreover, the country was simply called "Bosnia" (without Herzegovina) until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the nineteenth century. ( Sony VGN-FW21Z Battery) Bosnia and Herzegovina is a parliamentary republic, which has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized and comprises two autonomous entities( Sony VGN-FW21M Battery) : the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with a third region, the Brčko District, governed under local government. The country is a potential candidate for membership to the European Union and has been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010, when it received a Membership Action Plan at the summit in Tallinn( Sony VGN-FW21L Battery) . Additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008.EtymologyThe first preserved mention of the name "Bosnia" is in De Administrando Imperio, a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small country" ( Sony VGN-FW21J Battery) (χωρίον in Greek) of "Bosona" (Βοσώνα).[14] The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from 1172-1196 of Bar's Roman Catholic Christian Archbishop Grgur names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year of 753 - the De Regno Sclavorum (Of the Realm of Slavs). The name "Bosnia" probably comes from the name of the Bosna river around which it has been historically based( Sony VGN-FW21E Battery) , which was recorded in the Roman era under the name Bossina.[15] More direct roots of the river's names are unknown. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the Indo-European root *bos or *bogh, meaning "running water".[16] Certain Roman sources similarly mention Bathinus flumen as a name of the Illyrian Bosona( Sony VGN-FW19 Battery) , both of which would mean "running water" as well.[16] Other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic origins.[16]The origins of "Herzegovina" can be identified with more precision. During the Early Middle Ages the region was known as Hum, from the Zachlumoi tribe of southern Slavs which inhabited it( Sony VGN-FW17W Battery) . In the 1440s, the region was ruled by the powerful nobleman Stefan Vukčić Kosača. In a document sent to Friedrich III on January 20, 1448, Stefan Vukčić Kosača called himself "Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Primorje, Grand Duke of Bosnia". Herzog is the German for "duke", and so the lands he controlled later became known as Herzegovina ( Sony VGN-FW17T/H Battery) ("Dukedom", from the addition of -ovina, "land").[15] The region was administered by the Ottomans as the sanjak and then pashaluk of Hersek. The name Herzegovina was first included in the official name of the then Ottoman province in the mid-19th century. ( Sony VGN-FW17/B Battery) On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 the country's official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it the name was officially changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina( Sony VGN-FW15T Battery) .[edit]HistoryMain article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]Early historyMain article: Early history of Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic age. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the Antiquity as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th century BC were also notable. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages( Sony VGN-FW145E/W Battery) . Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9.Walls of ancient Daorson, Ošanići near Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3rd century BC.It was precisely in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Suetonius( Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery) .[17] This was the Roman campaign against the revolt of indigenous communities from Illyricum, known in history as the Great Illyrian Revolt, and also as the Pannonian revolt, or Bellum Batonianum, the latter named after two leaders of the rebellious Illyrian communities, Bato/Baton of the Daesitiates, and Bato of the Breuci( Sony VGN-FW139E/H Battery) .[18]The Great Illyrian revolt was a rising up of Illyrians against the Romans, more specifically a revolt against Tiberius' attempt to recruit them for his war against the Germans. The Illyrians put up a fierce resistance to the most powerful army on earth at the time[citation needed] (the Roman Army) for four years (AD 6 to AD 9), but they were finally subdued by Rome in AD 9( Sony VGN-FW11S Battery) .The last Illyrian stronghold, of which their defence won the admiration of Roman historians, is said to have been Arduba.[19] Bato of Daesitiates was captured and taken to Italy. It is alleged that when Tiberius asked Bato and the Daesitiates why they had rebelled, Baton was reputed to have answered: "You Romans are to blame for this( Sony VGN-FW11M Battery) ; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." Bato spent the rest of his life in the Italian town of Ravenna.[20]In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region( Sony VGN-FW11 Battery) .[15]The land was originally part of Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and the Huns( Sony VGN-FS92S Battery) . By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Illyrians were conquered by the Avars in the 6th century.[edit]Medieval BosniaMain article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (958–1463)Tvrtko I of Bosnia ruled in 1353–1366 and again in 1367–1377 as ban and in 1377–1391 as the first King of Bosnia.Expansion of the Bosnian kingdom in the XIV centuryModern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is unclear. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late 9th century( Sony VGN-FS92PS Battery) . The Slavic tribes also brought their mythology and pagan system of beliefs, the Rodovjerje. In particular, Perun / Перун, the highest god of the pantheon and the god of thunder and lightning is also commonly found in Bosnian toponymy, for instance in the name of Mount Perun (Perunova Gora / Перунова Гора). Along with the Slavic settlers( Sony VGN-FS790 Battery) , the native Illyrians were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. Thus, Slavic Bosnian tribes remained pagans for a longer time, and finally converted to the Bogumil Christian faith( Sony VGN-FS780/W Battery) .The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and 10th century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century( Sony VGN-FS775P/H Battery) , Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.[15]The first[verification needed] Bosnian monarch was Ban Borić. The second[verification needed] was Ban Kulin whose rule marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, because he allowed an indigenous Bogomilism sect considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church( Sony VGN-FS750P/W Battery) . In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254( Sony VGN-FS745P/H Battery) .Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia( Sony VGN-FS742/W Battery) . He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on 26 October 1377 as Stephen Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.Based on archaeological evidence, he was crowned in the in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in the time of Stephen II Kotromanić's reign( Sony VGN-FS740/W Battery) , where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.[21][22] Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463( Sony VGN-FS630/W Battery) .[edit]Ottoman Era (1463–1878)Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463–1878)The Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 17th century.The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans( Sony VGN-FS52B Battery) .[23]Within Bosnia the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation( Sony VGN-FS32B Battery) .[15]The three centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to the restriction imposed by the Ottoman Empire( Sony VGN-FS285M Battery) ,[16] and conversions-for-gain.The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were to a minor extent protected by official imperial decree, while the Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.[15]As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the Balkans (Rumelia) ( Sony VGN-FS285H Battery) , Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities( Sony VGN-FS285E Battery) , various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassas, a school of Sufi philosophy, and a clock tower (Sahat Kula), bridges such as the Stari Most, the Tsar's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque( Sony VGN-FS285B Battery) .Furthermore, some Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time.[23] Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire( Sony VGN-FS22VB Battery) , including admirals such as Matrakçı Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Isaković, Gazi Husrev-beg and Telli Hasan Pasha; administrators such as Ferhat-paša Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Mehmed Paša Sokolović. Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Ali Džabič; and poets in the Turkish, Albanian, Arabic, and Persian languages( Sony VGN-FS22B Battery) .[16]However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia( Sony VGN-FS215Z Battery) , and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's false efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms.This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east( Sony VGN-FS215S Battery) , culminated in an unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaščević, in 1831 after the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II slaughtered and abolished the Janissary.[16] Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising( Sony VGN-FS215M Battery) , in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation which eventually led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.[15][edit]Austro-Hungarian rule (1878–1918)Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)A Catholic from Central Bosnia (1901).At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar( Sony VGN-FS215E Battery) , which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence."[24] "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired( Sony VGN-FS215B Battery) [an...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective."[25]On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, backed by the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution with his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina( Sony VGN-FS20 Battery) . The motion lost 179 to 95. The gravest accusations were raised by the opposition rank and file against Andrassy.[25]Although an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosnians, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly the south) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred( Sony VGN-FS115S Battery) .[15] However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony".With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and to provide for modernisation( Sony VGNE92B/B Battery) . The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia.Within three years of formal occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary, in 1881, obtained German, and more importantly, Russian, approval for the annexation of these provinces, at a time which suited Vienna. This mandate was formally ratified by the Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperor's Treaty) on June 18 of that year( Sony VGN-E91B/B Battery) .[26] Upon the accession of Czar Nicholas II, however, the Russians reneged on the agreement, asserting in 1897 the need for special scrutiny of the Bosnian Annexation issue at an unspecified future date.[27]A plaque commemorating the location of the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria( Sony VGN-E81B/B Battery) .External matters began to affect the Bosnian Protectorate, however, and its relationship with Austria-Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia, on June 10, 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade.[28] Serb attempts to foment agitation followed, advocating a unified South Slavic state( Sony VGN-E72B/S Battery) , ruled from Belgrade. This gained little support amongst most of the population of Bosnia Herzegovina, and only found fertile ground with disaffected portions of the Orthodox minority. Also, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia Herzegovina( Sony VGN-E72B/G Battery) . These factors caused the Austrian-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question, sooner, rather than later.On July 2, 1908, in response to the pressing of the Austrian-Hungarian claim, the Russian Imperial Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky offered to support the Bosnian Annexation in return for Vienna's support for Russia's bid for naval access through the Dardanelles Straits into the Mediterranean( Sony VGN-E72B/D Battery) .[29] With the Russians being, at least, provisionally willing to keep their word over Bosnia Herzegovina for the first time in 11 years, Austria-Hungary waited and then published the annexation proclamation on October 6, 1908. The international furor over the annexation announcement caused Izvolsky to drop the Dardanelles Straits question( Sony VGN-E71B/S Battery) , altogether, in an effort to obtain a European conference over the Bosnian Annexation.[30] This conference never materialized and without British or French support, the Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austrian-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in March 1909( Sony VGN-E71B/G Battery) .Political tensions culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip, a member of the fascist Serb movement, Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo – an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states( Sony VGN-E70B/S Battery) , Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.[23][edit]Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1918–1941)Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution( Sony VGN-E70B/B Battery) , and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[23] The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere( Sony VGN-E51B/S Battery) .[15] The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosniaks; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austro-Hungary, Muslims (Bosniaks) owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbians owned 6.0%, Croatian Catholics owned 2.6% and others( Sony VGN-E51B/D Battery) , 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms Bosnian Muslims had a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land taken away from them.[31]Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and( Sony VGN-E50B/S Battery) , thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole.[15]The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.[15] Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration( Sony VGN-E50B/D Battery) .The famous Cvetković-Maček Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia.[16] However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement( Sony VGN-E50B/B Battery) , the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.[15][edit]World War II (1941–45)Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–1945)The railway bridge over the Neretva river, was destroyed twice during the battle of the Neretva.Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina.Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia( Sony VGN-CS92XS Battery) . The Croat leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Roma, communists and large numbers of Josip Broz Tito's Partisans by setting up a number of death camps.Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks; a Serb nationalist movement that conducted operations coordinated with Nazi forces against the partisans( Sony VGN-CS92JS Battery) . The Chetniks were also known to persecute and murder non-Serbs and communist sympathizers. They committed many war crimes against Bosnian Muslims in Eastern Bosnia. On October 12, 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše( Sony VGN-CS92DS Battery) , made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and whole Muslim population, presented informations about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.[32]Starting in 1941( Sony VGN-CS91S Battery) , Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders( Sony VGN-CS91NS Battery) .Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting( Sony VGN-CS91HS Battery) . More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II.[33] At the end of the war the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946, officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state( Sony VGN-CS90S Battery) .[15][edit]Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992)Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1945–1992)Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia( Sony VGN-CS90NS Battery) ; a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[15] However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1970s a strong Bosnian political elite arose( Sony VGN-CS39 Battery) , fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps.While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina[34] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/W Battery) , and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/V Battery) .[edit]Bosnian War for independence (1992–1995)Main article: Bosnian WarThe parliament building in the centre of Sarajevo burns after being hit by tank fire during the siege in 1992.Sarajevo after the siege in 1995Detainees in the Manjača Camp, near Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY)[[File:Omarska Camp.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Detainees line up at the Omarska Camp, near Prijedor, Bosnia and Herzegovina( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/U Battery) . (Photograph provided courtesy of the ICTY) DELTA 2!! [[File:Srebrenica massacre memorial gravestones 2009 1.jpg||thumb|right|220px|Gravestones at the Srebrenica Genocide memorial.]] On 18 November 1990 the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held (with a 2nd round on 25 November), which resulted in a national assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/T Battery) , which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power.[35] Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats) ( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/R Battery) .The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/Q Battery) . This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992.On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole", on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/P Battery) , with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part.[36] The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on 14 September 1992 and again on 20 January 1994.[37][38]A declaration of Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of the Serbs( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/J Battery) . The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 per cent and 99.7 per cent of voters voted for independence.[39] Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosnian Croat villages around Capljina on 7 March 1992 ( Sony VGN-CS36TJ/C Battery) and around Bosanski Brod and Bosniak town Gorazde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian, woman (Suada Dilberović), on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs( Sony VGN-CS36H/W Battery) , is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities.[35]Secret discussions between Franjo Tuđman and Slobodan Milošević on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia were held as early as March 1991 known as Karađorđevo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country( Sony VGN-CS36H/R Battery) . The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted control and possession of virtually all territories in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a top priority of their mastermind plan of a "Greater Serbia"( Sony VGN-CS36H/Q Battery) .The Croats and their leader Tuđman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Franjo Tuđman towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Franjo Tuđman's ultimate aim of expanding Croatia's borders( Sony VGN-CS36H/P Battery) . Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian government, were an easy target, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.[40]International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did. However, in fact( Sony VGN-CS36H/C Battery) , the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia( Sony VGN-CS36H Battery) , Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[15]Initially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down( Sony VGN-CS36GJ/W Battery) , Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. 2.2 million refugees were displaced by the end of the war (of all three nationalities).[41]Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps. The women and indeed some children, as young as twelve years of age, were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions( Sony VGN-CS33H Battery) , where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them.[42]In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On 18 June 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO which included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions( Sony VGN-CS320J/W Battery) , establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on June 19. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged( Sony VGN-CS320J/R Battery) .[43]Gornji Vakuf was initially attacked by Croats on 20 June 1992, but the attack failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders, Blaž Kraljević (leader of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group) was killed by HVO soldiers in August 1992( Sony VGN-CS320J/Q Battery) , which severely weakened the moderate group who hoped to keep the Bosnian Croat alliance alive.[44]The situation became more serious in October 1992 when Croat forces attacked the Bosniak population in Prozor. According to Jadranko Prlić indictment, HVO forces cleansed most of the Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages( Sony VGN-CS320J/P Battery) .[36]By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the predominantly Bosniak government in Sarajevo and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. Ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-Serbs were rampant in these areas( Sony VGN-CS31Z/Q Battery) . DNA teams have been used to collect evidence of the atrocities committed by Serbian forces during these campaigns.[45] One single most prominent example is the Srebrenica Massacre, ruled genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. An estimated 7,000 Bosnians were killed by the Serbian political authorities( Sony VGN-CS31S/W Battery) .[46]In March 1994, the signing of the Washington Accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which absorbed the territory of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and that held by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina( Sony VGN-CS31S/V Battery) . The Federation soon liberated the small Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia.A NATO bombing campaign began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied forces of Croatia and Bosnia, based on the treaty in Split by Tudjman and Izetbegović, pushed the Serbs away from territories held in western Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations( Sony VGN-CS31S/T Battery) . In December 1995, the signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Serbia (Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. A NATO-led peacekeeping force was immediately dispatched to Bosnia to enforce the deal( Sony VGN-CS31S/R Battery) .The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207, and the recent research estimates the total number to be less than 110,000 killed (civilians and military),[47][48][49] and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons( Sony VGN-CS31S/P Battery) .According to numerous International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judgments the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro)[50] as well as Croatia.[51]The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ( Sony VGN-CS27 Battery) . The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 effectively determined the war's nature to be international, though exonerating Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Serb forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those who carried out the genocide( Sony VGN-CS26T/W Battery) especially general Ratko Mladić, and bring them to justice.[52] Ratko Mladić was arrested in a village in northern Serbia on 26 May 2011, being accused of directly orchestrating and overseeing the slaughter of 8,000 Muslim men and boys, amongst other genocide and war crime charges.[53]The judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995( Sony VGN-CS26T/V Battery) .[54] The court concluded that the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide.[55] The Court further decided that, following Montenegro's declaration of independence in June, 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case( Sony VGN-CS26T/T Battery) , but that "any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro".[56][edit]GeographyMain article: Geography of Bosnia and HerzegovinaSee also: List of mountains in Bosnia and Herzegovina, List of lakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of rivers of Bosnia and HerzegovinaTopographic map of Bosnia and HerzegovinaVarious parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The coast of Neum; Igman mountain with the Olympic ski jumping hills covered in snow; and some landscape near Ivan mountain( Sony VGN-CS26T/R Battery) .Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia (932 km/579 mi) to the north and south-west, Serbia (302 km/188 mi) to the east, and Montenegro (225 km/140 mi) to the southeast. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E( Sony VGN-CS26T/Q Battery) .The country's name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country( Sony VGN-CS26T/P Battery) .The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic. Dinaric Alps generally run in east-west direction, and get higher towards the south. The highest point of the country is peak Maglić at 2,386 m, at the Montenegrin border. Major mountains include Kozara( Sony VGN-CS26T/C Battery) , Grmeč, Vlašić, Čvrsnica, Prenj, Romanija, Jahorina, Bjelašnica and Treskavica.Overall, close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has drier Mediterranean climate, with dominant karst topography. Northern Bosnia (Posavina) contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed( Sony VGN-CS26GW Battery) . This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only 20 kilometers (12 mi) of coastline,[8] around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by the international law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea( Sony VGN-CS260DW Battery) .The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina.There are seven major rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina[57]The Sava is the largest river of the country, but it only forms its northern natural border with Croatia. It drains 76%[57] of the country's territory into the Danube and the Black Sea( Sony VGN-CS260DQ Battery) . Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore also a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).The Una, Sana and Vrbas are right tributaries of Sava river. They are located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina.The Bosna river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near Sarajevo to Sava in the north( Sony VGN-CS25H/W Battery) .The Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.The Neretva is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region( Sony VGN-CS25H/R Battery) . According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.[edit]Government and politicsThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) ( Sony VGN-CS25H/Q Battery) Main articles: Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Political divisions of Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina consists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republika Srpska (RS), and Brčko District (BD).Building of the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina in SarajevoThe Presidency Building in central Sarajevo.Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring, according to the Dayton accord( Sony VGN-CS25H/P Battery) . Most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time( Sony VGN-CS25H/C Battery) , were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the State government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The Brčko District in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities( Sony VGN-CS25H Battery) . It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. The Brčko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.[58]The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested in cantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them( Sony VGN-CS23T/W Battery) . All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent people.The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the municipalities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided in 74 municipalities, and Republika Srpska in 63. Municipalities also have their own local government( Sony VGN-CS23T/Q Battery) , and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the Inter-Entity Boundary Line. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities( Sony VGN-CS23H/S Battery) .Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are: Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, and East Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities( Sony VGN-CS23H/B Battery) . Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).As a result of the Dayton Accords, the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina selected by the Peace Implementation Council. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials( Sony VGN-CS23H Battery) ( Sony VGN-CS23G/W Battery) . More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as defense ministry, security ministry, state court, indirect taxation service and so on) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state.The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power( Sony VGN-CS23G/Q Battery) .The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected as the Chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb) ( Sony VGN-CS23G/P Battery) .The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives( Sony VGN-CS23G Battery) . The House of Peoples has 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme( Sony VGN-CS220DW Battery) , final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency( Sony VGN-CS220DT Battery) .However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials( Sony VGN-CS220DR Battery) . The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic.[59] International supervision is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining.[edit]MilitaryMain article: Armed Forces of Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnian soldiers armed with Yugoslavian-made SKS riflesThe Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified into a single entity in 2005, with the merger of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Army of Republika Srpska, which had defended their respective regions. The Ministry of Defense had been founded in 2004( Sony VGN-CS220DQ Battery) .The Bosnian military consists of the Bosnian Ground Forces and Air Force and Air Defense. The Ground Forces number 10,000 active and 5,000 reserve personnel. They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces has 2,500 personnel and about 45 aircraft( Sony VGN-CS220DP Battery) . All of its aircraft are utility helicopters and basic trainers. The Air Defense Forces operate MANPAD hand-held missiles, SAM missile batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. Almost all of its anti-aircraft equipment is of Soviet origin, though it also operates some U.S. and Swedish hardware( Sony VGN-CS21Z/Q Battery) .[edit]Foreign relationsMain article: Foreign relations of Bosnia and HerzegovinaSee also: Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European UnionEU integration is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it initiated the Stabilisation and Association Process in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions( Sony VGN-CS21S/W Battery) , Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession.[60] The implementation of the Dayton Accords of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the former Yugoslavia( Sony VGN-CS21S/V Battery) . Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995.On April 23, 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received the Membership Action Plan from NATO, which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership is expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms( Sony VGN-CS21S/T Battery) .[edit]DemographicsMain articles: Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Demographic history of Bosnia and HerzegovinaFurther information: Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and List of people from Bosnia and HerzegovinaEthnic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by settlements in 1991:A Mosque, an Eastern Orthodox church and a Roman Catholic church in Bosanska Krupa( Sony VGN-CS21S/R Battery) Bosnia and Herzgovina is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples": Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high and often provoke political disagreements.According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,033, while the 1996 UNHCR unofficial census showed a decrease to 3,919,953( Sony VGN-CS21S/P Battery) .Ethnically, according to the last official census data from 1991, 1,902,956 (43.5%) are Bosniaks, 1,366,104 (31.2%) Serbs and 760,852 (17.4%) Croats, with 242,682 (5.5%) Yugoslavs. The remaining 2.4% of the population – numbering 104,439 – consisted of various other ethnicities including, but not limited to, Jews, Romas( Sony VGN-CS19/R Battery) , Albanians and Montenegrins. According to the 1996 UNHCR census, 1,805,910 (46.1%) are Bosniaks, 1,484,530 (37.9%) Serbs, 571,317 (14.6%) Croats and 58,196 (1.4%) others and unspecified. According to 2000 data from the CIA World Factbook, Bosnia's three largest ethnic groups have the following percentages - the Bosniaks (48%), the Serbs (37.1%) and the Croats (14.3%)( Sony VGN-CS19/Q Battery) .[2] Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian are official languages but all three are mutually intelligible. There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Muslims constitute 40% of the population; Serb Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholics 15%, and Protestants 1%; and other groups, including mostly non-religious, 13%( Sony VGN-CS19/P Battery) .[61]Large population migrations during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. No census has been taken since 1991/96, and political disagreements have made it impossible to organize one. Nevertheless, a census has been planned for 2012.[62] As almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate( Sony VGN-CS17H/W Battery) , a census would be a statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze the demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Most sources, however, estimate the population to be about four million, representing a decrease of 500,000 since 1991.The last official estimate by BHAS (Agency for Statistics of BiH) for 2011 shows a decrease of the population to 3,839,737.[3] Other BHAS estimation of population done on 30 June 2009 is 3,842,566( Sony VGN-CS17H/Q Battery) .[63]EconomyMain article: Economy of Bosnia and HerzegovinaSee also: List of companies of Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe Avaz Twist Tower is the headquarters of the newspaper Dnevni avazLake Saničani fish farm near PrijedorSarajevska Pivara, a Sarajevo breweryRadon Plaza Business CenterBosnia faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its formerly centrally planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former leader Josip Broz Tito( Sony VGN-CS16T/W Battery) , military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants but fewer commercially-viable firms.For the most of Bosnia's history, agriculture has been based on small and inefficient privately owned farms; food has traditionally been a net import for the republic.[65]The war in the 1990s caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy( Sony VGN-CS16T/T Battery) .[66] GDP fell by 75% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy.[67] While much of the production capacity has been restored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinking national debt being positive trends, but high unemployment and a large trade deficit remain cause for concern( Sony VGN-CS16T/R Battery) .The national currency is the (Euro-pegged) Convertible Mark (KM), controlled by the currency board. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004.[68] The international debt was $3.1 billion (2005 est) – the smallest amount of debt owed of all the former Yugoslav republics. Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina( Sony VGN-CS16T/Q Battery) .Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the highest income equality rankings in the world, ranking eighth out of 193 nations.[69]According to Eurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovina's PPS GDP per capita stood at 31 per cent of the EU average in 2010.[70]Overall value of foreign direct investment (1999–2008):[71]1999: €166 million2000: €159 million2001: €133 million2002: €282 million2003: €338 million2004: €534 million2005: €421 million2006: €556 million2007: €1.628 billion2008: €1.083 billionFrom 1994 to 2008, €5.3 billion were invested in the country.[72]The top investor countries (1994–2007):[71]Austria (€1,294 million)Serbia (€773 million)Croatia (€434 million)Slovenia (€427 million)Switzerland (€337 million)Germany (€270 million)Italy (€94.29 million)Netherlands (€63.52 million)United Arab Emirates (€56.70 million)Turkey (€54.81 million)All Other Countries (€892.54 million)Foreign investments by sector for (1994–2007):[71]37.7% Manufacturing21% Banking4.9% Services9.6% Trade0.30% Transport1% Tourism( Sony VGN-CS16T/P Battery) [edit]CommunicationsMain article: Telecommunications in Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe Bosnian communications market was fully liberalised in January 2006. There are three landline telephone providers, although each one predominantly serves a partile services are provided by three operators, with nationwide services. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speed EDGE and 3G services( Sony VGN-CS13T/W Battery) .[73]Oslobođenje (Liberation), founded in 1943, is one of the country's longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, only some of which include the Dnevni Avaz (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, and Jutarnje Novine (Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo( Sony VGN-CS13H/W Battery) .[74] Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaper Hrvatska riječ and the Bosnian magazine Start, as well as the weekly newspapers Slobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) and BH Dani (BH Days). Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication currently. The international news station Al Jazeera maintains a sister channel that caters to the Balkans region( Sony VGN-CS13H/R Battery) , Al Jazeera Balkans, broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo.[75]Additionally, the country is the most liberated in terms of freedom of the press in the region, ranking 43rd internationally.[76][edit]TourismVarious tourist attractions: Sarajevo, the capital and the largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Marian shrine of Međugorje; general view of Mostar (with the Stari Most); Trebinje town and river; and the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad( Sony VGN-CS13H/Q Battery) .Main article: Tourism in Bosnia and HerzegovinaSee also: Sites of interest in SarajevoAccording to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020.[77]Lonely Planet, in ranking the best cities in the world, ranked Sarajevo, the national capital and host of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games, as #43, ahead of Dubrovnik at #59, Ljubljana at #84, Bled at #90, Belgrade at #113, and Zagreb at #135( Sony VGN-CS13H/P Battery) .[78] Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and Ecotourism destination.More recently Sarajevo was nominated one of Top 10 cities to visit in 2010 in the 2010 edition of Lonely Planet's "Best In Travel".[79]Bosnia and Herzegovina remains arguably one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of the Alps( Sony VGN-CS11Z/T Battery) , with vast tracks of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers. The central Dinaric Alps are favored by hikers and mountaineers, containing both Mediterreanean and Alpine climates. Whitewater rafting is somewhat of a national pastime, with three rivers, including the deepest river canyon in Europe, the Tara River Canyon( Sony VGN-CS11Z/R Battery) . [77][edit]Tourist attractionsSome of the tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include:Sarajevo The "Olympic City". Scientific, cultural, tourist and commercial center of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Called the "European Jerusalem";Shrine of Our Lady of Međugorje (with an Annual Youth Festival), the Catholic pilgrimage site of a famous Marian apparition;Mostar, "City on Neretva", "City of Sunshine", the UNESCO site of Stari most and old town Mostar( Sony VGN-CS11S/W Battery) ;Višegrad, the UNESCO site of the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge;Banja Luka, the "Green City" with various cultural sights like Kastel fortress and Ferhadija mosque;Bihać and the river Una with its waterfalls and the Una River, within Una National Park;Jajce, historical city of the Bosnian Kings, also famous for being the city that hosted the foundation of Yugoslavia and its famous waterfalls( Sony VGN-CS11S/Q Battery) ;Prijedor, Old City Mosque (National heritage), Kozara National Park and Bosnia's largest World War II monument at Mrakovica;Tuzla Birthplace of Meša Selimović and the "salt lakes" of Tuzla;The Neretva river and the Rakitnica river canyons in Upper Neretva;The Trebižat river and its waterfalls Kravice and Kočuša;The Buna and its spring Vrelo Bune with the historical town of Blagaj;The Lower Tara river canyon, the deepest canyon in Europe;The Perućica ancient forest, one of the last two remaining primeval forests in Europ( Sony VGN-CS11S/P Battery) e, and the Sutjeska river canyon, both within Sutjeska National Park;Počitelj historical village;Mount Bjelašnica and Jahorina, sites of the XIV Olympic Winter Games;Neum on the coast. City on the Adriatic shore of Bosnia-Herzegovina;Doboj and its 13th century fortress;Stolac, the Begovina neighborhood and Radimlja tombstones;Visoko, city of Bosnian Kings and the site of the alleged Bosnian pyramids;Tešanj, one of the oldest cities in Bosnia with its old town;Bijeljina, known for its agriculture and ethno village StanišićHP Presario dv6000T Battery;Lukavac - Modrac Lake (Jezero Modrac) the largest artificial lake in Bosnia and Herzegovina;Travnik - The birthplace of Ivo Andrić and site of old town Travnik, once the historical capital city of the Kingdom of Bosnia;Ostrožac Castle - 16th century castle built by the Ottomans and a second addition added by the Habsburg familiyHP Presario B1200 Battery;Gornji Vakuf - Mountain Vranica & Kula Mehmed bega Stočanina.[edit]EducationFaculty of Law, University of SarajevoMain article: Education in Bosnia and HerzegovinaHigher education has a long and rich tradition in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the first classifiable higher-education institution having been established a school of Sufi philosophy by Gazi Husrev-beg in 1531, with numerous other religious schools following suit over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian EmpireHP Pavilion ZX5200 Battery, a Sharia Law School began a five-year program.[80] In the 1940s the University of Sarajevo became the city's first secular higher education institute. In the 1950s post-bachelaurate graduate degrees became available.[81] Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universitiesHP Pavilion ZX5000 Battery. There are various other institutions of higher education, including: University "Džemal Bijedić" of Mostar, University of Banja Luka, University of Mostar, University of Tuzla, American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is held in high regard as one of the most prestigious creative arts academies in the regionHP Pavilion ZV6000 Battery.Also, Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to several private and international higher education institutions, some of which are:Sarajevo School of Science and TechnologyInternational University of SarajevoAmerican University in Bosnia and HerzegovinaSarajevo Graduate School of BusinessInternational Burch UniversityPrimary schooling lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools (typically Gymnasiums where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of vocational trainingHP Pavilion ZV5200 Battery. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the Matura and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a DiplomaHP Pavilion ZV5000 Battery.[82][edit]CultureThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)National and University Library of Bosnia and HerzegovinaStatues for Meša Selimović (left) and Ismet Mujezinović in TuzlaMain article: Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]ArchitectureHP Pavilion ZT1290 BatteryMain article: Architecture of Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely influenced by four major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this regionHP Pavilion ZT1271 Battery.[edit]LiteratureMain article: Literature of Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina has a rich literature, including a Nobel prize winner Ivo Andrić and poets such as Antun Branko Šimić, Aleksa Šantić, Jovan Dučić and Mak Dizdar, writers such as Meša Selimović, Semezdin Mehmedinović, Miljenko Jergović, Isak Samokovlija, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Kočić, Aleksandar HemonHP Pavilion ZT1270 Battery, and Nedžad Ibrišimović. The National Theater was founded 1919 in Sarajevo and its first director was famous drama-play writer Branislav Nušić. Magazines such as Novi Plamen, Most and Sarajevske biljeznice are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themesHP Pavilion ZT1261 Battery.Besides native Bosnian literature there are many books which cover the nineties Bosnian conflict written by international authors. A few books worthy of mention are:Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the Failure of the West by David RieffLove Thy Neighbor: A Story of War by Peter MaassSafe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995 by Joe Sacco, and Christopher HitchensHP Pavilion ZT1260 BatteryThe Balkans: Nationalism, War & the Great Powers, 1804–1999 by Misha GlennyZlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Wartime Sarajevo, by Zlata Filipovićand in novels:From Bosnia with Love by Javed Mohammed, S: A novel about the Balkans by Slavenka Drakulić.[edit]ArtMain article: Art of Bosnia and HerzegovinaStećak from Radimlja near Stolac, 13th centuryThe art of Bosnia and Herzegovina was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones called Stećci to paintings in Kotromanić courtHP Pavilion ZT1250 Battery. However, only with the arrival of Austro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of 20th century. Among those are: Gabrijel Jurkić, Petar Tiješić, Karlo Mijić, Špiro Bocarić, Petar Šain, Đoko Mazalić, Roman Petrović and Lazar DrljačaHP Pavilion ZT1243 Battery. Later, artists such as: Ismet Mujezinović, Vojo Dimitrijević, Ivo Šeremet, and Mica Todorović amongst others came to rise. After World War II artists like: Virgilije Nevjestić, Bekir Misirlić, Ljubo Lah, Meho Sefić, Franjo Likar, Mersad Berber, Ibrahim Ljubović, Dževad Hozo, Afan Ramić, Safet Zec, Ismar Mujezinović and Mehmed Zaimović rose in popularityHP Pavilion ZT1235 Battery. In 2007, Ars Aevi, a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists was founded in Sarajevo.[edit]MusicMain article: Music of Bosnia and HerzegovinaVedran Smailović, the cellist of Sarajevo.Typical Bosnian and Herzegovinian songs are ganga, rera, and the traditional slavic music for the folk dances such as kolo and from Ottoman era the most popular is sevdalinka. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as wellHP Pavilion ZT1233 Battery, with the more famous musicians including Dino Zonić, Goran Bregović, Davorin Popović, Kemal Monteno, Zdravko Čolić, Edo Maajka,Hari Varesanovic and Dino Merlin. Very popular are also the numerous Slavic Metal bands, performing an interesting combination of upbeat tempos and traiditional tunesHP Pavilion ZT1231S Battery. Among them Silent Kingdom, Emir Hot, D'n'K, Toxicdeath, Agonize and Irina Kapetanović, often performing with folk metal musicians from other neighbouring slavic countries like Stribog (Croatia), Svarica (Croatia/Bosnia) and Arkona (Russia). Also, it would be unfair not to mention some of the talented composers such as Đorđe Novković, Esad ArnautalićHP Pavilion ZT1231 Battery, Kornelije Kovač, and many pop and rock bands, for example, Bijelo Dugme, Indexi, Plavi Orkestar, Zabranjeno Pušenje, who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer Dušan Šestić, the creator of the current national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer Marija ŠestićHP Pavilion ZT1230 Battery, composer Saša Lošić and pianist Sasha Toperich. In the villages, especially in Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats play the ancient Gusle. The gusle is used mainly to recite epic poems in a usually dramatic tone.[edit]CinemaMain article: List of Bosnia-Herzegovina filmsNotable Bosnian film-makers are Hajrudin Krvavac-Šiba, Emir Kusturica (known for the Palme d'Or-winning 1985 film When Father Was Away on Business, among others) HP Pavilion ZT1213 Battery, Mirza Idrizović, Aleksandar Jevđević, Ivica Matić, Danis Tanović (known for the Academy Award– and Golden Globe–winning 2001 film No Man's Land), Ademir Kenović, Benjamin Filipović, Jasmin Dizdar, Pjer Žalica, Jasmila Žbanić, Dino Mustafić, Srđan Vuletić, Aida Begić, among many othersHP Pavilion ZT1211S Battery.[edit]SportsBosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes. Many of them were famous in the Yugoslav national teams before Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence.The most important international sporting event in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the hosting of the 14th Winter Olympics, held in Sarajevo from the 7th to 19 February 1984. Some notable local Olympians wereHP Pavilion ZT1211 Battery:Rome, 1960: Tomislav Knez and Velimir Sombolac (football),Tokyo, 1964: Mirsad Fazlagić (football),Munich, 1972: Abaz Arslanagić, Milorad Karalić, Nebojša Popović, Đorđe Lavrinić, Dobrivoje Seleć (handball)Moscow, 1980: Mirza Delibašić and Ratko Radovanović (basketball)Los Angeles, 1984: Zdravko Rađenović, Zlatan Arnautović (handball) and Anton Josipović (boxing).The Borac handball club has won seven Yugoslav Handball Championships, as well as the European Championship Cup in 1976 and the International Handball Federation Cup in 1991HP Pavilion ZT1210 Battery.The Bosna basketball club from Sarajevo were European Champions in 1979. The Yugoslav national basketball team, which medaled in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as Dražen Dalipagić and Mirza Delibašić. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the European Championship in BasketballHP Pavilion ZT1201 Battery. Jedinstvo Aida women's basketball club, based in Tuzla, has won the 1989 European Championships in Florence.The Tuzla-Sinalco karate club from Tuzla has won the most Yugoslav championships, as well as four European Championships and one World Championship.The Bosnian chess team has been Champion of Yugoslavia seven times, in addition to club ŠK Bosna Sarajevo winning four Chess Club CupHP Pavilion ZT1200 Battery : 1994 in Lyon, 1999 in Bugojno, 2000 in Neum, and 2001 in Kallithea Elassonos. Chess grandmaster Borki Predojević has also won two European Championships: Under-12 years Litochoro (Greece) in 1999, and Under-14 years Kallithea Elassonos (Greece) in 2001, and in 2003 won World Championship Under-16 years Halkidiki (Greece)HP Pavilion ZT1195 Battery. The most impressive success of Bosnian Chess was his runner-up position in Men´s Olympiads of 1994 in Moscow, featuring Grandmasters Predrag Nikolić, Ivan Sokolov, Bojan Kurajica and Emir Dizdarević.Middle-weight boxer Marijan Beneš has won several Championships of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslav Championships and the European Championship.[83] In 1978 he won the World Title against Elisha Obed from the BahamasHP Pavilion ZT1192 Battery. Another middle-weight boxer, Anton Josipović won the Olympic Gold in Los Angeles, 1984. He also won Yugoslav Championship in 1982, the Championship of the Balkans in 1983, and the Belgrade Trophy in 1985.Association football is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after World War I. At the local level, FK Sarajevo (1967 and 1984), Željezničar (1972) have both won the Yugoslav ChampionshipHP Pavilion ZT1190 Battery. The former Yugoslav national football team has included a number of Bosnian players, such as Josip Katalinski, Dušan Bajević, Miroslav Blažević, Ivica Osim, Safet Sušić, Idriz Hošić and Mirsad Fazlagić.Today, the team of Bosnia and Herzegovina has modern footballers like Edin Džeko, Zvjezdan Misimović, Vedad Ibišević, Emir SpahićHP Pavilion ZT1185 Battery, Asmir Begović, Miralem Pjanić, Sejad Salihović and others. The independent Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team has not qualified for a European or World Championship but has played twice in the play-off stages. For all time matches: Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team results (1995-2011) HP Pavilion ZT1182 Battery.Bosnian national teams have struggled to draft the best national players. Many players born in Bosnia and Herzegovina choose to play for other countries because of their ethnic identification and because of higher salaries offered by other teams. For example Mario Stanić and Mile Mitić were both born in Bosnia and HerzegovinaHP Pavilion ZT1180 Battery, but play for Croatia and Serbia respectively. Other internationally famous players from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who have made similar choices, are: Darijo Srna, Mladen Petrić, Neven Subotić, Vedran Ćorluka, Zlatan Ibrahimović (born and raised in Sweden, his mother a Croat, his father a Bosnian), Marko Marin, Zoran SavićHP Pavilion ZT1175 Battery, Vladimir Radmanović, Zlatko Junuzović, Aleksandar Nikolić, Savo Milošević, and Zdravko Kuzmanović.Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of volleyball at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. Many among those on the team lost their legs in the Bosnian War.[edit]CuisineMain article: Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisineĆevapčići in somun.Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water; the sauces are fully naturalHP Pavilion ZT1172 Battery, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, garlic, peppers, cucumbers, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, spinach, zucchini, dried beans, fresh beans, plums, milk, paprika and cream called Pavlaka. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between Western and Eastern influencesHP Pavilion ZT1171 Battery. As a result of the Ottoman administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish, Greek, and other former Ottoman and Mediterranean cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from Central Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and lamb. Some local specialties are ćevapi, burekHP Pavilion ZT1170 Battery, dolma, sarma, pilaf, goulash, ajvar and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Local wines come from Herzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian loza (similar to Italian Grappa but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (rakija) or apple (jabukovača) alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the southHP Pavilion ZT1162 Battery, distilleries used to produce vast quantities of brandy and supply all of ex-Yugoslavian alcohol factories (brandy is the base of most alcoholic drinks).[edit]Leisure activitiesCoffeehouses, where Bosnian coffee is served in džezva with rahat lokum and sugar cubes, proliferate Sarajevo and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnians are believed to be some of the heaviest coffee drinkers in the worldHP Pavilion ZT1161 Battery.
Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/Romanian: Republica Moldova pronounced) is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and southHP Pavilion dv6-1103au battery. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 29 July 1994, the new constitution of Moldova was adopted and the state of the Moldovan SSR ceased to existHP Pavilion dv6-1102tx battery. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.The nation is a parliamentary republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, Council of Europe, WTO, OSCE, GUAM, CIS, BSEC and other international organizationsHP Pavilion dv6-1102tu battery. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union,[6] and has implemented the first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP).EtymologyMain article: Name of MoldovaThe name "Moldova" is derived from the Moldova River; the valley of this river was a political center when the Principality of Moldavia was founded in 1359.[8] The origin of the name of the river is not clearHP Pavilion dv6-1102ax battery. There is an account (a legend) of prince Dragoş naming the river after hunting an aurochs: after the chase, his exhausted hound Molda drowned in the river. According to Dimitrie Cantemir and Grigore Ureche, the dog's name was given to the river and extended to the Principality. HP Pavilion dv6-1102au battery[edit]HistoryMain article: History of Moldova[edit]PrehistoryDuring the Neolithic stone age era, Moldova's territory was the center of the large Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that stretched east beyond the Dniester River in Ukraine, and west up to and beyond the Carpathian Mountains in Romania. The inhabitants of this civilization, which lasted roughly from 5500 to 2750 BCHP Pavilion dv6-1101tx battery, practiced agriculture, raised livestock, hunted, and made intricately designed pottery.[10] This society built very large settlements, some of which numbered up to 15,000 inhabitants.[citation needed][edit]Antiquity and Middle AgesStephen the Great, Prince of Moldavia between 1457 and 1504, and the most prominent Moldavian historical personalityHP Pavilion dv6-1101tu batterySoroca Fort was built on the site of the former Genoese fortress Polihromia[citation needed]In Antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Between the I and VII centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, then Byzantine EmpiresHP Pavilion dv6-1101so battery. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, the territory of modern Moldova was invaded many times in late antiquity and early Middle Ages, including by Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgarians, Magyars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols and Tatars.The Principality of Moldavia, established in 1359, was bounded by the Carpathian mountains in the west, Dniester river in the east, and Danube and Black Sea in the southHP Pavilion dv6-1101ax battery. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern eight of the 41 counties of Romania, and the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Like the present-day republic and Romania's north-eastern region, it was known to the locals as Moldova. Moldavia was invaded repeatedly by Crimean Tatars and, since the 15th centuryHP Pavilion dv6-1101au battery, by the Turks. In 1538, the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but it retained internal and partial external autonomy.[11][edit]Modern history[edit]Russian EmpireIn accordance with the Treaty of Bucharest of 1812 and despite numerous protests by Moldavian nobles on behalf of their autonomous status, the Ottoman Empire (of which Moldavia was a vassal) ceded to the Russian Empire the eastern half of the territory of the Principality of Moldavia along with Khotyn and old Bessarabia (modern Budjak) HP Pavilion dv6-1100sv battery.The new Russian province was called "Oblast of Moldavia and Bessarabia", and initially enjoyed a large degree of autonomy. After 1828 this autonomy was progressively restricted and in 1871 the Oblast was transformed into the Bessarabia Governorate, in a process of state-imposed assimilation, "Russification"HP Pavilion dv6-1100ss battery. As part of this process, the Tsarist administration in Bessarabia gradually removed the Romanian language from official and religious use.[12] The western part of Moldavia (which is a part of present-day Romania) remained an autonomous principality, and in 1859, united with Wallachia to form the Kingdom of RomaniaHP Pavilion dv6-1100so battery.The Treaty of Paris (1856) returned three counties of Bessarabia — Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail — to Moldavia, but in the Treaty of Berlin (1878), the Kingdom of Romania agreed to return them to the Russian Empire. Over the 19th century, the Russian authorities encouraged colonization of the south of the region by Ukrainians, LipovansHP Pavilion dv6-1100es battery, Cossacks, Bulgarians,[13] Germans,[14] Gagauzes, and allowed the settlement of more Jews,[15] to replace the large Nogai Tatar population expelled in the 1770s and 1780s, during Russo-Turkish Wars;[16] the Moldovan proportion of the population decreased from around 86% in 1816[17] to around 52% in 1905. HP Pavilion dv6-1100eo battery[edit]Greater RomaniaGreater Romania mapWorld War I brought in a rise in political and cultural (ethnic) awareness among the inhabitants of the region, as 300,000 Bessarabians were drafted into the Russian Army formed in 1917; within bigger units several "Moldavian Soldiers' Committees" were formed. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917HP Pavilion dv6-1099ef battery, a Bessarabian parliament, Sfatul Ţării, was elected in October–November 1917 and opened on December 3 [O.S. November 21] 1917. The Sfatul Ţării proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic (December 15 [O.S. December 2] 1917) within a federal Russian state, and formed a government (December 21 [O.S. December 8] 1917) HP Pavilion dv6-1090es battery.Bessarabia proclaimed independence from Russia on February 6 [O.S. January 24] 1918 and requested the assistance of the French army present in Romania (general Henri Berthelot) and of the Romanian army, which had occupied the region in early January.[19] On April 9 [O.S. March 27] 1918HP Pavilion dv6-1090eo battery, the Sfatul Ţării decided with 86 votes for, 3 against and 36 abstaining, to unite with the Kingdom of Romania. The union was conditional upon fulfillment of the agrarian reform, autonomy, and respect for universal human rights.[20] A part of the interim Parliament agreed to drop these conditions after Bukovina and Transylvania also joined the Kingdom of RomaniaHP Pavilion dv6-1080es battery, although historians note that they lacked the quorum to do so.MPs of the Moldavian Democratic Republic in 1918This union was recognized by the principal Allied Powers in the 1920 Treaty of Paris, which however was not ratified by all of its signatories.[26][27] Some major powers, such as the United States and the newly communist Russia, did not recognize Romanian rule over Bessarabia, the latter considering it an occupation of Russian territoryHP Pavilion dv6-1080eq battery.[28]In May 1919, the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed as a government in exile. After the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising in 1924, the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR) was formed.In August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and its secret additional protocol were signedHP Pavilion dv6-1080el battery, by which Nazi Germany recognized Bessarabia as being within the Soviet sphere of influence, which led the latter to actively revive its claim to the region.[29] On June 28, 1940, the Soviet Union, with the acknowledgement of Nazi Germany, issued an ultimatum to Romania requesting the cession of Bessarabia and northern BukovinaHP Pavilion dv6-1070eo battery, with which Romania complied the following day. Soon after, the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian SSR) was established,[29] comprising about 70% of Bessarabia, and 50% of the now-disbanded Moldavian ASSR.As part of the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania seized the territories of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and Transnistria. Romanian forcesHP Pavilion dv6-1068el battery, working with the Germans, deported or exterminated about 300,000 Jews, including 147,000 from Bessarabia and Bukovina (of the latter, approximately 90,000 perished).[30] The Soviet Army re-captured the region in February–August 1944, and re-established the Moldavian SSR. Between the end of the Jassy-Kishinev Offensive in August 1944 and the end of the war in May 1945HP Pavilion dv6-1066el battery, 256,800 inhabitants of the Moldavian SSR were drafted into the Soviet Army. 40,592 of them perished.[31][edit]Soviet era Ethnic Germans resettling after the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia in 1940During the Stalinist period (1940–1941, 1944–1953), deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to Siberia, and northern Kazakhstan occurred regularly, with the largest ones on 12–13 June 1941, and 5–6 July 1949HP Pavilion dv6-1062el battery, accounting from MSSR alone for 18,392[32] and 35,796 deportees respectively.[33] Other forms of Soviet persecution of the population included 32,433 political arrests, followed by Gulag or (in 8,360 cases) execution.In 1946, as a result of a severe drought and excessive delivery quota obligations and requisitions imposed by the Soviet government, the southwestern part of the USSR suffered from a major famine.[34] In 1946–1947HP Pavilion dv6-1060ev battery, at least 216,000 deaths and about 350,000 cases of dystrophy were accounted by historians in the Moldavian SSR alone.[33] Similar events occurred in 1930s in the Moldavian ASSR.[33] In 1944–53, there were several anti-Soviet resistance groups in Moldova; however the NKVD and later MGB managed to eventually arrest, execute or deport their members. HP Pavilion dv6-1060es batteryIn the postwar period, the Soviet government arranged migration of workforce (mostly Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians), into the new Soviet republic, especially into urbanized areas, partly to compensate for the demographic loss caused by the war and the emigration of 1940 and 1944.[35] In the 1970s and 1980sHP Pavilion dv6-1060eo battery, the Moldavian SSR received substantial allocations from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial and scientific facilities and housing. In 1971, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of the city of Kishinev" (modern Chişinău), that allotted more than one billion Soviet rubles from the USSR budget for building projects, HP Pavilion dv6-1060el battery subsequent decisions also directed substantial funding and brought qualified specialists from other parts of the USSR to develop Moldova's industry.The Soviet government conducted a campaign to promote a Moldovan ethnic identity distinct from that of the Romanians, based on a theory developed during the existence of the Moldavian ASSR. Official Soviet policy asserted that the language spoken by Moldovans was distinct from the Romanian language (see Moldovenism) HP Pavilion dv6-1058el battery. To distinguish the two, during the Soviet period, Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet, in contrast[citation needed] with Romanian, which since 1860 had been written in the Latin alphabet.After the death of Stalin, political persecutions changed in character from mass to individual. All independent organizations were severely reprimanded, with the National Patriotic Front leaders being sentenced in 1972 to long prison termsHP Pavilion dv6-1056el battery. The Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Moldova is assessing the activity of the communist totalitarian regime.In the 1980s, political conditions created by the glasnost and perestroika, a Democratic Movement of Moldova was formed, which in 1989 became known as the nationalist Popular Front of Moldova (FPM). HP Pavilion dv6-1055ee battery Along with several other Soviet republics, from 1988 onwards, Moldova started to move towards independence. On August 27, 1989, the FPM organized a mass demonstration in Chişinău that became known as the Grand National Assembly. The assembly pressured the authorities of the Moldavian SSR to adopt a language law on August 31HP Pavilion dv6-1053cl battery, 1989 that proclaimed the Moldovan language written in the Latin script to be the state language of the MSSR. Its identity with the Romanian language was also established.[37][39] The year 1989 that had seen Communist Party increasingly pummeled, was also marked by November riots. HP Pavilion dv6-1050us battery[edit]IndependenceDeputy Gheorghe Ghimpu replaces the Soviet flag on the Parliament with the national one on April 27, 1990The first democratic elections for the local parliament were held in February and March 1990. Mircea Snegur was elected as Speaker of the Parliament, and Mircea Druc as Prime Minister. On June 23, 1990HP Pavilion dv6-1050et battery, the Parliament adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the "Soviet Socialist Republic Moldova", which, among other things, stipulated the supremacy of Moldovan laws over those of the Soviet Union.[37] After the failure of the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, on August 27, 1991, Moldova declared its independence, Romania being the first state to recognize its independenceHP Pavilion dv6-1050ep battery.On December 21 of the same year Moldova, along with most of the other Soviet republics, signed the constitutive act that formed the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Moldova received official recognition on December 25. On December 26, 1991 the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Declaring itself a neutral stateHP Pavilion dv6-1050eo battery, it did not join the military branch of the CIS. Three months later, on March 2, 1992, the country gained formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations. In 1994, Moldova became a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program and also a member of the Council of Europe on June 29, 1995. HP Pavilion dv6-1050en batteryIn the region east of the Dniester river, Transnistria, which includes a large proportion of predominantly russophone East Slavs of Ukrainian (28%) and Russian (26%) descent (altogether 54% as of 1989), while Moldovans (40%) have been the largest ethnic group, and where the headquarters and many units of the Soviet 14th Guards Army were stationedHP Pavilion dv6-1050ei battery, an independent Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on August 16, 1990, with its capital in Tiraspol.[37] The motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in Moldova and the country's expected reunification with Romania upon secession from the USSRHP Pavilion dv6-1050ef battery. In the winter of 1991–1992 clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces, supported by elements of the 14th Army, and the Moldovan police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated into a military engagement.On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a market economy, liberalizing prices, which resulted in rapid inflation. From 1992 to 2001, the young country suffered a serious economic crisis, leaving most of the population below the poverty lineHP Pavilion dv6-1046el battery. In 1993, a national currency, the Moldovan leu, was introduced to replace the temporary cupon. The economy of Moldova began to change in 2001; and until 2008 the country saw a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. The early 2000s also saw a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Russia (especially the Moscow region), Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and other countriesHP Pavilion dv6-1045ez battery; remittances from Moldovans abroad account for almost 38% of Moldova's GDP, the second-highest percentage in the world.[42]In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the Democratic Agrarian Party gained a majority of the seats, setting a turning point in Moldovan politics. With the nationalist Popular Front now in a parliamentary minority, new measures aiming to moderate the ethnic tensions in the country could be adoptedHP Pavilion dv6-1045eo battery. Plans for a union with Romania were abandoned,[37] and the new Constitution gave autonomy to the breakaway Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a "Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 the latter was constitutedHP Pavilion dv6-1045ei battery.After winning the 1996 presidential elections, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party in 1989–91, became the country's second president (1997–2001), succeeding Mircea Snegur (1991–1996). In 2000, the Constitution was amended, transforming Moldova into a parliamentary republicHP Pavilion dv6-1045ee battery, with the president being chosen through indirect election rather than direct popular vote.Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in 1991), gained 71 of the 101 MPs, and on April 4, 2001, elected Vladimir Voronin as the country's third president (re-elected in 2005) HP Pavilion dv6-1044el battery. The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed Communist Party returned to power.[37] New governments were formed by Vasile Tarlev (April 19, 2001 – March 31, 2008), and Zinaida Greceanîi (March 31, 2008 – September 14, 2009). In 2001–2003 relations between Moldova and Russia improved, but then temporarily deteriorated in 2003–2006HP Pavilion dv6-1042el battery, in the wake of the failure of the Kozak memorandum, culminating in the 2006 wine exports crisis. The Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova managed to stay in power for eight years. The fragmentation of the liberal (aka the democrats) helped consolidate its power. The decline of the party started in 2009 after Marian Lupu joined the Democratic Party and thus attracted many of the Moldovans supporting the Communists.HP Pavilion dv6-1040ez battery2009 Moldova civil unrest at the Parliament buildingIn the April 2009 parliamentary elections, the Communist Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with 13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43%, and the Alliance "Moldova Noastră" with 9.77%. The controversial results of this election sparked civil unrestHP Pavilion dv6-1040ev batteryIn August 2009, four Moldovan parties – Liberal Democratic Party, Liberal Party, Democratic Party, and Our Moldova Alliance – agreed to create a governing coalition that pushed the Communist party into opposition. On August 28, 2009, this coalition chose a new parliament speaker (Mihai Ghimpu) HP Pavilion dv6-1040el battery in a vote that was boycotted by Communist legislators. Vladimir Voronin, who had been President of Moldova since 2001, eventually resigned on September 11, 2009, but the Parliament failed to elect a new president. The acting president Mihai Ghimpu instituted the Commission for constitutional reform in Moldova to adopt a new version of the Constitution of MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-1040ek battery. After the constitutional referendum aimed to approve the reform failed in September 2010,[46] the parliament was dissolved again and a new parliamentary election was scheduled for 28 November 2010.[47] On December 30, 2010, Marian Lupu was elected as the Speaker of the Parliament.[48] In accordance with the Constitution, he will be serving as the Acting President of Republic of MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-1040ei battery.Government and politicsMoldova is a unitary parliamentary representative democratic republic. The 1994 Constitution of Moldova sets the framework for the government of the country. A parliamentary majority of at least two thirds is required to amend the Constitution of Moldova, which cannot be revised in time of war or national emergencyHP Pavilion dv6-1040ed battery. Amendments to the Constitution affecting the state's sovereignty, independence, or unity can only be made after a majority of voters support the proposal in a referendum. Furthermore, no revision can be made to limit the fundamental rights of people enumerated in the Constitution. HP Pavilion dv6-1040eb batteryThe country's central legislative body is the unicameral Moldovan Parliament (Parlament), which has 101 seats, and whose members are elected by popular vote on party lists every four years.The head of state is the President of Moldova, who is elected by the Moldovan Parliament, requiring the support of three fifths of the deputies (at least 61 votes) HP Pavilion dv6-1038ca battery. The president of Moldova has been elected by the parliament since 2001, a change designed to decrease executive authority in favor of the legislature. The president appoints a prime minister who functions as the head of government, and who in turn assembles a cabinet, both subject to parliamentary approvalHP Pavilion dv6-1030us battery.The 1994 constitution also establishes an independent Constitutional Court, composed of six judges (two appointed by the President, two by Parliament, and two by the Supreme Council of Magistrature), serving six-year terms, during which they are irremovable and not subordinate to any power. The Court is invested with the power of judicial review over all acts of the parliamentHP Pavilion dv6-1030eq battery, over presidential decrees, and over international treaties, signed by the country.[49]Foreign relationsMain articles: Foreign Relations of Moldova and Moldova and the European UnionEmbassy of Moldova in Washington, D.C.Moldova has fixed as a priority EU integrationAfter achieving independence from the Soviet Union, Moldova established relations with other European countries. A course for European Union integration and neutrality define the country's foreign policy guidelinesHP Pavilion dv6-1030eo battery. In 1995 the country was admitted to the Council of Europe. In addition to its participation in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, Moldova is also a member state of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the North Atlantic Cooperation CouncilHP Pavilion dv6-1030em battery, the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Francophonie and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.In 2005, Moldova and the EU established an action plan that sought to improve the collaboration between the two neighboring structures. At the end of 2005 EUBAM, the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and UkraineHP Pavilion dv6-1030ef battery, was established at the joint request of the presidents of Moldova and Ukraine. EUBAM assists the Moldovan and Ukrainian governments in approximating their border and customs procedures to EU standards, and offers support in both countries' fight against cross-border crimeHP Pavilion dv6-1030ed battery.After the War of Transnistria, Moldova sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the Transnistria region by working with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, calling for international mediation, and cooperating with the OSCE and UN fact-finding and observer missions. The foreign minister of Moldova, Andrei StratanHP Pavilion dv6-1030ec battery, repeatedly stated that the Russian troops stationed in the breakaway region are there against the will of the Moldovan Government and called on them to leave "completely and unconditionally."[50] In 2012, the death of Vadim Pisari has raised the tension with Russia and has revived a decades-old debate over security in Moldova. HP Pavilion dv6-1030ca batteryIn September 2010, the European Parliament approved a grant of €90 million to Moldova.[52] The money will supplement $570 million in International Monetary Fund loans,[53] World Bank and other bilateral support already granted to Moldova. In April 2010, Romania offered to Moldova development aid worth of €100 million while the number of scholarships for Moldovan students will double to 5,000. HP Pavilion dv6-1027ef battery According to a lending agreement signed in February 2010, Poland will provide US$15 million and will support Moldova in its European integration efforts.[55] The first joint meeting of the Governments of Romania and Moldova, held in March 2012, concluded with several bilateral agreements in various fields. HP Pavilion dv6-1025ez battery The European orientation “has been the policy of Moldova in recent years and this is the policy that must continue,” Nicolae Timofti told lawmakers before his election.”[58][edit]MilitarySoldiers of the Moldovan ArmyMain article: Military of MoldovaThe Moldovan armed forces consist of the Ground Forces and Air and Air Defense Forces. Moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union. On October 30, 1992HP Pavilion dv6-1025ei battery, Moldova ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment and provides for the destruction of weapons in excess of those limits. The country acceded to the provisions of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in October 1994 in Washington, D.C. It does not have nuclearHP Pavilion dv6-1025ef battery, biological, or chemical weapons. Moldova joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's Partnership for Peace on March 16, 1994.Moldova is committed to a number of international and regional control of arms regulations such as the UN Firearms Protocol, Stability Pact Regional Implementation Plan, the UN Programme of Action (PoA) and the OSCE Documents on Stockpiles of Conventional AmmunitionHP Pavilion dv6-1023em battery.[edit]Human rightsMain article: Human rights in MoldovaAccording to Amnesty International, "Torture and other ill-treatment in police detention remained widespread; the state failed to carry out prompt and impartial investigations and police officers sometimes evaded penalties. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) activists were again denied the right to demonstrate." HP Pavilion dv6-1023ef battery Political dissidents from Ilaşcu Group were released from arbitrary detention only after an order of the European Court of Human Rights.[60] In 2009, when Moldova experienced its most serious civil unrest in a decade, several civilians like Valeriu Boboc were killed by police and many more injured.[61] According to Human Rights Report of the United States Department of State, released in April 2011HP Pavilion dv6-1022el battery, "In contrast to the previous year, there were no reports of killings by security forces. During the year reports of government exercising undue influence over the media substantially decreased." But "Transnistrian authorities continued to harass independent media and opposition lawmakers; restrict freedom of association, movement, and religion; and discriminate against Romanian speakersHP Pavilion dv6-1020et battery."[62] Moldova "has made “noteworthy progress” on religious freedom since the era of the Soviet Union, but it can still take further steps to foster diversity," said the UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief Heiner Bielefeldt, in Chişinău, in September 2011HP Pavilion dv6-1020eg battery[edit]Administrative divisionsTerritories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia are now split between Romania in blue, Moldova in green, and Ukraine in pink (Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak).Main articles: Administrative divisions of Moldova, List of cities in Moldova, and List of localities in MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-1020el batteryMoldova is divided into thirty-two districts (raioane, singular raion), three municipalities and two autonomous regions (Gagauzia and Transnistria).[64] The final status of Transnistria is disputed, as the central government does not control that territory. The cities of Comrat and Tiraspol, the administrative seats of the two autonomous territories also have municipality statusHP Pavilion dv6-1020ek battery.Moldova has 65 cities (towns), including the five with municipality status, and 917 communes. Some other 699 villages are too small to have a separate administration, and are administratively part of either cities (40 of them) or communes (659). This makes for a total of 1,681 localities of Moldova, all but two of which are inhabitedHP Pavilion dv6-1020ei battery.GeographyMain article: Geography of MoldovaDniester valley viewOld OrheiMoldova lies between latitudes 45° and 49° N, and mostly between meridians 26° and 30° E (a small area lies east of 30°).The total land area is 33,851 km2The largest part of the nation lies between two rivers, the Dniester and the Prut. The western border of Moldova is formed by the Prut riverHP Pavilion dv6-1020ed battery, which joins the Danube before flowing into the Black Sea. Moldova has access to the Danube for only about 480 m (1,575 ft), and Giurgiuleşti is the only Moldovan port on the Danube. In the east, the Dniester is the main river, flowing through the country from north to south, receiving the waters of Răut, Bâc, Ichel, BotnaHP Pavilion dv6-1020ec battery. Ialpug flows into one of the Danube limans, while Cogâlnic into the Black Sea chain of limans.The country is landlocked, even though it is very close to the Black Sea. While most of the country is hilly, elevations never exceed 430 m (1,411 ft) — the highest point being the Bălăneşti Hill. Moldova's hills are part of the Moldavian Plateau, which geologically originate from the Carpathian MountainsHP Pavilion dv6-1018el battery. Its subdivisions in Moldova include Dniester Hills (Northern Moldavian Hills and Dniester Ridge), Moldavian Plain (Middle Prut Valley and Bălţi Steppe), and Central Moldavian Plateau (Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills, Corneşti Hills (Codri Massive; "Codri" meaning "forests"), Lower Dniester Hills, Lower Prut Valley, and Tigheci Hills) HP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery. In the south, the country has a small flatland, the Bugeac Plain. The territory of Moldova east of the river Dniester is split between parts of the Podolian Plateau, and parts of the Eurasian Steppe.The country's main cities are the capital Chişinău, in the center of the country, Tiraspol (in the eastern region of Transnistria), Bălţi (in the north) and Bender (in the south-east). Comrat is the administrative center of GagauziaHP Pavilion dv6-1001tx battery.ClimateMoldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate.Moldova's climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with temperatures averaging about 20 °C (68 °F), and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with January temperatures averaging −4 °C (25 °F). Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600 millimeters (23.6 in) in the north to 400 millimeters (15.7 in) HP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river siltingHP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery.Weather records. The highest temperature ever recorded: +41.5 °C (106.70 °F) on July 21, 2007 (Camenca). The lowest temperature ever recorded: −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) on January 20, 1963 (Brătuşeni, Edineţ county).[edit]EconomyGDP by sectorA portrait of Stephen III is found on the front of each leu banknote.Main article: Economy of MoldovaSince the collapse of the Soviet Union, the relative weight of the service sector in the economy of Moldova started to grow and began to dominate the GDP (now about 75%)HP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery, as a result of decrease in industry and agriculture. The main economic indicators contracted dramatically.As of 2009, Moldova has been described by the European Parliament as the poorest country in Europe in terms of GDP.[66][edit]EnergyMoldova imports all of its supplies of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, largely from Russia. Moldova is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topicsHP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.[67][edit]Economic reformsThere are 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 bani coins of the Moldovan leu.After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, energy shortages contributed to sharp production declines. As part of an ambitious economic liberalization effortHP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery, Moldova introduced a convertible currency, liberalized all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises, backed steady land privatization, removed export controls, and liberalized interest rates. The government entered into agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to promote growthHP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery.Sky Tower in Downtown ChişinăuRecent trends indicate that the Communist government intends to reverse some of these policies, and recollectivise land while placing more restrictions on private business. The economy returned to positive growth, of 2.1% in 2000 and 6.1% in 2001. Growth remained strong in 2007 (6%), in part because of the reforms and because of starting from a small baseHP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery. The economy remains vulnerable to higher fuel prices, poor agricultural weather, and the skepticism of foreign investors.[citation needed]Following the regional financial crisis in 1998, Moldova has made significant progress towards achieving and retaining macroeconomic and financial stabilization. It has, furthermore, implemented many structural and institutional reforms that are indispensable for the efficient functioning of a market economyHP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery. These efforts have helped maintain macroeconomic and financial stability under difficult external circumstances, enabled the resumption of economic growth and contributed to establishing an environment conducive to the economy's further growth and development in the medium term.[citation needed]General Statistic Diagrams of Internet in Moldova, in terms of download speed country ranked 9 in WorldHP Pavilion dv6-1007tx batteryDespite these efforts and recent resumption of economic growth, Moldova ranks low in terms of commonly used living standards and human development indicators in comparison with other transition economies. Although the economy experienced a constant economic growth after 2000: with 2.1%, 6.1%, 7.8% and 6.3% between 2000 and 2003HP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery (with a forecast of 8% in 2004), one can observe that these latest developments hardly reach the level of 1994, with almost 40% of the GDP registered in 1990. Thus, during the last decade little has been done to reduce the country's vulnerability. After a severe economic decline, social and economic challenges, energy uprooted dependencies, Moldova continues to occupy one of the last places among European countries in income per capita. HP Pavilion dv6-1009el batteryIn 2005 (according to the Human Development Report), the registered GDP per capita was US $ 2,100 PPP, which was 4.5 times lower than the world average at the time (US $ 9,543). Moreover, GDP per capita was under the average of its statistical region (US $ 9,527 PPP) HP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery. In 2005, about 20.8% of the population were under the absolute poverty line and registered an income lower than US $ 2.15 (PPP) per day. Moldova is classified as medium in human development and is at the 111th spot in the list of 177 countries. The value of the Human Development Index (0.708) is below the world averageHP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery. Moldova remains the poorest country in Europe in terms of official (i.e., excluding the black and grey economy) per capita which currently stands at $1,808.729[68]The GDP in 2007 constituted $4.104 billion.[69] That constituted a growth of 3% from 2006.[edit]Wine industryMileştii Mici contains the world's largest wine cellarsMain articles: Moldovan wine and Moldovan wine producersHP Pavilion dv6-1010ed batteryMoldova is known for its wines. For many years viticulture and winemaking in Moldova were the general occupation of the population. Evidence of this is present in historical memorials and documents, folklore, and the Moldovan spoken languageHP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery.The country has a well established wine industry. It has a vineyard area of 147,000 hectares (360,000 acres), of which 102,500 ha (253,000 acres) are used for commercial production. Most of the country's wine production is made for export. Many families have their own recipes and strands of grapes that have been passed down through the generationsHP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery.Moldova consumes the highest amount of alcohol per capita in the world.[70][edit]AgricultureMain article: Agriculture of MoldovaMoldova's rich soil and temperate continental climate (with warm summers and mild winters) have made the country one of the most productive agricultural regions since ancient times, and a major supplier of agricultural products in southeastern Europe. In agriculture, the economic reform started with the land cadastre reformHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery.[edit]TourismMain article: Tourism in MoldovaTourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its history. Wine tours are offered to tourists across the country. Vineyards/cellars include Cricova, Purcari, Ciumai, Romanesti, Cojuşna, Milestii Mici.[edit]TransportChișinău International AirportMain articles: Transport in Moldova and Rail transport in MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-1012tx batteryThe main means of transportation in Moldova are railroads 1,138 km (707 mi) and a highway system (12,730 km/7,910 mi overall, including 10,937 km/6,796 mi of paved surfaces). The sole international air gateway of Moldova is the Chişinău International Airport. The Giurgiuleşti terminal on the Danube is compatible with small seagoing vesselsHP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery. Shipping on the lower Prut and Nistru rivers plays only a modest role in the country's transportation system.[edit]TelecommunicationsMain article: Telecommunications in MoldovaThe first million of mobile telephone users was registered in September 2005. The number of mobile telephone users in Moldova increased by 47.3 % in the first quarter of 2008 against the last year and exceeded 2.89 millionHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery.[71]In September 2009, Moldova was the first country in the world to launch high-definition voice services (HD voice) for mobile phones, and the first country in Europe to launch 14,4 Mbit/s mobile broadband at a national scale, with over 40% population coverage. HP Pavilion dv6-1016ez batteryAs of 2010 there are around 1,295,000 Internet users in Moldova with overall Internet penetration of 35.9%.[73][edit]DemographicsMain article: Demographics of MoldovaEthno-linguistic composition in 2004[edit]Cultural and ethnic compositionThe last reference data is that of the 2004 Moldovan Census[1] (areas controlled by the central government), and the 2004 Census in Transnistria (areas controlled by the breakaway authorities, including Transnistria, Bender/Tighina, and four neighboring communes) HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery:1There is an ongoing controversy whether Romanians and Moldovans are the same ethnic group, namely whether Moldovans' self-identification constitutes an ethnic group distinct and apart from Romanians or a subset. There were also numerous allegations that the ethnic affiliation numbers were riggedHP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery, 7 out of 10 observer groups of the Council of Europe reported a significant number of cases when census-takers recommended respondents to declare themselves Moldovans rather than Romanians. Complicating the interpretation of the results, 18.8% of respondents that identified themselves as Moldovans declared Romanian to be their native language. HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery[edit]LanguagesMain articles: Languages of Moldova, Moldovan language, and Romanian languageA Limba noastră social ad in Chişinău, with the word "Română" sprayed onto itThe Constitution of 1994 states that the national language of the Republic of Moldova is Moldovan, and its writing is based on the Latin alphabet. HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery The 1991 Declaration of Independence names the official language Romanian.[76][77] The 1989 State Language Law speaks of a Moldovan-Romanian linguistic identity.There is a political controversy over the name of the main ethnicity of the Republic of MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery. During 2003–2009, the Communist government adopted a national political conception which states that one of the priorities of the national politics of the Republic of Moldova is the insurance of the existence of the Moldovan language.[78][79] Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are the same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts.HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf batteryRussian is provided with the status of a "language of interethnic communication" (alongside the official language), and in practice remains widely used on all levels of the society and the state. The above-mentioned national political conception also states that Russian-Moldovan bilingualism is characteristic for Moldova. HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryAs of the 2004 census, the country has significant Russian (6%) and Ukrainian (8.4%) populations. 50% of ethnic Ukrainians, 27% of Gagauz, 35% of Bulgarians, and 54% of smaller ethnic groups speak Russian as first language. In total, there are 541,000 people (or 16% of the population) in Moldova who use Russian as first languageHP Pavilion dv6-6054ef battery, including 130,000 ethnic Moldovans. On the other hand, 47,000 members of ethnic minorities use Romanian as first language.Gagauz and Ukrainian have significant regional speaker populations and are granted official status together with Russian in Gagauzia and Transnistria respectively.From 1996 the Republic, also being Romance-speaking, is a full member of FrancophoniaHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery. Therefore the French language occupies the principal place among the foreign languages. In 2009/10 it was told taught to 52% of schoolchildren as L1 and 7% as L2. It is followed by English having 48% and 6% respectively, and German, which was taught to 3% altogether. HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery[edit]ReligionFor the 2004 census, Orthodox Christians, who make up 93.3% of Moldova's population, were not required to declare the particular of the two main churches they belong to. The Moldovan Orthodox Church, autonomous and subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Orthodox Church of BessarabiaHP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery, autonomous and subordinated to the Romanian Orthodox Church, both claim to be the national church of the country. 1.9% of the population is Protestant, 0.9% belongs to other religions, 1.0% is non-religious, 0.4% is atheist, and 2.2% did not answer the religion question at the censusHP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery.[edit]EducationNational Library of MoldovaMain article: Education in MoldovaIn Moldova, there are 16 state and 15[82] private institutions of higher education, with a total of 126,100 students, including 104,300 in the state institutions, and 21,700 in the private ones. The number of students per 10,000 inhabitants in Moldova has been constantly growing since the collapse of the Soviet Union, reaching 217 in 2000–2001HP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery, and 351 in 2005–2006.The National Library of Moldova was founded in 1832. The Moldova State University and the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, the main scientific organizations of Moldova, were established in 1946.[edit]CrimeMain article: Crime in MoldovaThe CIA World Factbook lists widespread crime and underground economic activity among major crime issues in MoldovaHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery.[edit]HealthMain article: Health in MoldovaThe average birth rate is at 1.5 children per woman.[84] Public expenditure on health was 4.2% of the GDP and private expenditure on health 3.2%.[84] There are about 264 physicians per 100,000 people.[84] Health expenditure was 138 US$ (PPP) per capita in 2004. HP Pavilion dv6-6024tx batterySince the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country has seen a decrease in spending on health care and, as a result, the tuberculosis incidence rate in the country has grown.[85] Because of this, Moldova is struggling with one of the highest incidence rates of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in the world. HP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery[edit]EmigrationMain article: Emigration from MoldovaEmigration is a mass phenomenon in Moldova and has a major impact on the country's demographics and economy. The Moldovan Intelligence and Security Service has estimated that 600,000 to one million Moldovan citizens (almost 25% of the population) are working abroad, most illegally. HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery[edit]CultureMain article: Culture of MoldovaMihai Eminescu, national poet of Moldova and RomaniaLocated geographically at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic and other cultures, Moldova has enriched its own culture adopting and maintaining some of the traditions of its neighbors and of other influence sources.The country's cultural heritage was marked by numerous churches and monasteries built by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in the 15th centuryHP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery, by the works of the later renaissance Metropolitans Varlaam and Dosoftei, and those of scholars such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir,[88] Ion Neculce. In the 19th century, Moldavians from the territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia, then split between Austria, Russia, and an Ottoman-vassal Moldavia (after 1859, Romania) HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery, made a significant contribution to the formation of the modern Romanian culture. Among these were many Bessarabians, such as Alexandru Donici, Alexandru Hâjdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati, Constantin Stamati-Ciurea, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo, Constantin StereHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery.Mihai Eminescu, a late Romantic poet, and Ion Creangă, a writer, are the most influential Romanian language artists, considered national writers both in Romania and Moldova.[citation needed]The largest ethnic group is a speaker of Romanian and share the Romanian culture. Their culture has been also influenced (through Eastern Orthodoxy) by the Byzantine culture. HP Pavilion dv6-6011tu batteryThe country has also important minority ethnic communities. Gagauz, 4.4% of the population, are Christian Turkic people. Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Jews, Ukrainians, although not numerous, were present since as early as 17th century, and had left cultural marks. The 19th century saw the arrival of many more Ukrainians and Jews from Podolia and GaliciaHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery, as well as new communities, such as Lipovans, Bulgarians and Bessarabian Germans.In the second part of the 20th century, Moldova saw a massive Soviet immigration, which brought with it many elements of Soviet culture.Moldovan culture was also influenced by historic minority ethnic communities, and in turn has had an influence on the culture of these groups, such as Bessarabian Germans and Bessarabian JewsHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery.[edit]Popular mediaMain articles: Television in Moldova, Cinema of Moldova, and List of newspapers in MoldovaRadio Basarabia in 1940In October 1939, Radio Basarabia, a local station of the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company, was the first radio station opened in Chişinău. Television in Moldova was introduced in April 1958, within the framework of Soviet televisionHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery. Through cable, Moldovan viewers can receive a large number of Russian channels, a few Romanian channels, and several Russian language versions of international channels in addition to several local channels. One Russian and two local channels are aired.[edit]Food and beverageA popular Moldovan dish of stuffed cabbage rolls (sarma), accompanied by sauerkraut and mămăligăHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery.Main article: Moldovan cuisineSee also: Moldovan wineMoldovan cuisine is similar to neighboring Romania, and has been influenced by elements of Russian, Turkish, and Ukrainian cuisine. Main dishes include beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, and a variety of cereals. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy), beer, and local wineHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery.Total recorded adult alcohol consumption is approximately evenly split between spirits, beer and wine; and the average annual adult per capita consumption, in terms of pure alcohol, in 2003–2005, was 18.2 litres, the highest in the world.[89][edit]MusicZdob şi Zdub performing at the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest.Main article: Music of MoldovaAmong Moldova's most prominent composers are Gavriil Musicescu, Ştefan Neaga and Eugen DogaHP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery.In the field of popular music, Moldova has produced the band O-Zone, who came to prominence in 2003, with their hit song Dragostea Din Tei. Moldova has been participating in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2005. Another popular band from Moldova is ska rock band Zdob şi Zdub that represented the country in the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest, finishing 6thHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery. They also again represented Moldova in the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest, finishing 12th. Dan Bălan, another popular artist, released the album Chica Bomb in 2010.Also worth mentioning is the band SunStroke Project, which along with Olia Tira represented the country in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest with their hit song, Run AwayHP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery. Their performance gained international notoriety as an internet meme due to the pelvic thrusting and dancing of Sergey Stepanov, the band saxophonist. He has been fittingly dubbed "Epic Sax Guy."[edit]HolidaysMain article: Public holidays in MoldovaMost retail businesses close on New Year's Day and Independence Day, but remain open on all other holidaysHP Pavilion dv6-6005ea battery.[edit]SportMoldovan football team Sporting Chişinău in 1925.Main article: Sport in MoldovaTrânta (a form of wrestling) is the national sport in Moldova. Football is the most popular sport in Moldova.[citation needed]Rugby union is popular as well. Registered players have doubled, and almost 10,000 spectators turn up at every European Nations Cup match.[citation needed] The most prestigious cycling race is the Moldova President's Cup, which was first run in 2004HP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery.
Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/Romanian: Republica Moldova pronounced) is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union(HP Pavilion dv6-3000 battery). On 29 July 1994, the new constitution of Moldova was adopted and the state of the Moldovan SSR ceased to exist. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990(HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa battery).The nation is a parliamentary republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, Council of Europe, WTO, OSCE, GUAM, CIS, BSEC and other international organizations. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union(HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx battery),[6] and has implemented the first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP).EtymologyMain article: Name of MoldovaThe name "Moldova" is derived from the Moldova River; the valley of this river was a political center when the Principality of Moldavia was founded in 1359.[8] The origin of the name of the river is not clear. There is an account (a legend) of prince Dragoş naming the river after hunting an aurochs: after the chase(HP Pavilion dv6-3006tx battery), his exhausted hound Molda drowned in the river. According to Dimitrie Cantemir and Grigore Ureche, the dog's name was given to the river and extended to the Principality.[9][edit]HistoryMain article: History of Moldova[edit]PrehistoryDuring the Neolithic stone age era, Moldova's territory was the center of the large Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that stretched east beyond the Dniester River in Ukraine, and west up to and beyond the Carpathian Mountains in Romania(HP Pavilion dv6-3011tx battery). The inhabitants of this civilization, which lasted roughly from 5500 to 2750 BC, practiced agriculture, raised livestock, hunted, and made intricately designed pottery.[10] This society built very large settlements, some of which numbered up to 15,000 inhabitants.[citation needed][edit]Antiquity and Middle AgesStephen the Great, Prince of Moldavia between 1457 and 1504, and the most prominent Moldavian historical personality(HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa battery)Soroca Fort was built on the site of the former Genoese fortress Polihromia[citation needed]In Antiquity Moldova's territory was inhabited by Dacian tribes. Between the I and VII centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, then Byzantine Empires. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, the territory of modern Moldova was invaded many times in late antiquity and early Middle Ages(HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa battery), including by Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgarians, Magyars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols and Tatars.The Principality of Moldavia, established in 1359, was bounded by the Carpathian mountains in the west, Dniester river in the east, and Danube and Black Sea in the south. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern eight of the 41 counties of Romania(HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa battery), and the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Like the present-day republic and Romania's north-eastern region, it was known to the locals as Moldova. Moldavia was invaded repeatedly by Crimean Tatars and, since the 15th century, by the Turks. In 1538, the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but it retained internal and partial external autonomy(HP Pavilion dv6-3025sa battery).[11][edit]Modern history[edit]Russian EmpireIn accordance with the Treaty of Bucharest of 1812 and despite numerous protests by Moldavian nobles on behalf of their autonomous status, the Ottoman Empire (of which Moldavia was a vassal) ceded to the Russian Empire the eastern half of the territory of the Principality of Moldavia along with Khotyn and old Bessarabia (modern Budjak) (HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx battery).The new Russian province was called "Oblast of Moldavia and Bessarabia", and initially enjoyed a large degree of autonomy. After 1828 this autonomy was progressively restricted and in 1871 the Oblast was transformed into the Bessarabia Governorate, in a process of state-imposed assimilation, "Russification"(HP Pavilion dv6-3030sa battery). As part of this process, the Tsarist administration in Bessarabia gradually removed the Romanian language from official and religious use.[12] The western part of Moldavia (which is a part of present-day Romania) remained an autonomous principality, and in 1859, united with Wallachia to form the Kingdom of Romania(HP Pavilion dv6-3030tx battery).The Treaty of Paris (1856) returned three counties of Bessarabia — Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail — to Moldavia, but in the Treaty of Berlin (1878), the Kingdom of Romania agreed to return them to the Russian Empire. Over the 19th century, the Russian authorities encouraged colonization of the south of the region by Ukrainians(HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa battery), Lipovans, Cossacks, Bulgarians,[13] Germans,[14] Gagauzes, and allowed the settlement of more Jews,[15] to replace the large Nogai Tatar population expelled in the 1770s and 1780s, during Russo-Turkish Wars;[16] the Moldovan proportion of the population decreased from around 86% in 1816[17] to around 52% in 1905(HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa battery).[18][edit]Greater RomaniaGreater Romania mapWorld War I brought in a rise in political and cultural (ethnic) awareness among the inhabitants of the region, as 300,000 Bessarabians were drafted into the Russian Army formed in 1917; within bigger units several "Moldavian Soldiers' Committees" were formed. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Bessarabian parliament(HP Pavilion dv6-3032tx battery), Sfatul Ţării, was elected in October–November 1917 and opened on December 3 [O.S. November 21] 1917. The Sfatul Ţării proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic (December 15 [O.S. December 2] 1917) within a federal Russian state, and formed a government (December 21 [O.S. December 8] 1917) (HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa battery).Bessarabia proclaimed independence from Russia on February 6 [O.S. January 24] 1918 and requested the assistance of the French army present in Romania (general Henri Berthelot) and of the Romanian army, which had occupied the region in early January.[19] On April 9 [O.S. March 27] 1918, the Sfatul Ţării decided with 86 votes for(HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa battery), 3 against and 36 abstaining, to unite with the Kingdom of Romania. The union was conditional upon fulfillment of the agrarian reform, autonomy, and respect for universal human rights.[20] A part of the interim Parliament agreed to drop these conditions after Bukovina and Transylvania also joined the Kingdom of Romania, although historians note that they lacked the quorum to do so. (HP Pavilion dv6-3040sa battery)MPs of the Moldavian Democratic Republic in 1918This union was recognized by the principal Allied Powers in the 1920 Treaty of Paris, which however was not ratified by all of its signatories.[26][27] Some major powers, such as the United States and the newly communist Russia, did not recognize Romanian rule over Bessarabia, the latter considering it an occupation of Russian territory(HP Pavilion dv6-3042tx battery).[28]In May 1919, the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed as a government in exile. After the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising in 1924, the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR) was formed(HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa battery).In August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and its secret additional protocol were signed, by which Nazi Germany recognized Bessarabia as being within the Soviet sphere of influence, which led the latter to actively revive its claim to the region.[29] On June 28, 1940, the Soviet Union, with the acknowledgement of Nazi Germany(HP Pavilion dv6-3045sa battery), issued an ultimatum to Romania requesting the cession of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, with which Romania complied the following day. Soon after, the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian SSR) was established,[29] comprising about 70% of Bessarabia, and 50% of the now-disbanded Moldavian ASSR(HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa battery).As part of the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania seized the territories of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and Transnistria. Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported or exterminated about 300,000 Jews, including 147,000 from Bessarabia and Bukovina (of the latter, approximately 90,000 perished) (HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa battery).[30] The Soviet Army re-captured the region in February–August 1944, and re-established the Moldavian SSR. Between the end of the Jassy-Kishinev Offensive in August 1944 and the end of the war in May 1945, 256,800 inhabitants of the Moldavian SSR were drafted into the Soviet Army. 40,592 of them perished(HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa battery).[31][edit]Soviet eraEthnic Germans resettling after the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia in 1940During the Stalinist period (1940–1941, 1944–1953), deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to Siberia, and northern Kazakhstan occurred regularly, with the largest ones on 12–13 June 1941, and 5–6 July 1949, accounting from MSSR alone for 18,392[32] and 35,796 deportees respectively(HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx battery).[33] Other forms of Soviet persecution of the population included 32,433 political arrests, followed by Gulag or (in 8,360 cases) execution.In 1946, as a result of a severe drought and excessive delivery quota obligations and requisitions imposed by the Soviet government, the southwestern part of the USSR suffered from a major famine.[34] In 1946–1947(HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo battery), at least 216,000 deaths and about 350,000 cases of dystrophy were accounted by historians in the Moldavian SSR alone.[33] Similar events occurred in 1930s in the Moldavian ASSR.[33] In 1944–53, there were several anti-Soviet resistance groups in Moldova; however the NKVD and later MGB managed to eventually arrest, execute or deport their members(HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa battery).[33]In the postwar period, the Soviet government arranged migration of workforce (mostly Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians), into the new Soviet republic, especially into urbanized areas, partly to compensate for the demographic loss caused by the war and the emigration of 1940 and 1944.[35] In the 1970s and 1980s(HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa battery), the Moldavian SSR received substantial allocations from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial and scientific facilities and housing. In 1971, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of the city of Kishinev" (modern Chişinău) (HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa battery), that allotted more than one billion Soviet rubles from the USSR budget for building projects,[36] subsequent decisions also directed substantial funding and brought qualified specialists from other parts of the USSR to develop Moldova's industry.The Soviet government conducted a campaign to promote a Moldovan ethnic identity distinct from that of the Romanians(HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa battery), based on a theory developed during the existence of the Moldavian ASSR. Official Soviet policy asserted that the language spoken by Moldovans was distinct from the Romanian language (see Moldovenism). To distinguish the two, during the Soviet period, Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet, in contrast[citation needed] with Romanian, which since 1860 had been written in the Latin alphabet(HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa battery).After the death of Stalin, political persecutions changed in character from mass to individual. All independent organizations were severely reprimanded, with the National Patriotic Front leaders being sentenced in 1972 to long prison terms. The Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Moldova is assessing the activity of the communist totalitarian regime(HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea battery).In the 1980s, political conditions created by the glasnost and perestroika, a Democratic Movement of Moldova was formed, which in 1989 became known as the nationalist Popular Front of Moldova (FPM).[37][38] Along with several other Soviet republics, from 1988 onwards, Moldova started to move towards independence(HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea battery). On August 27, 1989, the FPM organized a mass demonstration in Chişinău that became known as the Grand National Assembly. The assembly pressured the authorities of the Moldavian SSR to adopt a language law on August 31, 1989 that proclaimed the Moldovan language written in the Latin script to be the state language of the MSSR. Its identity with the Romanian language was also established(HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea battery).[37][39] The year 1989 that had seen Communist Party increasingly pummeled, was also marked by November riots.[40][41][edit]IndependenceDeputy Gheorghe Ghimpu replaces the Soviet flag on the Parliament with the national one on April 27, 1990The first democratic elections for the local parliament were held in February and March 1990. Mircea Snegur was elected as Speaker of the Parliament, and Mircea Druc as Prime Minister. On June 23, 1990, the Parliament adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the "Soviet Socialist Republic Moldova"(HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea battery), which, among other things, stipulated the supremacy of Moldovan laws over those of the Soviet Union.[37] After the failure of the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, on August 27, 1991, Moldova declared its independence, Romania being the first state to recognize its independence(HP Pavilion dv6-3077la battery).On December 21 of the same year Moldova, along with most of the other Soviet republics, signed the constitutive act that formed the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Moldova received official recognition on December 25. On December 26, 1991 the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Declaring itself a neutral state(HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea battery), it did not join the military branch of the CIS. Three months later, on March 2, 1992, the country gained formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations. In 1994, Moldova became a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program and also a member of the Council of Europe on June 29, 1995(HP Pavilion dv6-3088la battery).[37]In the region east of the Dniester river, Transnistria, which includes a large proportion of predominantly russophone East Slavs of Ukrainian (28%) and Russian (26%) descent (altogether 54% as of 1989), while Moldovans (40%) have been the largest ethnic group, and where the headquarters and many units of the Soviet 14th Guards Army were stationed(HP Pavilion dv6-3089la battery), an independent Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on August 16, 1990, with its capital in Tiraspol.[37] The motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in Moldova and the country's expected reunification with Romania upon secession from the USSR( HP Pavilion dv6-3100 battery) . In the winter of 1991–1992 clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces, supported by elements of the 14th Army, and the Moldovan police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated into a military engagement.On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a market economy, liberalizing prices, which resulted in rapid inflation. From 1992 to 2001, the young country suffered a serious economic crisis( HP Pavilion dv6-3100sa battery) , leaving most of the population below the poverty line. In 1993, a national currency, the Moldovan leu, was introduced to replace the temporary cupon. The economy of Moldova began to change in 2001; and until 2008 the country saw a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. The early 2000s also saw a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Russia (especially the Moscow region) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea battery) , Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and other countries; remittances from Moldovans abroad account for almost 38% of Moldova's GDP, the second-highest percentage in the world.[42]In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the Democratic Agrarian Party gained a majority of the seats, setting a turning point in Moldovan politics. With the nationalist Popular Front now in a parliamentary minority( HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa battery) , new measures aiming to moderate the ethnic tensions in the country could be adopted. Plans for a union with Romania were abandoned,[37] and the new Constitution gave autonomy to the breakaway Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a "Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 the latter was constituted( HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa battery) .After winning the 1996 presidential elections, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party in 1989–91, became the country's second president (1997–2001), succeeding Mircea Snegur (1991–1996). In 2000, the Constitution was amended, transforming Moldova into a parliamentary republic( HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa battery) , with the president being chosen through indirect election rather than direct popular vote.Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in 1991), gained 71 of the 101 MPs, and on April 4, 2001, elected Vladimir Voronin as the country's third president (re-elected in 2005) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3113sa battery) . The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed Communist Party returned to power.[37] New governments were formed by Vasile Tarlev (April 19, 2001 – March 31, 2008), and Zinaida Greceanîi (March 31, 2008 – September 14, 2009). In 2001–2003 relations between Moldova and Russia improved, but then temporarily deteriorated in 2003–2006( HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa battery) , in the wake of the failure of the Kozak memorandum, culminating in the 2006 wine exports crisis. The Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova managed to stay in power for eight years. The fragmentation of the liberal (aka the democrats) helped consolidate its power. The decline of the party started in 2009 after Marian Lupu joined the Democratic Party and thus attracted many of the Moldovans supporting the Communists( HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa battery) .[43]2009 Moldova civil unrest at the Parliament buildingIn the April 2009 parliamentary elections, the Communist Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with 13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43%, and the Alliance "Moldova Noastră" with 9.77%. The controversial results of this election sparked civil unrest( HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx battery) In August 2009, four Moldovan parties – Liberal Democratic Party, Liberal Party, Democratic Party, and Our Moldova Alliance – agreed to create a governing coalition that pushed the Communist party into opposition. On August 28, 2009, this coalition chose a new parliament speaker (Mihai Ghimpu) in a vote that was boycotted by Communist legislators( HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa battery) . Vladimir Voronin, who had been President of Moldova since 2001, eventually resigned on September 11, 2009, but the Parliament failed to elect a new president. The acting president Mihai Ghimpu instituted the Commission for constitutional reform in Moldova to adopt a new version of the Constitution of Moldova( HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx battery) . After the constitutional referendum aimed to approve the reform failed in September 2010,[46] the parliament was dissolved again and a new parliamentary election was scheduled for 28 November 2010.[47] On December 30, 2010, Marian Lupu was elected as the Speaker of the Parliament.[48] In accordance with the Constitution, he will be serving as the Acting President of Republic of Moldova( HP Pavilion dv6-3117sa battery) .Government and politicsMoldova is a unitary parliamentary representative democratic republic. The 1994 Constitution of Moldova sets the framework for the government of the country. A parliamentary majority of at least two thirds is required to amend the Constitution of Moldova, which cannot be revised in time of war or national emergency( HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa battery) . Amendments to the Constitution affecting the state's sovereignty, independence, or unity can only be made after a majority of voters support the proposal in a referendum. Furthermore, no revision can be made to limit the fundamental rights of people enumerated in the Constitution( HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa battery) .[49]The country's central legislative body is the unicameral Moldovan Parliament (Parlament), which has 101 seats, and whose members are elected by popular vote on party lists every four years.The head of state is the President of Moldova, who is elected by the Moldovan Parliament, requiring the support of three fifths of the deputies (at least 61 votes) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa battery) . The president of Moldova has been elected by the parliament since 2001, a change designed to decrease executive authority in favor of the legislature. The president appoints a prime minister who functions as the head of government, and who in turn assembles a cabinet, both subject to parliamentary approval( HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa battery) .The 1994 constitution also establishes an independent Constitutional Court, composed of six judges (two appointed by the President, two by Parliament, and two by the Supreme Council of Magistrature), serving six-year terms, during which they are irremovable and not subordinate to any power. The Court is invested with the power of judicial review over all acts of the parliament( HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa battery) , over presidential decrees, and over international treaties, signed by the country.[49]Foreign relationsMain articles: Foreign Relations of Moldova and Moldova and the European UnionEmbassy of Moldova in Washington, D.C.Moldova has fixed as a priority EU integrationAfter achieving independence from the Soviet Union, Moldova established relations with other European countries. A course for European Union integration and neutrality define the country's foreign policy guidelines( HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa battery) . In 1995 the country was admitted to the Council of Europe. In addition to its participation in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, Moldova is also a member state of the United Nations, the OSCE, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Francophonie and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development( HP Pavilion dv6-3125sa battery) .In 2005, Moldova and the EU established an action plan that sought to improve the collaboration between the two neighboring structures. At the end of 2005 EUBAM, the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine, was established at the joint request of the presidents of Moldova and Ukraine( HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa battery) . EUBAM assists the Moldovan and Ukrainian governments in approximating their border and customs procedures to EU standards, and offers support in both countries' fight against cross-border crime.After the War of Transnistria, Moldova sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the Transnistria region by working with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, calling for international mediation( HP Pavilion dv6-3130sa battery) , and cooperating with the OSCE and UN fact-finding and observer missions. The foreign minister of Moldova, Andrei Stratan, repeatedly stated that the Russian troops stationed in the breakaway region are there against the will of the Moldovan Government and called on them to leave "completely and unconditionally."[50] In 2012, the death of Vadim Pisari has raised the tension with Russia and has revived a decades-old debate over security in Moldova( HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa battery) .[51]In September 2010, the European Parliament approved a grant of €90 million to Moldova.[52] The money will supplement $570 million in International Monetary Fund loans,[53] World Bank and other bilateral support already granted to Moldova. In April 2010( HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa battery) , Romania offered to Moldova development aid worth of €100 million while the number of scholarships for Moldovan students will double to 5,000.[54] According to a lending agreement signed in February 2010, Poland will provide US$15 million and will support Moldova in its European integration efforts( HP Pavilion dv6-3141sa battery) .[55] The first joint meeting of the Governments of Romania and Moldova, held in March 2012, concluded with several bilateral agreements in various fields.[56][57] The European orientation “has been the policy of Moldova in recent years and this is the policy that must continue,” Nicolae Timofti told lawmakers before his election( HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa battery) .”[58][edit]MilitarySoldiers of the Moldovan ArmyMain article: Military of MoldovaThe Moldovan armed forces consist of the Ground Forces and Air and Air Defense Forces. Moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union. On October 30, 1992, Moldova ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment and provides for the destruction of weapons in excess of those limits( HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo battery) . The country acceded to the provisions of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in October 1994 in Washington, D.C. It does not have nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. Moldova joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's Partnership for Peace on March 16, 1994( HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea battery) .Moldova is committed to a number of international and regional control of arms regulations such as the UN Firearms Protocol, Stability Pact Regional Implementation Plan, the UN Programme of Action (PoA) and the OSCE Documents on Stockpiles of Conventional Ammunition( HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea battery) .[edit]Human rightsMain article: Human rights in MoldovaAccording to Amnesty International, "Torture and other ill-treatment in police detention remained widespread; the state failed to carry out prompt and impartial investigations and police officers sometimes evaded penalties. Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) activists were again denied the right to demonstrate( HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea battery) ."[59] Political dissidents from Ilaşcu Group were released from arbitrary detention only after an order of the European Court of Human Rights.[60] In 2009, when Moldova experienced its most serious civil unrest in a decade, several civilians like Valeriu Boboc were killed by police and many more injured.[61] According to Human Rights Report of the United States Department of State( HP Pavilion dv6-3300 battery) , released in April 2011, "In contrast to the previous year, there were no reports of killings by security forces. During the year reports of government exercising undue influence over the media substantially decreased." But "Transnistrian authorities continued to harass independent media and opposition lawmakers; restrict freedom of association, movement, and religion; and discriminate against Romanian speakers( HP Pavilion dv6-3300sg battery) ."[62] Moldova "has made “noteworthy progress” on religious freedom since the era of the Soviet Union, but it can still take further steps to foster diversity," said the UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief Heiner Bielefeldt, in Chişinău, in September 2011( HP Pavilion dv6-3350ef battery) .[63][edit]Administrative divisionsTerritories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia are now split between Romania in blue, Moldova in green, and Ukraine in pink (Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak).Main articles: Administrative divisions of Moldova, List of cities in Moldova, and List of localities in Moldova( HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf battery) Moldova is divided into thirty-two districts (raioane, singular raion), three municipalities and two autonomous regions (Gagauzia and Transnistria).[64] The final status of Transnistria is disputed, as the central government does not control that territory. The cities of Comrat and Tiraspol, the administrative seats of the two autonomous territories also have municipality status( HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef battery) .Moldova has 65 cities (towns), including the five with municipality status, and 917 communes. Some other 699 villages are too small to have a separate administration, and are administratively part of either cities (40 of them) or communes (659). This makes for a total of 1,681 localities of Moldova, all but two of which are inhabited( HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf battery) .GeographyMain article: Geography of MoldovaDniester valley viewOld OrheiMoldova lies between latitudes 45° and 49° N, and mostly between meridians 26° and 30° E (a small area lies east of 30°).The total land area is 33,851 km2The largest part of the nation lies between two rivers, the Dniester and the Prut. The western border of Moldova is formed by the Prut river, which joins the Danube before flowing into the Black Sea( HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef battery) . Moldova has access to the Danube for only about 480 m (1,575 ft), and Giurgiuleşti is the only Moldovan port on the Danube. In the east, the Dniester is the main river, flowing through the country from north to south, receiving the waters of Răut, Bâc, Ichel, Botna. Ialpug flows into one of the Danube limans, while Cogâlnic into the Black Sea chain of limans( HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf battery) .The country is landlocked, even though it is very close to the Black Sea. While most of the country is hilly, elevations never exceed 430 m (1,411 ft) — the highest point being the Bălăneşti Hill. Moldova's hills are part of the Moldavian Plateau, which geologically originate from the Carpathian Mountains( HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef battery) . Its subdivisions in Moldova include Dniester Hills (Northern Moldavian Hills and Dniester Ridge), Moldavian Plain (Middle Prut Valley and Bălţi Steppe), and Central Moldavian Plateau (Ciuluc-Soloneţ Hills, Corneşti Hills (Codri Massive; "Codri" meaning "forests"), Lower Dniester Hills, Lower Prut Valley, and Tigheci Hills). In the south, the country has a small flatland, the Bugeac Plain( HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf battery) . The territory of Moldova east of the river Dniester is split between parts of the Podolian Plateau, and parts of the Eurasian Steppe.The country's main cities are the capital Chişinău, in the center of the country, Tiraspol (in the eastern region of Transnistria), Bălţi (in the north) and Bender (in the south-east). Comrat is the administrative center of GagauziaHP Pavilion dv6-6000 battery .ClimateMoldova's proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate.Moldova's climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with temperatures averaging about 20 °C (68 °F), and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with January temperatures averaging −4 °C (25 °F). Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600 millimeters (23.6 in) in the north to 400 millimeters (15.7 in) HP Pavilion dv6-6000eg battery in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river siltingHP Pavilion dv6-6001ea battery.Weather records. The highest temperature ever recorded: +41.5 °C (106.70 °F) on July 21, 2007 (Camenca). The lowest temperature ever recorded: −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) on January 20, 1963 (Brătuşeni, Edineţ county).[edit]EconomyGDP by sectorA portrait of Stephen III is found on the front of each leu banknote.Main article: Economy of MoldovaSince the collapse of the Soviet Union, the relative weight of the service sector in the economy of Moldova started to grow and began to dominate the GDP (now about 75%), as a result of decrease in industry and agricultureHP Pavilion dv6-6001eg battery. The main economic indicators contracted dramatically.As of 2009, Moldova has been described by the European Parliament as the poorest country in Europe in terms of GDP.[66][edit]EnergyMoldova imports all of its supplies of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, largely from Russia. Moldova is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topicsHP Pavilion dv6-6001sg battery: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.[67][edit]Economic reformsThere are 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 bani coins of the Moldovan leu.After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, energy shortages contributed to sharp production declines. As part of an ambitious economic liberalization effortHP Pavilion dv6-6002eg battery, Moldova introduced a convertible currency, liberalized all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises, backed steady land privatization, removed export controls, and liberalized interest rates. The government entered into agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to promote growthHP Pavilion dv6-6002sg battery.Sky Tower in Downtown ChişinăuRecent trends indicate that the Communist government intends to reverse some of these policies, and recollectivise land while placing more restrictions on private business. The economy returned to positive growth, of 2.1% in 2000 and 6.1% in 2001. Growth remained strong in 2007 (6%), in part because of the reforms and because of starting from a small baseHP Pavilion dv6-6003eg battery. The economy remains vulnerable to higher fuel prices, poor agricultural weather, and the skepticism of foreign investors.[citation needed]Following the regional financial crisis in 1998, Moldova has made significant progress towards achieving and retaining macroeconomic and financial stabilization. It has, furthermoreHP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery, implemented many structural and institutional reforms that are indispensable for the efficient functioning of a market economy. These efforts have helped maintain macroeconomic and financial stability under difficult external circumstances, enabled the resumption of economic growth and contributed to establishing an environment conducive to the economy's further growth and development in the medium term. HP Pavilion dv6-6005ea batteryGeneral Statistic Diagrams of Internet in Moldova, in terms of download speed country ranked 9 in WorldDespite these efforts and recent resumption of economic growth, Moldova ranks low in terms of commonly used living standards and human development indicators in comparison with other transition economies. Although the economy experienced a constant economic growth after 2000HP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery: with 2.1%, 6.1%, 7.8% and 6.3% between 2000 and 2003 (with a forecast of 8% in 2004), one can observe that these latest developments hardly reach the level of 1994, with almost 40% of the GDP registered in 1990. Thus, during the last decade little has been done to reduce the country's vulnerability. After a severe economic declineHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery, social and economic challenges, energy uprooted dependencies, Moldova continues to occupy one of the last places among European countries in income per capita.[citation needed]In 2005 (according to the Human Development Report), the registered GDP per capita was US $ 2,100 PPP, which was 4.5 times lower than the world average at the time (US $ 9,543). Moreover, GDP per capita was under the average of its statistical regionHP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery (US $ 9,527 PPP). In 2005, about 20.8% of the population were under the absolute poverty line and registered an income lower than US $ 2.15 (PPP) per day. Moldova is classified as medium in human development and is at the 111th spot in the list of 177 countries. The value of the Human Development Index (0.708) is below the world averageHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery. Moldova remains the poorest country in Europe in terms of official (i.e., excluding the black and grey economy) per capita which currently stands at $1,808.729[68]The GDP in 2007 constituted $4.104 billion.[69] That constituted a growth of 3% from 2006.[edit]Wine industryMileştii Mici contains the world's largest wine cellarsMain articles: Moldovan wine and Moldovan wine producersMoldova is known for its wines. For many years viticulture and winemaking in Moldova were the general occupation of the populationHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery. Evidence of this is present in historical memorials and documents, folklore, and the Moldovan spoken language.The country has a well established wine industry. It has a vineyard area of 147,000 hectares (360,000 acres), of which 102,500 ha (253,000 acres) are used for commercial production. Most of the country's wine production is made for exportHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery. Many families have their own recipes and strands of grapes that have been passed down through the generations.Moldova consumes the highest amount of alcohol per capita in the world.[70][edit]AgricultureMain article: Agriculture of MoldovaMoldova's rich soil and temperate continental climate (with warm summers and mild winters) have made the country one of the most productive agricultural regions since ancient times, and a major supplier of agricultural products in southeastern EuropeHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery. In agriculture, the economic reform started with the land cadastre reform.[edit]TourismMain article: Tourism in MoldovaTourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its history. Wine tours are offered to tourists across the country. Vineyards/cellars include Cricova, Purcari, Ciumai, Romanesti, Cojuşna, Milestii MiciHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery.[edit]TransportChișinău International AirportMain articles: Transport in Moldova and Rail transport in MoldovaThe main means of transportation in Moldova are railroads 1,138 km (707 mi) and a highway system (12,730 km/7,910 mi overall, including 10,937 km/6,796 mi of paved surfaces). The sole international air gateway of Moldova is the Chişinău International Airport. The Giurgiuleşti terminal on the Danube is compatible with small seagoing vesselsHP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery. Shipping on the lower Prut and Nistru rivers plays only a modest role in the country's transportation system.[edit]TelecommunicationsMain article: Telecommunications in MoldovaThe first million of mobile telephone users was registered in September 2005. The number of mobile telephone users in Moldova increased by 47.3 % in the first quarter of 2008 against the last year and exceeded 2.89 millionHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery.[71]In September 2009, Moldova was the first country in the world to launch high-definition voice services (HD voice) for mobile phones, and the first country in Europe to launch 14,4 Mbit/s mobile broadband at a national scale, with over 40% population coverageHP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery.[72]As of 2010 there are around 1,295,000 Internet users in Moldova with overall Internet penetration of 35.9%.[73][edit]DemographicsMain article: Demographics of MoldovaEthno-linguistic composition in 2004[edit]Cultural and ethnic compositionThe last reference data is that of the 2004 Moldovan Census[1] (areas controlled by the central government), and the 2004 Census in Transnistria (areas controlled by the breakaway authorities, including Transnistria, Bender/Tighina, and four neighboring communes) HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery:1There is an ongoing controversy whether Romanians and Moldovans are the same ethnic group, namely whether Moldovans' self-identification constitutes an ethnic group distinct and apart from Romanians or a subset. There were also numerous allegations that the ethnic affiliation numbers were riggedHP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery, 7 out of 10 observer groups of the Council of Europe reported a significant number of cases when census-takers recommended respondents to declare themselves Moldovans rather than Romanians. Complicating the interpretation of the results, 18.8% of respondents that identified themselves as Moldovans declared Romanian to be their native languageHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery. [74][edit]LanguagesMain articles: Languages of Moldova, Moldovan language, and Romanian languageA Limba noastră social ad in Chişinău, with the word "Română" sprayed onto itThe Constitution of 1994 states that the national language of the Republic of Moldova is Moldovan, and its writing is based on the Latin alphabet.[75] The 1991 Declaration of Independence names the official language Romanian. HP Pavilion dv6-6024tx batteryThe 1989 State Language Law speaks of a Moldovan-Romanian linguistic identity.There is a political controversy over the name of the main ethnicity of the Republic of Moldova. During 2003–2009, the Communist government adopted a national political conception which states that one of the priorities of the national politics of the Republic of Moldova is the insurance of the existence of the Moldovan language. HP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are the same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts.[80]Russian is provided with the status of a "language of interethnic communication" (alongside the official language), and in practice remains widely used on all levels of the society and the stateHP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery. The above-mentioned national political conception also states that Russian-Moldovan bilingualism is characteristic for Moldova.[79]As of the 2004 census, the country has significant Russian (6%) and Ukrainian (8.4%) populations. 50% of ethnic Ukrainians, 27% of Gagauz, 35% of Bulgarians, and 54% of smaller ethnic groups speak Russian as first language. In total, there are 541,000 people (or 16% of the populationHP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery) in Moldova who use Russian as first language, including 130,000 ethnic Moldovans. On the other hand, 47,000 members of ethnic minorities use Romanian as first language.Gagauz and Ukrainian have significant regional speaker populations and are granted official status together with Russian in Gagauzia and Transnistria respectivelyHP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery.From 1996 the Republic, also being Romance-speaking, is a full member of Francophonia. Therefore the French language occupies the principal place among the foreign languages. In 2009/10 it was told taught to 52% of schoolchildren as L1 and 7% as L2. It is followed by English having 48% and 6% respectively, and German, which was taught to 3% altogether. HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery[edit]ReligionFor the 2004 census, Orthodox Christians, who make up 93.3% of Moldova's population, were not required to declare the particular of the two main churches they belong to. The Moldovan Orthodox Church, autonomous and subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Orthodox Church of BessarabiaHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery, autonomous and subordinated to the Romanian Orthodox Church, both claim to be the national church of the country. 1.9% of the population is Protestant, 0.9% belongs to other religions, 1.0% is non-religious, 0.4% is atheist, and 2.2% did not answer the religion question at the censusHP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery.[edit]EducationNational Library of MoldovaMain article: Education in MoldovaIn Moldova, there are 16 state and 15[82] private institutions of higher education, with a total of 126,100 students, including 104,300 in the state institutions, and 21,700 in the private ones. The number of students per 10,000 inhabitants in Moldova has been constantly growing since the collapse of the Soviet Union, reaching 217 in 2000–2001, and 351 in 2005–2006HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef battery.The National Library of Moldova was founded in 1832. The Moldova State University and the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, the main scientific organizations of Moldova, were established in 1946.[edit]CrimeMain article: Crime in MoldovaThe CIA World Factbook lists widespread crime and underground economic activity among major crime issues in Moldova. HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery[edit]HealthMain article: Health in MoldovaThe average birth rate is at 1.5 children per woman.[84] Public expenditure on health was 4.2% of the GDP and private expenditure on health 3.2%.[84] There are about 264 physicians per 100,000 people.[84] Health expenditure was 138 US$ (PPP) per capita in 2004. HP Pavilion dv6-6063sf batterySince the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country has seen a decrease in spending on health care and, as a result, the tuberculosis incidence rate in the country has grown.[85] Because of this, Moldova is struggling with one of the highest incidence rates of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in the world. HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery[edit]EmigrationMain article: Emigration from MoldovaEmigration is a mass phenomenon in Moldova and has a major impact on the country's demographics and economy. The Moldovan Intelligence and Security Service has estimated that 600,000 to one million Moldovan citizens (almost 25% of the population) are working abroad, most illegally. HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery[edit]CultureMain article: Culture of MoldovaMihai Eminescu, national poet of Moldova and RomaniaLocated geographically at the crossroads of Latin, Slavic and other cultures, Moldova has enriched its own culture adopting and maintaining some of the traditions of its neighbors and of other influence sources.The country's cultural heritage was marked by numerous churches and monasteries built by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in the 15th century, by the works of the later renaissance Metropolitans Varlaam and DosofteiHP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery, and those of scholars such as Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Nicolae Milescu, Dimitrie Cantemir,[88] Ion Neculce. In the 19th century, Moldavians from the territories of the medieval Principality of Moldavia, then split between Austria, Russia, and an Ottoman-vassal Moldavia (after 1859, Romania), made a significant contribution to the formation of the modern Romanian cultureHP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery. Among these were many Bessarabians, such as Alexandru Donici, Alexandru Hâjdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stamati, Constantin Stamati-Ciurea, Costache Negruzzi, Alecu Russo, Constantin Stere.Mihai Eminescu, a late Romantic poet, and Ion Creangă, a writer, are the most influential Romanian language artists, considered national writers both in Romania and Moldova. HP Pavilion dv6-1016ez batteryThe largest ethnic group is a speaker of Romanian and share the Romanian culture. Their culture has been also influenced (through Eastern Orthodoxy) by the Byzantine culture.[citation needed]The country has also important minority ethnic communities. Gagauz, 4.4% of the population, are Christian Turkic people. Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Jews, UkrainiansHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery, although not numerous, were present since as early as 17th century, and had left cultural marks. The 19th century saw the arrival of many more Ukrainians and Jews from Podolia and Galicia, as well as new communities, such as Lipovans, Bulgarians and Bessarabian GermansHP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery.In the second part of the 20th century, Moldova saw a massive Soviet immigration, which brought with it many elements of Soviet culture.Moldovan culture was also influenced by historic minority ethnic communities, and in turn has had an influence on the culture of these groups, such as Bessarabian Germans and Bessarabian JewsHP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery.[edit]Popular mediaMain articles: Television in Moldova, Cinema of Moldova, and List of newspapers in MoldovaRadio Basarabia in 1940In October 1939, Radio Basarabia, a local station of the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company, was the first radio station opened in Chişinău. Television in Moldova was introduced in April 1958, within the framework of Soviet televisionHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery. Through cable, Moldovan viewers can receive a large number of Russian channels, a few Romanian channels, and several Russian language versions of international channels in addition to several local channels. One Russian and two local channels are aired.[edit]Food and beverageA popular Moldovan dish of stuffed cabbage rolls (sarma), accompanied by sauerkraut and mămăligăHP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery.Main article: Moldovan cuisineSee also: Moldovan wineMoldovan cuisine is similar to neighboring Romania, and has been influenced by elements of Russian, Turkish, and Ukrainian cuisine. Main dishes include beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, and a variety of cereals. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy), beer, and local wineHP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery.Total recorded adult alcohol consumption is approximately evenly split between spirits, beer and wine; and the average annual adult per capita consumption, in terms of pure alcohol, in 2003–2005, was 18.2 litres, the highest in the world.[89][edit]MusicZdob şi Zdub performing at the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest.Main article: Music of MoldovaAmong Moldova's most prominent composers are Gavriil Musicescu, Ştefan Neaga and Eugen DogaHP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery.In the field of popular music, Moldova has produced the band O-Zone, who came to prominence in 2003, with their hit song Dragostea Din Tei. Moldova has been participating in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2005. Another popular band from Moldova is ska rock band Zdob şi Zdub that represented the country in the 2005 Eurovision Song ContestHP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery, finishing 6th. They also again represented Moldova in the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest, finishing 12th. Dan Bălan, another popular artist, released the album Chica Bomb in 2010.Also worth mentioning is the band SunStroke Project, which along with Olia Tira represented the country in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest with their hit song, Run AwayHP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery. Their performance gained international notoriety as an internet meme due to the pelvic thrusting and dancing of Sergey Stepanov, the band saxophonist. He has been fittingly dubbed "Epic Sax Guy."[edit]HolidaysMain article: Public holidays in MoldovaMost retail businesses close on New Year's Day and Independence Day, but remain open on all other holidays.[edit]SportMoldovan football team Sporting Chişinău in 1925.Main article: Sport in MoldovaTrânta (a form of wrestling) is the national sport in Moldova. Football is the most popular sport in Moldova. HP Pavilion dv6-1009el batteryRugby union is popular as well. Registered players have doubled, and almost 10,000 spectators turn up at every European Nations Cup match.[citation needed] The most prestigious cycling race is the Moldova President's Cup, which was first run in 2004HP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery.
Latvia (Latvian: Latvija), officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Republika), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia (border length 343 km), to the south by Lithuania (588 km), to the east by the Russian Federation (276 km), to the southeast by Belarus (141 km) HP Pavilion dv6-1103au battery,[7] and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden. With 2,067,887 inhabitants[4] and a territory of 64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi)[8] it is one of the least populous and least densely populated countries of the European Union. The capital of Latvia is Riga. The official language is Latvian and the currency is called Lats (Ls). The country has a temperate seasonal climateHP Pavilion dv6-1102tx battery.The Latvians are a Baltic people, culturally related to the Lithuanians. Together with the Finno-Ugric Livs (or Livonians), the Latvians are the indigenous people of Latvia.[8] Latvian is an Indo-European language and along with Lithuanian the only two surviving members of the Baltic branch. Indigenous minority languages are Latgalian and the nearly extinct Finno-Ugric Livonian languageHP Pavilion dv6-1102tu battery. In terms of geography, territory and population Latvia is the middle of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Latvia and Estonia share a long common history: historical Livonia, times of German (Teutonic Order), Polish-Lithuanian, Swedish, Russian, Nazi German and Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-1102ax battery, 13th century Christianization and 16th century Protestant Reformation. Both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians (26.9% in Latvia[2] and 25.5% in Estonia[9]) of whom some are non-citizens. Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant, except for the region of Latgalia in the southeast which is historically predominantly Roman CatholicHP Pavilion dv6-1102au battery.Latvia is a unitary parliamentary republic and is divided into 118 administrative divisions of which 109 municipalities and 9 cities. There are five planning regions: Courland (Kurzeme), Latgalia (Latgale), Riga (Rīga), Vidzeme and Zemgale. The Republic of Latvia was founded on November 18, 1918HP Pavilion dv6-1101tx battery. It was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union between 1940–1941 and 1945–1991 and by Nazi Germany between 1941–1945. The peaceful "Singing Revolution" between 1987 and 1991 and "Baltic Chain" demonstration on August 23, 1989 led to the independence of the Baltic states. Latvia declared the restoration of its de facto independence on August 21, 1991HP Pavilion dv6-1101tu battery.Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OSCE, IMF and WTO, and is part of the Schengen Area. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946) and the Baltic Free Trade Area (1994–2004). Latvia is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States[10] and Nordic Investment BankHP Pavilion dv6-1101so battery, and is together with Estonia and Lithuania involved in trilateral Baltic States cooperation[11] and Nordic-Baltic cooperation.[12][13]After economic stagnation in the early 1990s, Latvia posted Europe-leading GDP growth figures during 1998–2006. In the global financial crisis of 2008–2010 Latvia was the hardest hit of the European Union member states, with a GDP decline of 26.54% in that periodHP Pavilion dv6-1101ax battery. Commentators noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy by 2010, and the state of the economy continued to improve, as Latvia once again became one of the fastest growing economies of the EU in 2011.[16][17] The United Nations lists Latvia as a country with a Human Development Index (HDI) of "Very High".HP Pavilion dv6-1101au batteryEtymologyThe name Latvija comes from the ancient Latgallians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, who along with Couronians, Selonians and Semigallians formed the ethnic core of today’s Latvian people.[18][edit]HistoryAround the beginning of the third millennium BC (3000 BC), the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic SeaHP Pavilion dv6-1100sv battery.[19] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.[20] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians[citation needed] (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic languageHP Pavilion dv6-1100ss battery.[edit]The Medieval periodAlthough the local people had had contact with the outside world for centuries, they were more fully integrated into European society in the 12th century.[21] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.[22] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as hopedHP Pavilion dv6-1100so battery.[22] German crusaders were sent into Latvia to convert the pagan population by force of arms.[23]In the beginning of the 13th century, large parts of today's Latvia were ruled by Germans.[22] Together with Southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana or Livonia. In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, LimbažiHP Pavilion dv6-1100es battery, Koknese and Valmiera, were included in the Hanseatic League.[22] Riga became an important point of east-west trading[22] and formed close cultural contacts with Western Europe[citation needed].[edit]The Reformation periodThe 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries were a time of great change for the inhabitants of Latvia, including the reformation, the collapse of the Livonian state, and the time when the Latvian territory was divided up among foreign powersHP Pavilion dv6-1100eo battery.After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Latvia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.[22] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Ducatus Ultradunensis (Pārdaugavas hercogiste). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of LivoniaHP Pavilion dv6-1099ef battery, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia[citation needed]. Though the duchy was a vassal state to Poland, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 17th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Polish district of InflantyHP Pavilion dv6-1090es battery.The 17th and early 18th centuries saw a struggle between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611), northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629HP Pavilion dv6-1090eo battery. In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.[24][25]Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion. The ancient tribes of the Couronians, SemigalliansHP Pavilion dv6-1080es battery, Selonians, Livs and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language. Throughout all the centuries, however, no such thing as a Latvian state existed so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1080eq battery, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.[26][edit]Latvia in the Russian EmpireThe Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate)[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv6-1080el battery. The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia became an autonomous Russian province (the Courland Governorate) in 1795, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian EmpireHP Pavilion dv6-1070eo battery. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag[citation needed].During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), the Baltic area was once again the scene of great devastation, with Peter the Great's scorched-earth policy, famine, and plague being responsible for catastrophic loss of human life: as much as 40% of the population in Latvian lands were killed. HP Pavilion dv6-1068el batteryIn 1710, the plague reached Riga, where it was active until 1711 and claimed the lives of about half the population.[28]The promises Peter the Great made to the Baltic German nobility at the fall of Riga in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad and known as "the Capitulations", largely reversed the Swedish reformsHP Pavilion dv6-1066el battery.The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819[citation needed]. In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility[citation needed], as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates "of their own free will"HP Pavilion dv6-1062el battery.During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically[citation needed]. A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained[citation needed]. There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisieHP Pavilion dv6-1060ev battery. The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order[citation needed]. The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National AwakeningHP Pavilion dv6-1060es battery. Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s[citation needed]. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provincesHP Pavilion dv6-1060eo battery.[edit]Declaration of Independence “Poland & The New Baltic States” map from a British atlas in 1920, showing still-undefined borders after the treaties of Brest and Versailles and before the Peace of Riga.Kārlis UlmanisWorld War I devastated the territory of what would become the state of Latvia, along with other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were at first confined to autonomyHP Pavilion dv6-1060el battery, but the Russian 1917 Revolution, treaty with Germany at Brest-Litovsk, and allied armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, created a power vacuum. The People's Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country in Riga on November 18, 1918, with Kārlis Ulmanis becoming the head of the provisional governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1058el battery.The War of Independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments — Ulmanis' government; the Soviet Latvian government led by Pēteris Stučka, whose forces, supported by the Red ArmyHP Pavilion dv6-1056el battery, occupied almost all of the country; and the Baltic German government of the United Baltic Duchy, headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.Estonian and Latvian forces[citation needed] defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919, and a massive attack by a predominantly German force — the West Russian Volunteer ArmyHP Pavilion dv6-1055ee battery — under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish-Soviet War)[citation needed].A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on May 1, 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922HP Pavilion dv6-1053cl battery.[29] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934, but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landlessHP Pavilion dv6-1050us battery; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.[30]By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary periodHP Pavilion dv6-1050et battery. On May 15, 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.[31] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of "Latvianising" the economy.[32][edit]Latvia in World War IISee also: Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940, Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany, The Holocaust in Latvia, Latvian partisans, and Latvian resistance movementHP Pavilion dv6-1050ep battery"TWO WORLDS": Anti-Sovietism propaganda board, Latvia, Summer, 1941.Early in the morning of August 24, 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945HP Pavilion dv6-1050eo battery, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence".[33] In the North, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.[33] Thereafter, Germany and the Soviet union invaded their respective portions of PolandHP Pavilion dv6-1050en battery.After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis' government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich program.[34] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1050ei battery.[34] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement[citation needed] scheme was agreed.[35]On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.[36] After staging border incidents, on 16 June 1940 the government of the USSR handed the Latvian ambassador in Moscow a noteHP Pavilion dv6-1050ef battery, in which Latvia was accused of breaching the articles of the agreement of 5 October 1939, and demands were made for sending in additional Soviet troops and to change the government. The Latvian government capitulated in the face of overwhelming force. On 17 June Soviet troops invaded Latvian territory. In his address by radioHP Pavilion dv6-1046el battery, Kārlis Ulmanis, announced: “Soviet forces are marching into our land this very morning. This is happening with the knowledge and consent of the government, which in turn stems from the amicable relations that exist between Latvia and the Soviet Union. It is, therefore, my wish that the residents of our country also show friendship towards the advancing military unitsHP Pavilion dv6-1045ez battery ... The government has resigned. I shall remain in my place, you remain in yours”. No opposition was shown towards the Soviet forces; on the contrary, part of the population accepted the news of their arrival with enthusiasm, which was heavily exploited by Soviet propaganda. Observing them, the well known Russian lawyer and public figure of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1045eo battery, Pyotr Yakobi, wrote: “Taken from the German model, the authoritarian beginning in our country has turned into a government of national bureaucracy, having satisfied a limited circle of citizens, who have adapted themselves to the state pie. Clearly, any hardship is not in vainHP Pavilion dv6-1045ei battery. And so now the down-trodden have raised their voice and demand a return of their rights that have been trampled on ... “. Among those unhappy with the regime of Kārlis Ulmanis were not only the national minorities but also many Latvians who were anxious about the deteriorating economic situation and who had no desire to end up under the rule of Nazi GermanyHP Pavilion dv6-1045ee battery.The mass killings of 2,749 Jews on the beach near the city of Liepāja, December 1941.State administrators were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres,[37] in which 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.[38] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positionsHP Pavilion dv6-1044el battery; the resulting people's assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union.[37] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.[39] Latvia was incorporated into the Soviet Union on August 5, 1940 as The Latvian Soviet Socialist RepublicHP Pavilion dv6-1042el battery.The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to the German invasion, in the course of less than a year, at least 27,586 persons were arrested; most were deported for cooperation with the German army[citation needed], and about 945 persons were shot[citation needed]. While under German occupationHP Pavilion dv6-1040ez battery, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust as well.[31] More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupationHP Pavilion dv6-1040ev battery.[31] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, including in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, most of them conscripted by the occupying Nazi and Soviet authorities.[edit]Soviet eraMain articles: Occupation of Latvia by Soviet Union 1944–1945, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, and StalinismIn 1944 when the Soviet military advances reached the area heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops which ended with another German defeatHP Pavilion dv6-1040el battery. During the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation's "live resources". In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stayHP Pavilion dv6-1040ek battery, and Latvian national partisans, soon to be joined by German collaborators, began their fight against another occupier – the Soviet Union.[40]File:Shack from Gulag — Museum of the Occupation of Latvia.JPGReconstruction of shack from Gulag in museumAnywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.[41] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1040ei battery, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,[42] returned by the West.[43] The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised and SovieticisedHP Pavilion dv6-1040ed battery.[31]On March 25, 1949, 43,000 rural residents ("kulaks") and Latvian patriots ("nationalists") were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on January 29, 1949.[44] Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisonedHP Pavilion dv6-1040eb battery, repressed or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post war years, from 1945 to 1952.[45] Some managed to escape arrest and joined the partisans[citation needed].In the post-war period, Latvia was driven to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivisation.[46] An extensive programme to impose bilingualism was initiated in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1038ca battery, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belorussian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.[47] An influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics startedHP Pavilion dv6-1030us battery. By 1959 about 400,000 persons arrived from other Soviet republics and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.[48]Because Latvia had still maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists it was decided in Moscow that some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing factories were to be based in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in JelgavaHP Pavilion dv6-1030eq battery, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine, as well as some food and oil processing plants.[49] However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories[citation needed]. In order to expand industrial production, skilled workers were transferred into the republic from all over the Soviet UnionHP Pavilion dv6-1030eo battery, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.[50][edit]Restoration of independenceBarricade in Riga to prevent the Soviet Army from reaching the Latvian Parliament, July 1991.In the second half of 1980s Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union, called glasnost and Perestroika. In the summer of 1987 the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument- a symbol of independenceHP Pavilion dv6-1030em battery. In the summer of 1988 a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988 the old pre-war Flag of Latvia was allowed to be used, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990HP Pavilion dv6-1030ef battery.In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the "Occupation of the Baltic states", in which it declared that the occupation was "not in accordance with law," and not the "will of the Soviet people". Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic electionsHP Pavilion dv6-1030ed battery. On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted the Declaration On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as Soviet republic in 1990–1991[citation needed]. In January 1991HP Pavilion dv6-1030ec battery, Soviet political and military forces tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions[citation needed]. During the transitional period Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1030ca battery.In spite of this, 73% of all Latvian residents confirmed their strong support for independence on March 3, 1991, in a nonbinding advisory referendum[citation needed]. A large number of ethnic Russians also voted for the proposition[citation needed]. The Popular Front of Latvia had advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenshipHP Pavilion dv6-1027ef battery. However, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted subsequently; majority of ethnical non-latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship even thought they had voted for support of independence. Many of them were born in Latvia, but still became non-citizens. Until 2011 more than half of non-citizens have gone thought process of naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship. HP Pavilion dv6-1025ez battery) Still today there are 290,660 non-citizens of Latvia, which represent 14.1% of population. Those people have no citizenship of any country and cannot vote in Latvia. The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on August 21, 1991 in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attemptHP Pavilion dv6-1025ei battery.[3]Latvia became a member of the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.The Saeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993, and Russia completed its military withdrawal in 1994. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef battery.Language and citizenship laws have been opposed by many Russophones. (Citizenship was not automatically extended to former Soviet citizens who settled during the Soviet occupation or to their subsequent offspring. This resulted in a situation where people who have lived and worked in Latvia for over 50 years were nonetheless unable to voteHP Pavilion dv6-1023em battery, which meant that Russian voice was largely excluded from the parliament and the government.[citation needed] Children born to non-nationals after the reestablishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.) Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.[51] The government denationalised private property confiscated by the Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-1023ef battery, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatised most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, its economy had one of the highest growth rates until the 2008–2010 Latvian financial crisis. HP Pavilion dv6-1022el battery[edit]GeographyMain article: Geography of LatviaMap of Latvia before the administrative territorial reform of 2009.Latvia lies mostly between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°).Located on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, Latvia lies on the East European Plain. However, its vegetation is very different from the rest of the plain and shares many similarities with the boreal biomeHP Pavilion dv6-1020et battery. It consists of fertile, low-lying plains, largely covered by forest, mostly pines, the highest point being the Gaiziņkalns at 311.6 m (1,022 ft).Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forestsHP Pavilion dv6-1020eg battery. The major rivers include the Daugava River, the Lielupe, the Gauja, the Venta, and the Salaca. An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country. Latvia's coastline extends for 531 kilometres.[edit]Administrative divisionsMain article: Administrative divisions of LatviaSee also: List of cities in Latvia, Planning regions of Latvia, and Historical regions of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1020el batterySince 2009 Latvia has one-level municipalities – 9 republican cities (Latvian: republikas pilsētas) (Daugavpils, Jēkabpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, Valmiera, Ventspils) and 110 municipalities (Latvian: novadi). There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgalia, Vidzeme, Zemgale. Their borders usually are not explicit definite and in several sources may varyHP Pavilion dv6-1020ek battery. To promote balanced development of all regions, in 2009 five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: plānošanas reģioni) were created:ClimateThe Latvian climate is humid, continental and temperate owing to the maritime influence of the Baltic Sea. Summers are warm, and the weather in spring and autumn is fairly mild; however, the winters can be extreme due to the northern location. Precipitation is common throughout the year with the heaviest rainfall in JulyHP Pavilion dv6-1020ei battery. During severe spells of winter weather, Latvia is dominated by cold winds from the interior of Russia, and severe snowfalls are very common.[edit]BiodiversityView from atop the tower of GaizinkalnsCommon species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.[52] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.Latvia's national trees are oak (Quercus robur), Latvian: ozols, and linden (Tilia cordata), Latvian: liepa. Oaks and Lindens are considered the national trees of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1020ed battery. The oak and the linden tree are characteristic elements of the Latvian landscape. Both trees are still widely used for medical purposes. Medicinal infusions are made of linden blossoms as well as oak bark. Latvian dainas (folk songs) often reflect ethical and moral concepts of earlier times. Amongst other trees, these folk songs most often mention the oak and linden treeHP Pavilion dv6-1020ec batterHP Pavilion dv6-1018el battery. In traditional Latvian folk beliefs and folklore the linden tree is looked upon as a female symbol, but the oak – a male symbol. The nation's reverence for these trees, which in earlier times were considered sacred, can be witnessed, for example, in a landscape where, in the middle of a cultivated field there still remains a lone large, sacred oak or linden treeHP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery.The White Wagtail is the national bird of LatviaLatvia's national bird is the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Latvian: baltā cielava. This slender and graceful bird is found in Latvia from April till October. The White Wagtail can usually be seen running briskly along the ground, wagging its tail up and down. This bird typically nests in the rafters and eaves of buildings, woodpilesHP Pavilion dv6-1001tx battery, stone piles, and birdhouses. During the winter it migrates to Southern Europe and North Africa. The White Wagtail was affirmed the national bird of Latvia in 1960 by the International Bird Protection Council.Latvia's national flower is the oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare also known as Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), Latvian: pīpene.[53] In Latvian conditions, the common or wild daisy blossoms from June till SeptemberHP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery. Daisies are a very popular flower and are often used in flower arrangements or given as gifts.Latvia's national insect is the Two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata), Latvian: mārīte. The two-spot ladybird is familiar as a useful insect that protects plants from parasites. Although rather slow by nature, it can defend itself wellHP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery. Due to its appearance and behaviour it is widely known and liked throughout Latvia. The insect's Latvian name – marite – is a synonym for the ancient Latvian goddess Mara, who embodies the power of the earth. The two-spot ladybird was designated the national insect of Latvia by the Entomological Society of LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery.[edit]PoliticsMain articles: Politics of Latvia, Parliament of Latvia, and Government of LatviaThe 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.[54] Highest civil servants are sixteen Secretaries of State.[edit]Foreign relationsMain article: Foreign relations of LatviaLatvia has a representation in the European parliament since 2004.Membership in the EU and NATO were major policy goals during the 1990s. In a nation-wide referendum on September 20, 2003, 66.9% of those taking part voted in favour of joining the European Union. Latvia became a member of the European Union on May 1, 2004. Latvia has been a NATO member since March 29, 2004HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery.The Treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia was signed and ratified in 2007. Under the treaty the Abrene district passed to Russia; talks over maritime boundary disputes with Lithuania are ongoing (the primary concern is oil exploration rights).[edit]Human rightsMain article: Human rights in LatviaHuman rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government, according to Freedom House and US Department of State.HP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery Latvia is ranked above-average among the world's sovereign states in democracy,[57] press freedom,[58] privacy [59] and human development.[60] The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government. HP Pavilion dv6-1005tx batteryHowever, human rights organisations have reported multiple problems. Especially non-citizens – including stateless persons – suffer from limited or no access to a broad range of rights, according to UN and Council of Europe bodies.[62][63] Also there were problems with police abuse of detainees and arresteesHP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, discrimination against women, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.Naval Forces patrol boat P-03 „Linga”[edit]MilitaryMain article: Military of LatviaLatvia's defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilization base and a small group of career professionals. The armed forces consist of mobile riflemen, an air force, and a navyHP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which are available for peacekeeping operations.As of March 29, 2004, Latvia officially joined NATO. Currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian army does not have the means to do so effectively. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fightersHP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery, which comes from different nations and switches at two or three month intervals, is based in Lithuania to cover all three Baltic states (see Baltic Air Policing).[edit]EconomyMain article: Economy of LatviaLatvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004).Since the year 2000 Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.[66] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of the Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis and shortage of creditHP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery. Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.[67][68] According to Eurostat data, Latvian PPS GDP per capita stood at 56 per cent of the EU average in 2008.[69]Real GDP growth in Latvia 1996–2006.This latest scenario has proven the earlier assumptions that the fast growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumptionHP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which were at some points appreciating at approximately 5% a month, were long perceived to be too high for the economy, which mainly produces low-value goods and raw materialsHP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery.Latvia plans to introduce the Euro as the country's currency but, due to the inflation being above EMU's guidelines, the government's official target is now January 1, 2014.[70][71]Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and the EU single market.Privatization in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been successfully privatizedHP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. Latvian privatization efforts have led to the development of a dynamic and prosperous private sector, which accounted for nearly 68% of GDP in 2000.Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997HP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery. Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European UnionHP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.[edit]Economic contractionMain article: 2008–2010 Latvian financial crisisRiga Airport terminalThe Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate valuesHP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.[7]Latvia's unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.[72] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain which had 19.7%HP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery.[73]Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column for December 15, 2008:"The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina " HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea batteryHowever by 2010 commentators[75][76] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor's raised its outlook on Latvia's debt from negative to stable.[75] Latvia's current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.[75] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody's investors service argued thatHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery:"The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working." [77]The IMF however warned that tax revenues were likely to be eroded due to price and wage decreases continuing until 2012,[76] adding thatHP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery:Air Baltic Boeing 757–200"The sharp economic downturn is starting to bottom out, but recovery has not yet begun and sizable risks remain."[76][edit]InfrastructureMain articles: Transportation in Latvia and National Roads in LatviaThe transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia and the West is large.[78]Key ports are in Riga, Ventspils, and Liepāja. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products. HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr batteryRiga International Airport is the largest airport with 4.7 million passengers in 2010.AirBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier.Latvia has 3 big hydroelectric power stations (Pļaviņu HES (825MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW), Ķeguma HES-2 (192 MW).Latvia also has an underground gas station, which is the 3rd largest underground gas station in Europe and the only underground gas station in the Baltic States. (Inčukalns underground gas station) HP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery[edit]DemographicsMain article: Demographics of LatviaResidents of Latvia by ethnicity[1]Population of Latvia (in millions) from 1950–2012.[edit]Ethnic groupsMain articles: Latvian people, Latvian Russians, Latvian Germans, Latvian Jews, Latgalians (modern), and LivoniansLatvia's population has been multiethnic for centuries, though the demographics shifted dramatically in the 20th century due to the World Wars, the emigration and removal of Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet UnionHP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Latvians formed 68.3% of the total population of 1.93 million; Russians accounted for 12%, Jews for 7.4%, Germans for 6.2%, and Poles for 3.4%.[79]As of March 2011, Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, form about 62.1% of the population; 26.9% of the inhabitants are Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery, Jews 0.3%, Roma people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. There were 290,660 non-citizens living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly ethnic Russians who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.[80]In some large cities, e.g. Riga, Daugavpils and Rēzekne, Russians and other minorities outnumber Latvians. Minorities from other countries such as BelarusHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, etc., also live in Latvia. The share of ethnic Latvians had fallen from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.[81] In 2011 there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger — 1,284,194 (62.1% of the population) HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.[edit]LanguageFurther information: Language policy in LatviaThe sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian --HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryreferred as either dialect or distinct separate language of Latvian — is also formally protected by Latvian law but only as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is by far the most widely used minority language, and is understood by virtually all Latvians who started their education during the period of Soviet ruleHP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery. Despite this the Russian language is not protected by Latvian law. While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, most schools also include English and either German or Russian in their curricula. The English language is widely accepted in Latvia especially in business and tourismHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery.On 18 February 2012, Latvia hold a referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[82] With over 93 percent of ballots counted, 75 percent of voters said they were against Russian as a national language, according to the Central Election Commission results. HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery[edit]ReligionMain article: Religion in LatviaRiga CathedralThe largest religion in Latvia is Christianity,[7] though only about 7% of the population attends religious services regularly.[84] The largest groups as of 2006 were:Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 450,000[85]Roman Catholic – 430,000[85]Orthodox – 350,000[85]In the Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[86] 37% of Latvian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", while 49% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 10% stated that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force"HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery.Lutheranism was much stronger before the Soviet annexation, when it was a majority religion. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a much greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adverselyHP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery. An internal document of March 18, 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.[87] The country's Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 9,571 Jews and 182 Muslims living in LatviaHP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery.There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.[88] About 40% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.[citation needed][edit]EducationMain article: Education in LatviaSee also: List of universities in LatviaUniversity of LatviaRiga Technical University and University of Latvia are two major universities in the country, both been established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute and located in RigaHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery.[89] Another two important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, are Latvia University of Agriculture (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine) - both nowadays covers a variety of different fieldsHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery. Daugavpils University is another significant center of education. Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrollment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% declineHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery.[90][edit]HealthThe Latvian healthcare system is a universal program, largely funded through government taxation.[91] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.[92] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery, and 121 in 2006.[93][94][95] The average life expectancy at birth is 72.7 years, second lowest in the European Union.[96]Corruption is relatively widespread in the Latvian healthcare system, though the situation has improved since the early 1990s. It has been noted that an environment conducive to corruption has been promulgated by low salaries and poorly implemented systemic reforms. HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery [97] This also results in brain drain, mostly to Western EU nations.As of 2007, there were approximately 10,000 inhabitants of Latvia living with HIV/AIDS.[7] There were 32,376 (1.44%) individual instances of clinically reported alcoholism in Latvia in 2008, as well as cases of addictions to other substances.[98] The annual number of births per 1,000 adolescent women aged 15 to 19 has declined from 49.9 in 1990 to 17.9 in 2007HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery.[99] In 2005, Latvia had a suicide rate of 24.5 per 100,000 inhabitants (down from 40.7 in 1995), the 7th highest in the world.[100][edit]CultureMain article: Culture of LatviaLatvian country scenery in SabileTraditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, date back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identifiedHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery.[101]Between the 13th and 19th century, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.[citation needed] They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this dayHP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the USA, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.[citation needed] Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions, for example in one of the most popular celebrations today which is JāņiHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice, celebrated on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.In the 19th century Latvian nationalist movements emerged promoting Latvian culture and encouraging Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European culturesHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.[citation needed] With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audienceHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery.[102]After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the Socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identityHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.[citation needed][edit]CuisineMain article: Latvian cuisineCaraway cheese is traditionally served on the Latvian festival Jāņi.Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishesHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia's location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by the neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty, and uses few spicesHP Pavilion dv6-6006ea battery.Grey peas and ham are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup is also consumed by Latvians.[103] Rupjmaize is a dark bread made from rye, considered the national staple.[edit]SportsMain article: Sport in LatviaArena RigaIce hockey is the most[citation needed] popular sport. Latvia has many famous hockey stars like Helmut Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš, Sandis OzoliņšHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery. The most famous and most supported Latvian ice hockey club is Dinamo Riga. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Latvia. Second most popular sport is basketball. The best known Latvian player is Andris Biedriņš who plays in NBA. Other popular sports include floorball, soccer, tennis, cycling and bobsleighHP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery. The Latvia national football team participated in 2004 UEFA Euro for the first time. Latvia has participated in Winter and Summer Olympics.
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (i/ʃriː ˈlɑːŋkə/, /sriːˈlɑːŋkə/, or /sriːˈlæŋkə/;[8][9] Sinhala: ශ්රීලංකාව, Tamil: இலங்கை), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon ( /sɨˈlɒn/, /seɪˈlɒn/, or /siːˈlɒn/)HP Pavilion dv6-1103au battery, Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia.[10] It was an important stop on the ancient Silk RoadHP Pavilion dv6-1102tx battery.[11] Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country.[12] It is also one of the few remaining abodes of Buddhism.[13] Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religionHP Pavilion dv6-1102tu batterys. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.[14]Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system with its official seat of government in Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte, the capitalHP Pavilion dv6-1102ax battery. The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, gems, coconuts, rubber and cinnamon, the last of which is native to the country.[15] The natural beauty of Sri Lanka has led to the title The Pearl of the Indian Ocean.[16] The island is laden with lush tropical forests, white beaches and diverse landscapes with rich biodiversityHP Pavilion dv6-1102au battery. The country lays claim to a long and colorful history of over three thousand years, having one of the longest documented histories in the world.[17] Sri Lanka's rich culture can be attributed to the many different communities on the island.[18]Sri Lanka is a founding member state of SAARC and a member United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, G77 and Non-Aligned Movement. As of 2010, Sri Lanka was one of the fastest growing economies of the worldHP Pavilion dv6-1101tx battery. Its stock exchange was Asia's best performing stock market during 2009 and 2010.[19]EtymologyMain article: Names of Sri LankaIn ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: Known in India as Lanka or Singhala, ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane[20] /təˈprɒbəniː/ and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").[21] Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505HP Pavilion dv6-1101tu battery,[22] which was transliterated into English as Ceylon.[23] As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, and achieved independence under the name Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.In Sinhala the country is known as ශ්රී ලංකා śrī laṃkā, IPA: [ʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː], and the island itself as ලංකාව laṃkāva, IPA: [laŋˈkaːʋə]. In Tamil they are both இலங்கை ilaṅkai, IPA: HP Pavilion dv6-1101so battery [iˈlaŋɡai]. The name derives from the Sanskrit श्रीलंका śrī (venerable) and lankā (island),[24] the name of the island in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". In 1978 it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka"HP Pavilion dv6-1101ax battery.[25] The name Ceylon is still in use in the names of a number of organisations; in 2011, the Sri Lankan government announced a plan to rename all of those for which it is responsible.[26][edit]HistoryMain article: History of Sri Lanka[edit]Pre-historic Sri LankaMain article: Prehistory of Sri LankaThe pre-history of Sri Lanka dates back over 125,000 years Before Present (BP) and possibly even as early as 500,000 BP.[27] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron agesHP Pavilion dv6-1101au battery. Among the Paleolithic (Homo Erectus) human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveler monk Fa-Hsien), which dates back to 37,000 BP,[28] Batadombalena (28,500 BP)[29] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. The remains of Balangoda Man, an anatomically modern human, found inside these cavesHP Pavilion dv6-1100sv battery,[30] suggests that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.[31]Frescos on the Sigiriya rock fortress in Matale District, 5th centuryThis article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic RamayanaHP Pavilion dv6-1100ss battery, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that had been created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma, for Kubera, the lord of wealth.[32] It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful Emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara.[33] The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravana's airportHP Pavilion dv6-1100so battery.[34]Ravana belonged to the tribe Raksha, which lived alongside four Hela tribes named Yaksha, Deva, Naga and Gandharva.[35] These early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Vedda people,[36] an indigenous community living in modern-day Sri Lanka, which numbers approximately 2,500HP Pavilion dv6-1100es battery. Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorised Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish, from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. Early inhabitants of the country spoke the Elu language, which is considered the early form of the modern Sinhala language.[37][edit]Ancient Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1100eo batteryMain article: Ancient history of Sri LankaThe Rankot Vihara or the Golden Pinnacle Dagoba in Polonnaruwa, 12th centuryAccording to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in Pāli language, the ancient period of Sri Lanka begins in 543 BC with the landing of Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who arrived in the country with 700 followers from the southwest coast of what is now the Rarh region of West BengalHP Pavilion dv6-1099ef battery.[38] He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern day Mannar. Vijaya is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka that the chronicles like Dipavamsa, Mahāvamsa, Chulavamsa, and Rājāvaliya describe (see List of Sri Lankan monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history spanned a period of 2359 years, from 543 BC to AD 1815, until the land became part of the British EmpireHP Pavilion dv6-1090es battery.[39]The Sigiriya rock fortress.The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to Anuradhapura in 380 BC, during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital of the country for nearly 1400 years.[40] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled in various constructions such as tanks, dagobas and palacesHP Pavilion dv6-1090eo battery.[41] The society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC,[42] bhikkhu Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale, carrying the message of Buddhism.[43] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese populationHP Pavilion dv6-1080es battery.[44] The succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia as well.[45] In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightenedHP Pavilion dv6-1080eq battery.[46] It is considered the oldest tree in the world, with a continuous historical record. (Bodhivamsa)[47]Sri Lanka experienced the first foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India.[44] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 yearsHP Pavilion dv6-1080el battery. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya.[48] During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and PallavaHP Pavilion dv6-1070eo battery.[49] There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.[50]Claudius Ptolemy's map of Ceylon, 1st century ADSri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler; Queen Anula who reigned during 47–42 BCHP Pavilion dv6-1068el battery.[51] Sri Lankan monarchs attained some remarkable construction achievements like Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky". It was a constructed during the reign of Kashyapa I. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The 5th century palace is also renowned for frescos on the rock the surfaceHP Pavilion dv6-1066el battery.[50] It has been declared by UNESCO as the 8th Wonder of the world.[52][53] Among the other constructions, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notableHP Pavilion dv6-1062el battery. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics, allowing water to flow outside the dam keeping the pressure to a minimum.[54] Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to have established a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th centuryHP Pavilion dv6-1060ev battery.[55] It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world, and has maintained close ties with European civilizations including the Roman Empire. For example, King Bhatikabhaya (22 BC—AD 7) had sent an embassy to Rome and got down coral for a net to be cast over the RuwanwelisayaHP Pavilion dv6-1060es battery.[56] Bhikkhuni Devasāra and ten other fully ordained bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka went to China and established the bhikkhuni sāsana there in AD 429.[46][edit]Medieval Sri LankaMain article: Medieval history of Sri LankaA Buddhist statue in the ancient capital city of Polonnaruwa, 12th centuryThe medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the countryHP Pavilion dv6-1060eo battery.[57] Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in AD 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura.[57] Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.[58] This marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1060el battery, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen year long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[59][60] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reignHP Pavilion dv6-1058el battery.[61] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided to three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.[62]Kuttam Pokuna or the Twin Ponds, Anuradhapura, 8th centurySri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great ( AD 1153–1186).[63] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[64][65] He built 1470 reservoirs - the highest number by any ruler in the history, repaired 165 damsHP Pavilion dv6-1056el battery, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs.[66] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[67] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns — in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1055ee battery.[68]After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army from Kalinga.[66] Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recoveryHP Pavilion dv6-1053cl battery.[69] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his powerHP Pavilion dv6-1050us battery. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.[70][71] The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasionHP Pavilion dv6-1050et battery; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal.[72] He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467.[73] The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,[74] Sitawaka, and finally, KandyHP Pavilion dv6-1050ep battery.[edit]Early modern Sri LankaMain article: Colonial history of Sri LankaA 17th century painting of Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting with king Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602.The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lorenzo de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[75] The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areasHP Pavilion dv6-1050eo battery. In 1592 Vimaladharmasuriya I moved the kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location more secure against an attack from western invaders.[76] Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century. In 1619, due to the attacks of Portuguese, independent existence of Jaffna kingdom, came to an endHP Pavilion dv6-1050en battery.[77]Colonial Coat of arms of British CeylonDuring the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived in the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[78] The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656HP Pavilion dv6-1050ei battery. The Dutch remained in the areas they captured, violating the treaty. An ethnic group named Burgher people integrated into the Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule.[79] The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[80] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic - the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese - to KandyHP Pavilion dv6-1050ef battery, and built the Temple of the Tooth.[80] Even with intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom was able to survive. A succession crisis emerged in Kandy, upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India and was childless by them.[80] Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita SarankaraHP Pavilion dv6-1046el battery, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princess, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[81] The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of Nayakkar dynasty, launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessfulHP Pavilion dv6-1045ez battery.[82]During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[83] Two years later, in 1798, Rajadhi Rajasinha, 3rd of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka died of a feverHP Pavilion dv6-1045eo battery. Following the death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, 18-year-old Konnasami was crowned.[84] The new king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha faced a British invasion in 1803, but was able to retaliate successfully. By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company, as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. But on 14 February 1815HP Pavilion dv6-1045ei battery, Kandy was occupied by the British, in the second Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lanka's independence.[84] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka was exiled to India.[85] Kandyan convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts of Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine the British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert BrownriggHP Pavilion dv6-1045ee battery.[86][edit]Modern Sri Lanka[edit]Sri Lanka under the British ruleTea plantation was introduced to Sri Lanka by James Taylor, a British planter in 1867.The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833.[87] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1044el battery.[87] An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of representative legislature in the country. By this time, experiments with coffee plantation were largely successful. Soon it grew to become the primary commodity export of the countryHP Pavilion dv6-1042el battery. The falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[88] These harsh measures antagonized the localsHP Pavilion dv6-1040ez battery, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.[89] A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within 15 years. The British officials desperately searched for a substitute, and the promising replacement they found was tea. Production of tea in Sri Lanka thrived within the decades to comeHP Pavilion dv6-1040ev battery.By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class which transcended the divisions of race and caste was emerging as a result of British attempts to nurture a range of professionals for the Ceylon Civil Service and for the legal, educational, and medical professionsHP Pavilion dv6-1040el battery.[90] The country's new leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. In the meantime, attempts were underway for Buddhist and Hindu revivalism and to react against Christian missionary activities on the islandHP Pavilion dv6-1040ek battery.[91][92] The first two decades in the 20th century are distinguished for the harmony that prevailed among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has not been the case ever since.[93] In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam ArunachalamHP Pavilion dv6-1040ei battery.[94] It kept pressing the colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But due to its failure to appeal to the masses and the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost its momentum towards the mid 1920sHP Pavilion dv6-1040ed battery.[95] The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticized by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative councilHP Pavilion dv6-1040eb battery.[96][97] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50-50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944/45.[edit]Post independence Sri LankaSee also: 1971 JVP Insurrection, Sri Lankan Civil War, and 1987–89 JVP InsurrectionThe Soulbury constitution ushered the Dominion status for CeylonHP Pavilion dv6-1038ca battery, delivering it independence on 4 February 1948.[98] The office of Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in advance of independence, on 14 October 1947, D. S. Senanayake being the first prime minister.[99] Prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and A. Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[96][100] Although the country gained independence in 1948HP Pavilion dv6-1030us battery, the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee remained until 1956. 1953 hartal, against the withdrawal of the rice ration, resulted in the resignation of the then prime minister, Dudley Senanayake.[101] With the election of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike to the prime ministership in 1956HP Pavilion dv6-1030eq battery, Ceylon began moving towards better relations with the communist bloc. Bandaranaike's 3 year rule had a profound impact on the direction of the country. He emerged as the "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture" and promised radical changes in the system.[102] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the sole official language of the governmentHP Pavilion dv6-1030eo battery. Although it was partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived their language and culture were threatened.[103][104] The Federal Party (FP) launched satyagraha against the move, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. ChelvanayakamHP Pavilion dv6-1030em battery, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[105] However the pact was not carried out due to protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[106] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959HP Pavilion dv6-1030ef battery.[107]The formal ceremony marking the start of self rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence Square.Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of late S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, but faced an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During the second term as prime minister, her government instituted socialist economic policesHP Pavilion dv6-1030ed battery, further strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and later China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. However in 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country became a republic, repudiating the Dominion status and changing its name to Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1030ec battery. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during 1970s.[108] The policy of standardization by Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrollmentHP Pavilion dv6-1030ca battery, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education,[109] in turn reducing the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student populace; acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[110][111] Assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 marked an important turn of the events. HP Pavilion dv6-1027ef batteryThe Government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government, towards its final years.[114] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a powerful executive presidency modelled after France, and a free market economyHP Pavilion dv6-1025ez battery. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.[115] However from 1983, ethnic tensions blew into on-and-off insurgency (see Sri Lankan Civil War) against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (the LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a militant group emerged in early 1970sHP Pavilion dv6-1025ei battery. Following the riots in July 1983, more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fled the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[116] Lapses in foreign policy resulted in neighbouring India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region by neutralising the LTTE. HP Pavilion dv6-1025ef battery The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka.[121] As their efforts did not become successful, IPKF was called back in 1990.[122]Sri Lanka was affected by the devastating 2004 Asian tsunami, which left at least 35,000 people dead.[123] From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held 4 rounds of peace-talks, none of them helping a peaceful resolution of the conflictHP Pavilion dv6-1023em battery. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, and re-established control of the entire country under the Sri Lankan Government.[124][125] The 26 year war caused up to 100,000 deaths.[126] Following the LTTE's defeat, Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka dropped its demand for a separate stateHP Pavilion dv6-1023ef battery, in favour of a federal solution.[127][128] The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.[129][130] According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.[131] Sri Lanka, emerging after a 26 year war, has become one of the fastest growing economies of the world. HP Pavilion dv6-1022el battery[edit]GeographyMain article: Geography of Sri LankaTopographic map of Sri LankaThe island of Sri Lanka lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[133] It is positioned in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10°N, and longitudes 79° and 82°E.[134] Sri Lanka is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk StraitHP Pavilion dv6-1020et battery. According to the Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[135] It was reportedly passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel. HP Pavilion dv6-1020eg batteryA view of Sripada from MaskeliyaAerial view of Sri LankaThe island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moistureHP Pavilion dv6-1020el battery. The mean temperature ranges from about 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately 33 °C (91.4 °F) in other low-altitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (57.2 °F) to 18 °C (64.4 °F) HP Pavilion dv6-1020ek battery.[138]Rainfall pattern of the country is influenced by Monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the eastHP Pavilion dv6-1020ei battery, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 mm (47 in) and 1,900 mm (75 in) of rain annually.[139] The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 mm (31 in) to 1,200 mm (47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwestHP Pavilion dv6-1020ed battery, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[140]Longest of the 103 rivers in the country is Mahaweli River, covering a distance of 335 kilometres (208 mi).[141] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls, having a height of 10 meters or more. The highest one is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).[142] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km longHP Pavilion dv6-1020ec battery.[143] It claims to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles. This is approximately 6.7 times the country's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs, shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrassesHP Pavilion dv6-1018el battery.[144] Sri Lanka inherits 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons too.[143] Country's mangrove ecosystem which spans over 7,000 hectares, played a vital role in buffering the force in the waves of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[145] The island is rich with minerals such as Ilmenite, Feldspar, Graphite, Silica, Kaolin, Mica and Thorium. HP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery Existence of Petroleum in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and extraction attempts are underway.[148][edit]Flora and faunaMain articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri LankaSri Lankan Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sri Lanka. According to the 2011 elephant census, the country is home to at least 5879 elephants. HP Pavilion dv6-1001tx batteryLying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world.[150] Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity per 10,000 square km in Asia.[151] Remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List) HP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery, are endemic.[152] Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and anteaters.[153]The Sri Lankan Leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery.Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forestHP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[154]The Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National Park, the largest national park in Sri Lanka, in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birdsHP Pavilion dv6-1004tx battery, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves, Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[155] Out of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive Red-faced MalkohaHP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery, Green-billed Coucal and Sri Lanka Blue Magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Out of the 211 woody trees and lianas so far identified within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings has been estimated to be around 240,000 individuals per hectareHP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery.In addition, Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.[156] During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parksHP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery. However the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had been fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.[157][158][edit]PoliticsMain article: Politics of Sri LankaThe old parliament building of Sri Lanka, near the Galle Face Green, now the Presidential Secretariat.Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in South Asia.[159][160] The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult franchise) in the countryHP Pavilion dv6-1006tx battery.[161] It was the first time a non-caucasian country within the empires of Western Europe was given one man, one vote and the power to control domestic affairs. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, for the Ceylon State Council.[159] Sir D. B. Jayatilaka was elected as the Leader of the House. HP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery In 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for Independence was fought on "constitutionalist" lines under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake.[163] The draft constitution was enacted in the same year and Senanayake was appointed as the Prime Minister from the parliamentary election in 1947HP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and Independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.[161]Current politics in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP) HP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery.[164] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[165] Out of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935 is the oldest.[166] UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946HP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery, was considered to be the largest single political party until recently.[167] It is the only political group which had a representation in all parliaments since the independence.[167] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration, before he left the UNP in July 1951. HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[168] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of state.[169]G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, HP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. As an objection to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) aka Federal Party. It was the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next 2 decades. HP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery Federal party advocated a more aggressive stance vis-à-vis the Sinhalese.[172] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, these parties created a common front, the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Tamil National Alliance, formed in October 2001 is the current successor of these Tamil political parties which had undergone much turbulences as Tamil militants' rise to power in late 1970s. HP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist-Leninist political party, founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as the 3rd force in the current political context.[174] It endorses radical leftist policies, with respect to the traditionalist leftist politics of LSSP and Communist Party.[172] Founded in 1981HP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery, Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[175][edit]GovernmentSri Lanka is a democratic, socialist republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.[178] It constitutes a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery. Most provisions of the Constitution of Sri Lanka can be amended by a two-thirds majority in Parliament of Sri Lanka. However, the amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval at a nation-wide referendumHP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery.The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, ColomboThe Sri Lankan government has 3 branches:Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term.[179] In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the parliament. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliamentHP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery.[180] President is immune from legal proceedings while in office in respect of any acts done or omitted to be done by him either in his official or private capacity.[181] With the 18th amendment to the constitution in 2010, the President has no term limit, which previously stood at 2HP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery.[182]Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka, is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 by proportional representation.[183] Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year termHP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[184] President's deputy, the Prime Minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairsHP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery.Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court - the highest and final superior court of record,[184] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. Its highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[185] The Criminal law is almost entirely based on British lawHP Pavilion dv6-6090sf battery. Basic Civil law relates to the Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[186] Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai and the Sharia law too are followed on special casesHP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery.[187] The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.[edit]Administrative divisionsMain articles: Provinces of Sri Lanka, Districts of Sri Lanka, and Divisional Secretariats of Sri LankaSee also: List of cities in Sri Lanka and List of towns in Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf batteryFor administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces[188] and 25 districts.[189]ProvincesProvinces (Sinhala: පළාතTamil: மாகாணம்) have existed in Sri Lanka since the 19th century. But they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.[190] The provincial council is an autonomous body and is not under any Ministry. It undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by the Central Government Ministries, Departments, Corporations and Statutory Authorities.[190] But importantly, land and police authorities are not given to provincial councils in practice. HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryBetween 1988 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[193][194] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial councilHP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery:Districts and local authoritiesSri Lanka is also divided into 25 districts (Sinhala: දිස්ත්රික්ක sing. දිස්ත්රික්කයTamil: மாவட்டம்).[195] Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these in turn, to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisionsHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery.[196] The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa and in Tamil as Māwaddam. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. The Government Agent, who is known as District Secretary, administers a district.There are 3 other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18) HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery, Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha (aka Pradesha Sabhai, 256).[197] Local authorities were originally based on the feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as 'D.R.O. divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'.[198] Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. divisions'HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a 'Divisional Secretary'.Critism of the government[edit]Foreign relations and militaryMain articles: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka and Sri Lanka Armed ForcesSee also: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and Non-Aligned MovementPresident Mahinda Rajapaksa with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, at St. Petersburg Economic Forum, in June 2011HP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery.Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has maintained and expanded relationships with most of the countries in the world. Analysis of its foreign relationships helps to recognise two most important traits. One is its commitment in principle to nonalignment, being a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) HP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery. Second one is the attempt to preserve satisfactory relations with India without sacrificing its independence.[200] It became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Sri Lanka also is a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank and the Colombo PlanHP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.One of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, UNP, is traditionally biased towards the West, with respect to its left-leaning counterpart, SLFP.[200] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. JayewardeneHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery, together with the then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[201] In a remarkable move, Sri Lanka spoke in defence for a free Japan, while many countries were reluctant to allow a free JapanHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery, at the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, and refused to accept the payment of reparations for that damage it had done to the country during World War II, that would harm Japan's economy.[202] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the PRC was formed in 1949HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery. Two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.[203] Sri Lanka played a vital role in Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step toward the crystallization of the NAM.[204] The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly digressed from the pro-western policies of UNP governmentHP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery. Sri Lanka immediately recognised the new Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly after, Cuba's legendary revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka.[205] The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964[206] and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974[207] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian originHP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[208] By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM and Colombo held the fifth NAM summit of 1976.[209] The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tensed under the government of J. R. Jayawardene.[122][210] As a resultHP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery, India intervened in Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed the Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987.[211] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[212] Russia[213] and Pakistan.[214]Boats belonging to the Sri Lanka NavyThe Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy and the Sri Lanka Air Force, comes under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD). HP Pavilion dv6-6011tu batteryThe total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[216] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[217] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force and the Sri Lanka Coast GuardHP Pavilion dv6-6008tx batterySince independence from Britain in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been on internal security, due to three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 30 year long conflict with the LTTE which has been proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries. Due to these conflictsHP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery, the armed forces had expanded to its current size and are in a continuous mobilized state for the last 30 years.[220] Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the Sri Lankan Civil War in May 2009.[221] Sri Lanka claimed itself the first country in the modern world to eradicate terrorism on its own soilHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery.[222] Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s. It has contributed with forces as permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon and Haiti.[223][edit]EconomyMain article: Economy of Sri LankaSee also: Tea production in Sri Lanka, Tourism in Sri Lanka, and Transport in Sri LankaHP Pavilion dv6-6007tx batteryAccording to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka has a yearly gross domestic output of US$64 billion as of 2012.[5] It has a GDP of US$158 billion in terms of purchasing power parity. Sri Lanka is next only to Maldives in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income, with a nominal value of US$2,435 and PPP value of US$5,220HP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery.[5] It recorded a GDP growth of 8.2% in 2010 and it is estimated that GDP will grow by 9.5% in 2011, becoming one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[5] Colombo Stock Exchange was the best performing stock exchange in Asia in 2009 and 2010, by almost tripling in value during that time. HP Pavilion dv6-6006ea batteryThe Colombo World Trade Center in Colombo. Presidential Secretariat, Bank of Ceylon and Galadhari Hotel are also visible in the image.In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national exportHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery.[224] The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[225] From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state establishedHP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery. In 1977 the Free market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation and the promotion of private enterprise.[115]While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of food processingHP Pavilion dv6-6005ea battery, textiles, telecommunications and finance. Main economic sectors of the country are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment contributes highly in foreign exchange, most of them from the Middle East.[226] As of 2010, service sector makes up 60% of GDP, industrial sector 28% and agriculture sector 12%.HP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery Private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[227] India is the largest trading partner of Sri Lanka.[228] Economic disparies exist between the provinces, with Western province contributing to 45.1% of the GDP, Southern province and Central province, 10.7% and 10% respectively.[229] With the end of the war, Northern province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010. HP Pavilion dv6-6003eg batterySri Lanka's most widely known export, Ceylon tea, which is considered the "cleanest" tea in the world. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.[231]The per capita income of Sri Lanka has doubled since 2005.[232] During the same period, poverty has dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment has dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%HP Pavilion dv6-6002sg battery, market capitalization of CSE has quadrupled and budget deficit has doubled.[226] 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified, 87.3% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.[226] Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010. HP Pavilion dv6-6002eg battery Sri Lanka's cellular subscriber base has shown a staggering 550% growth, from 2005 to 2010.[226] Sri Lanka was the first country in the South Asian region to introduce 3G (Third Generation), 3.5G HSDPA, 3.75G HSUPA and 4G LTE mobile broadband Internet technologies. HP Pavilion dv6-6001sg batteryThe Global Competitiveness Report published by the World Economic Forum has listed Sri Lanka as a transitive economy, from factor-driven stage to efficiency-driven stage, ranking 52nd in the global competitiveness.[234] It also ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophisticationHP Pavilion dv6-6001eg battery, 42nd in innovation and 41st in goods market efficiency out of the 142 countries surveyed. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[235] In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at number 1 position in 31 places to visit. HP Pavilion dv6-6001ea battery Dow Jones classified Sri Lanka as an emerging market in 2010, and Citigroup classified it as a 3G country in February 2011.[237] Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in Human Development Index (HDI) with 0.658 points.[238]Although poverty has reduced by 50% during last 5 years, malnutrition remains a problem among childrenHP Pavilion dv6-6000eg battery. 29% of the children under 5 years of age are reported to be underweight.[239] Nearly 58% of infants between 6 and 11 months and 38% of children between 12 and 23 months are anaemic. While Dengue remains the major infectious disease,[240] non-communicable diseasees (NCDs) account for 85% of ill health, disability and early death in Sri Lanka. HP Pavilion dv6-6000 battery Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[226] Infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1000 births and maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1000 births, which is in par with figures of the developed countries. The universal, "pro-poor"[242] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf battery) Southern Lanka Express Highway is Sri Lanka's first E Class highway.Sri Lanka has a A and B class road network exceeding 12,000 kilometres (7,460 mi).[244] It consists of 35 A grade highways and an expressway, connecting major cities. In addition, several other expressways are being built.[245] The railway network, operated by the state-run national railway operator( HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef battery) , Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[246] Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports, at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota. Its flag carrier airline is the SriLankan Airlines.[edit]DemographicsPopulation growth in Sri LankaMain article: Demographics of Sri LankaSee also: Ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, Languages of Sri Lanka, and Religion in Sri Lanka( HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf battery) Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.73%.[247] Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 17.6 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people.[226] Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital( HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef battery) . Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74% of the total population.[215] Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 12.6. Sri Lankan Moors comprise 7.4%. Tamils of Indian origin were brought into the country as indentured labourers by British colonists to work on estate plantations( HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf battery) . Nearly 50% of them were repatriated following independence in 1948,[248] They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Austronesian peoples from Southeast Asia. Moreover( HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef battery) , there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[249]Temple of the Tooth is the focal point of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, 16th century.Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka.[250] The Constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes( HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf battery) . Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.[251]Sri Lanka is also a multi-religious country. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,[252] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism( HP Pavilion dv6-3350ef battery) .[253] Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda.[253] A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE( HP Pavilion dv6-3300sg battery) .[254] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,[253] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma( HP Pavilion dv6-3300 battery) .[254]The Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna is one of the most sacred places for Hinduism in Sri Lanka, 10th century.Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka which also arrived from India. Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka.[255]Islam is the third most dominant religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries( HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea battery) , most are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school.[256] Most followers of Islam in Sri Lanka today are believed to be descendants of these Arab traders and the local women they married. In addition about 5% of the followers of Islam in the country comprise of Malays who descend from Malay Military regiments brought to the country during British colonial rule and political exiles from Indonesian islands and Malay peninsula during the same colonial period( HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea battery) .Source: David, 1993[257]Christianity was also brought into the country by Western colonists in the early 16th century.[258] Around 8% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians. Out of them, 88% are Roman Catholics, who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Rest of the Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant faiths( HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea battery) .[259] There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[260] But the community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[261] Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days( HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo battery) , once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. Sri Lanka was ranked the 3rd most religious country in the world by a 2008 Gallup poll, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion is an important part of their daily life( HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa battery) .[262][edit]CultureMain article: Culture of Sri LankaHindu Devotess engaing in 'Kavadi' at a Vavuniya temple.The culture of Sri Lanka dates back over 2500 years.[263] It is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[264] According to Islamic folklore, Adam and Eve were offered refuge on the island as solace for their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.[265] The island is the home to two main traditional cultures( HP Pavilion dv6-3141sa battery) : the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, the British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. Sri Lanka claims a democratic tradition matched by few other developing countries( HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa battery) .[265]The first Tamil immigration was probably around the 3rd century BC.[264] Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct.[266] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture( HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa battery) . The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.[265][edit]Food and festivalsMain articles: Cuisine of Sri Lanka, List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts, and Festivals in Sri LankaTraditional dish of Kiribath with lunumiris( HP Pavilion dv6-3130sa battery) The customary diet in Sri Lanka are rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould), Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), Roti (made from stoneground wholemeal flour, traditionally known as Atta flour), String hoppers( HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa battery) (prepared by mixing rice flour with hot water and salt), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu, hoppers ("appa"), etc.[267] Jackfruit may replace rice and curries at times. Traditional meals are usually served on plantain leaf( HP Pavilion dv6-3125sa battery) .Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes. While Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa battery) .Every year in mid April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Sinhalese and Hindu new year festival.[268] In addition, Esala Perahera, a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly decorated elephants, is held in Kandy, during the month of August.[269] Fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival( HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa battery) . Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal, Maha Shivaratri and Muslims celebrate Hajj, Ramadan in their respective days of the year.[edit]Visual, literary and performing artsMain articles: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan literatureA view of the Kandy Esala Perahera.The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947( HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa battery) . Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to color. It in the recent years has featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[270] Their cinematic style is similar to the Bollywood movies( HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa battery) . In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but recoded a gradual downfall since then.[271] Undoubtedly the most influential and revolutionary filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956)( HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa battery) , Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold heart, 1968).[272]The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam.[273] Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon, in 1903( HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa battery) . Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H. R. Jothipala and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the upliftment of Sri Lankan music.[274] Baila is another popular music genre in the country, originated among Kaffirs or the or Afro-Sinhalese community. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3117sa battery) A Low Country drummer, playing the traditional Yak Béra.There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Out of these, the Kandyan style, which flourished under kings of the Kingdom of Kandy, is more prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance( HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx battery) ,[276] that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam.[277] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancer to keep on rhythm.[276] In addition, four folk drama variants named Sokri, Kolam, Nadagam( HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa battery) , Pasu, and several devil dance variants such as Sanni Yakuma and Kohomba Kankariya can be also observed.[277]An example of Sri Lankan handicrafts.The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC.[278] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BC( HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx battery) . The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas, and in monastic residence.Theatre moved into the country when a Parsi company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in 19th century.[277] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956( HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa battery) .[279] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.The history of Sri Lankan literature runs at least two millennia back, and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[280] The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition( HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa battery) , was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BC.[281] Ancient chronicles such as Mahāvamsa, which was written in 6th century provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasty. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3113sa battery) , that dates few more centuries back.[280] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century.[280] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (Parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (Swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna message) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa battery) . Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (diadem of poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[280] The first modern-day novel( HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa battery) , Meena, a work of Simon de Silva appeared in 1905,[277] and was followed by a number of revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[282][edit]EducationMain article: Education in Sri LankaSarachchandra open air theatre of University of Peradeniya,named in memory of Ediriweera Sarachchandra, Sri Lanka's premium playwright( HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa battery) .With a literacy rate of 92.5%,[226] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[283] Its youth literacy rate stands at 98%,[284] computer literacy rate at 35%,[285] and primary school enrolment rate at over 99%.[286] An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place( HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea battery) . The free education system established in 1945,[287] is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.[285][288] It is one of the few countries in the world that provides universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[289]Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children( HP Pavilion dv6-3100sa battery) .[285] In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However in the 1980s changes to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3100 battery) Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9675 government schools, 817 private schools and Pirivenas.[226] The number of public universities in Sri Lanka is 15.[290] (HP Pavilion dv6-3089la battery)However, lack of responsiveness of the education system to labor market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[291] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps(HP Pavilion dv6-3088la battery). But still, the participation at tertiary level education hovers around 5.1%.[292][edit]SportsMain article: Sport in Sri LankaSri Lankan cricket team practicing ahead of a Twenty20 match against Australia at Pallekele Cricket Stadium, August 2011.While the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[293] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity,[294] as do aquatic sports, athletics, football (soccer) and tennis(HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea battery). Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organise sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels.The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup(HP Pavilion dv6-3077la battery).[295] They also became the runners up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007,[296] 2011.[297] and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009.[298] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner, Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack.[299] Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,[300] 1997,[301] 2004[302] and 2008(HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea battery).[303] Current world records for highest team score in all three formats of the game are also held by Sri Lanka.[304] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011.Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games, both silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles[305] and by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres(HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea battery).[306] In 1973, Mohammed Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, highest feat of a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[307] Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[308] and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, Cheena di and Angampora. (HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea battery)[edit]MediaSri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia.[310] It was established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting was launched in Europe.[310] The station broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s(HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea battery), a large number of private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992(HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa battery).[311] As of 2010, 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are operated in the country.[226] However in the recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been widely criticised by media freedom groups(HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa battery).[312][edit]Human rights and mediaMain articles: Human rights in Sri Lanka and Media in Sri LankaHuman rights as ratified by the United Nations are guaranteed by the constitution of Sri Lanka. However the human rights in Sri Lanka has also come under criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[313] as well as the United States Department of State(HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa battery).[314] Both the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general has accused both Sri Lankan government and the LTTE on alleged war crimes committed during final stages of the civil war(HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa battery).
Malta, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) HP Pavilion dv6-1001et battery to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east.[8] Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states.[9][10][11] It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta HP Pavilion dv6-1001tx battery; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat.[12] The country has two official languages, Maltese (considered the national language) and English HP Pavilion dv6-1001xx battery. Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance,[13] and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, HP Pavilion dv6-1002tx battery whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement[14] and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone. Malta has a long Christian legacy and is an Apostolic see. According to the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible,[15] St. Paul was shipwrecked on "Melite", as the Greeks called the island, and ministered there HP Pavilion dv6-1003tx battery.[16] Catholicism is the official religion in Malta as declared by the Maltese constitution.[17][18] Malta is internationally renowned as a tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas and historical monuments, including nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites,[19] most prominently the Megalithic Temples which are some of the oldest free-standing structures in the world. HP Pavilion dv6-1004tx batteryEtymology The origin of the term Malta is uncertain, and the modern-day variation derives from the Maltese language. The most common etymology is that the word Malta derives from the Greek word μέλι (meli), "honey".[23] The Greeks called the island Μελίτη (Melitē) meaning "honey-sweet" (which was also the name of a Nereid[24]) HP Pavilion dv6-1005ea battery, possibly due to Malta's unique production of honey; an endemic species of bee lives on the island, giving it the popular nickname the "land of honey".[25] The Romans went on to call the island Melita,[26] which is the latinisation of the Greek Μελίτη.[27] Another theory suggests that the word Malta comes from the Phoenician word Maleth meaning "a haven"[28] in reference to Malta's many bays and coves HP Pavilion dv6-1005ez battery. [edit]History Main articles: History of Malta and Timeline of Maltese history [edit]Prehistory See also: Megalithic Temples of Malta, Hypogeum of Ħal Saflieni, Għar Dalam, and Heritage Malta Prehistoric pygmy elephant, discovered in Għar Dalam Pottery found by archeologists at Skorba resembles that found in Italy, and suggests that the Maltese islands were first settled in 5200 BC mainly by stone age hunters or farmers who had arrived from the larger island of Sicily HP Pavilion dv6-1005tx battery, possibly the Sicani. The extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta.[29] Prehistoric farming settlements dating to Early Neolithic period were discovered in open areas and also in caves, such as Għar Dalam. HP Pavilion dv6-1006tx batteryThe Sicani were the only tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time[31][32] and are generally regarded as related to the Iberians.[33] The population on Malta grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and, in common with other ancient Mediterranean cultures, worshiped a fertility figure represented in Maltese prehistoric artifacts as exhibiting the large proportions seen in similar statuettes HP Pavilion dv6-1007tx battery, including the Venus of Willendorf. Ġgantija megalithic temple complex The temple complex of Mnajdra Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase is similar to pottery found in Agrigento, Sicily. A culture of megalithic temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period. During 3500 BC, these people built some of the oldest existing, free-standing structures in the world in the form of the megalithic Ġgantija temples on Gozo; other early temples include those at Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra HP Pavilion dv6-1008tx battery. The temples have a distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000–2500 BC. Animal bones and a knife found behind a removable altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertility HP Pavilion dv6-1009el battery, whose statue is now in the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta.[38] The culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archeologists speculate that the temple builders fell victim to famine or disease. Others have speculated on the links between this event and Plato's account of the disappearance of Atlantis HP Pavilion dv6-1009tx battery. Another interesting archeological feature of the Maltese islands often attributed to these ancient builders, are equidistant uniform grooves dubbed "cart tracks" or "cart ruts" which can be found in several locations throughout the islands with the most prominent being those found in an area of Malta named "Clapham Junction" HP Pavilion dv6-1010ea battery. These may have been caused by wooden-wheeled carts eroding soft limestone.[39][40] After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. HP Pavilion dv6-1010ed battery [41] [edit]Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans See also: Magna Graecia, Phoenicia, Ancient Rome, Sicilia (Roman province), and Byzantine Empire Around 700 BC, the Ancient Greeks settled on Malta, especially around the area where Valletta now stands.[42] A century later, Phoenician traders,[42] who used the islands as a stop on their trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean to Cornwall HP Pavilion dv6-1010et battery, joined the natives on the island.[43] The Phoenicians inhabited the area now known as Mdina, and its surrounding town of Rabat, which they called Maleth.[44] The Romans, who also lived in Mdina, referred to it (and the island) as Melita.[26] Roman mosaic from Rabat, Malta. After the fall of Phoenicia, in 400 BC the area came under the control of Carthage, a former Phoenician colony.[45] During this time the people on Malta mainly cultivated olives and carobs, and produced textiles HP Pavilion dv6-1010tx battery.[45] During the First Punic War of 264 BC, tensions led the Maltese people to rebel against Carthage and turn control of their garrison over to the Roman consul Sempronius.[26] Malta remained loyal to Rome during the Second Punic War and the Romans rewarded it with the title Foederata Civitas HP Pavilion dv6-1011tx battery, a designation that meant it was exempt from paying tribute or the rule of Roman law, although at this time it fell within the jurisdiction of the province of Sicily.[26] By 117 AD, the Maltese Islands were a thriving part of the Roman Empire, being promoted to the status of Municipium under Hadrian.[26] Catacombs in Rabat testify to an early Christian community on the islands, and the Acts of the Apostles recount the shipwreck of St Paul and his ministry on the island HP Pavilion dv6-1012tx battery. When the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western divisions in the 4th century, Malta fell under the control of the Greek speaking Byzantine Empire from 395 to 870,[42] which ruled from Constantinople.[46] Although Malta was under Byzantine rule for four centuries, not much is known from this period HP Pavilion dv6-1013ea battery. There is evidence that Germanic tribes, including the Goths and Vandals, briefly took control of the islands before the Byzantines launched a counter attack and retook Malta.[46] [edit]Middle Ages See also: Byzantine-Arab Wars, Emirate of Sicily, Kingdom of Sicily, and Crown of Aragon Roger I of Sicily returned Malta to Christian rule. Flag of the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily Malta was involved in the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and the conquest of Malta is closely linked with that of Sicily due to admiral Euphemius' betrayal of his fellow Byzantines, requesting that the Aghlabid dynasty invade the area HP Pavilion dv6-1013tx battery.[47] The Arab chronicler and geographer Al-Himyari recounts that in 870 AD, following a violent struggle against the occupying Byzantines, the Arab invaders, first led by Halaf Al-Hadim, and later by Sawada Ibn Muhammed, looted and pillaged the island, destroying the most important buildings, and leaving it practically uninhabited until it was recolonised by the Arabs from Sicily in 1048-49 AD HP Pavilion dv6-1016ez battery. It is uncertain whether this new settlement took place as a consequence of demographic expansion in Sicily, as a result of a higher standard of living in Sicily (in which case the recolonisation may have taken place a few decades earlier), or as a result of civil war which broke out among Arab rulers of Sicily in 1038.[48] The Arabs introduced new irrigation, HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr battery some fruits and cotton and the Siculo-Arabic language was adopted on the island from Sicily: it would eventually evolve into the Maltese language.[49] The native Christians were allowed freedom of religion but had to pay jizya, a tax for non-Muslims, but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (Zakaat).[50] The Normans in 1091, as part of their conquest of Sicily, expelled all the Moors from southern Italy, HP Pavilion dv6-6090us battery and their leader Roger I of Sicily was welcomed by the native Christians.[26] The notion that Count Roger I reportedly tore off a portion of his checkered red-and-white banner and presented it to the Maltese forming the basis of the present-day Maltese flag in gratitude for having fought on his behalf, is founded in myth. HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf batteryOttoman map of Malta, by Piri Reis The Norman period was productive; Malta became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Sicily which also covered the island of Sicily and the southern half of the Italian Peninsula.[26] The Catholic Church was re-instated as the state religion with Malta under the See of Palermo and some Norman architecture sprung up around Malta especially in its ancient capital Mdina HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg battery.[26] Tancred of Sicily, the last Norman monarch, made Malta a feudal lordship or fief within the kingdom and a Count of Malta instated. As the islands were much desired due to their strategic importance, it was during this time the men of Malta were militarised to fend off capture attempts; the early counts were skilled Genoese corsairs HP Pavilion dv6-6063sf battery.[26] The kingdom passed on to the House of Hohenstaufen from 1194 until 1266. In fact it was during this period, when Frederick II of Hohenstaufen began to reorganise his Sicilian kingdom, that Western culture and religion began to exert their influence more intensely HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf battery.[52] Malta was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation for 72 years. Malta was declared a county and a marquisate, but its trade was totally ruined. For a long time it remained solely a fortified garrison.[53] It was in 1224 under Frederick II that all remaining Muslims (who were not Moors) were expelled from Malta[54] or impelled to convert HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef batteryand the entire Christian male population of Celano in Abruzzo was deported to Malta.[26] Jean Parisot de la Valette, the founder of Valletta For a brief period the kingdom passed to the Capetian House of Anjou, however high taxes made the dynasty unpopular in Malta, due in part to Charles of Anjou's war against the Republic of Genoa and the island of Gozo was sacked in 1275 HP Pavilion dv6-6051xx battery.[26] A large revolt on Sicily known as the Sicilian Vespers followed these attacks, that saw the Peninsula separating into the Kingdom of Naples. Malta fell under the rule of the Aragonese in 1282.[57] Relatives of the kings of Aragon ruled the island until 1409, when it passed to the Crown of Aragon. Early on in the Aragonese reign the sons of the monarchy received the title, "Count of Malta". HP Pavilion dv6-6051sf battery It was also during this time that much of the local nobility was created. However by 1397 the bearing of the title "Count of Malta" reverted to a feudal basis with two families fighting over the distinction, which caused much distress. This led the king to abolish the title. Dispute over the title returned when the title was reinstated a few years later and the Maltese, led by the local nobility, rose up against Count Gonsalvo Monroy HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf battery.[26] Although they opposed the Count, the Maltese voiced their loyalty to the Sicilian Crown, which so impressed Alfonso IV that he did not punish the people for their rebellion but promised never to grant the title to a third party, instead incorporating it back into the crown. The city of Mdina was given the title of Città Notabile as a result of this sequence of events HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx battery.[26] [edit]Knights of Malta and Napoleon See also: Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Knights Hospitaller, and Great Siege of Malta St. Paul's Cathedral, Mdina built in the Baroque style. In 1530 Emperor Charles V gave the islands to the Knights Hospitaller under the leadership of Frenchman Philippe de Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Grand Master of the Order, in perpetual lease. These knights, a military religious order now known as the Knights of Malta, had been driven out of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire in 1522 HP Pavilion dv6-6027tx battery. In 1551, Barbary corsairs enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, about 5,000, deporting them to the Barbary coast. The knights, led by Frenchman Jean Parisot de la Valette, Grand Master of the Order, withstood a siege by the Ottomans in 1565. The knights, with the help of the Maltese, were victorious, and speaking of the battle Voltaire said HP Pavilion dv6-6026tx battery, "Nothing is more well known than the siege of Malta."[58] After the siege they decided to increase Malta's fortifications, particularly in the inner-harbour area, where the new city of Valletta, named in honour of Valette, was built. They also established watchtowers along the coasts – the Wignacourt, Lascaris and de Redin towers – named after the Grand Masters who ordered the work HP Pavilion dv6-6025tx battery. The Knights' presence on the island saw the completion of many architectural and cultural projects, including the embellishment of Città Vittoriosa, the construction of new cities including Città Rohan and Città Hompesch and the introduction of new academic and social resources HP Pavilion dv6-6024tx battery. Approximately 11,000 people out of a population of 60,000 died of plague in 1675.[59] The Beheading of Saint John, by Caravaggio. Oil on canvas, 361 × 520 cm (142.13 in × 204.72 in). Oratory of the Co-Cathedral. The Knights' reign ended when Napoleon captured Malta on his way to Egypt during the French Revolutionary Wars in 1798. Over the years HP Pavilion dv6-6023tx battery, the power of the Knights declined and the Order became unpopular. This was around the time when the universal values of freedom and liberty were incarnated by the French Revolution. People from both inside the Order and outside appealed to Napoleon Bonaparte to oust the Knights. Napoleon Bonaparte did not hesitate HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg battery. His fleet arrived in 1798, en route to his expedition of Egypt. As a ruse towards the Knights, Napoleon asked for safe harbour to resupply his ships, and then turned his guns against his hosts once safely inside Valletta. Grand Master Hompesch capitulated, and Napoleon entered Malta HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu battery. During his very short stay (six days), he accomplished quite a few reforms, notably the creation of a new administration with a Government Commission, the creation of twelve municipalities, the setting up of a public finance administration, the abolition of all feudal rights and privileges, the abolition of slavery and the granting of freedom to all Turkish slaves HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl battery. On the judicial level, a family code was framed and twelve judges were nominated. Public education was organised along principles laid down by Bonaparte himself, providing for primary and secondary education. Fifteen primary schools were founded and the university was replaced by an ’Ecole centrale’ in which there were eight chairs, all very scientific in outlook HP Pavilion dv6-6012tu battery: notably, arithmetic and stereometry, algebra and stereotomy, geometry and astronomy, mechanics and physics, navigation, chemistry, etc. He then sailed for Egypt leaving a substantial garrison in Malta. The French forces left behind became unpopular with the Maltese, due particularly to the French forces' hostility towards Catholicism and pilaging of local churches to fund Napoleon's War HP Pavilion dv6-6011tu battery. The French financial and religious policies angered the Maltese who rebelled, forcing the French to retreat within the city fortifications. Great Britain, along with the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily, sent ammunition and aid to the Maltese and Britain also sent her navy, which blockaded the islands HP Pavilion dv6-6008tx battery. General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois surrendered his French forces in 1800. Maltese leaders presented the island to Sir Alexander Ball, asking that the island become a British Dominion. The Maltese people created a Declaration of Rights in which they agreed to come "under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free people HP Pavilion dv6-6008sa battery, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The Declaration also stated that "his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power...if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control." HP Pavilion dv6-6008eg battery[edit]British Empire and World War II Main article: Siege of Malta (World War II) The heavily bomb-damaged Republic Street in Valletta during the Siege of Malta, 1942. In 1814, as part of the Treaty of Paris, Malta officially became a part of the British Empire and was used as a shipping way-station and fleet headquarters HP Pavilion dv6-6007tx battery. Malta's position half-way between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal proved to be its main asset during these years and it was considered an important stop on the way to India. This was an important trade route for the British and thus, the Maltese people took great advantage of this alliance as several culinary and botanical products were introduced in Malta HP Pavilion dv6-6007sg battery; some examples (derived from the National Book of Trade Customs found in the National Library) include the entry of wheat (for bread making) and bacon. In 1919 British troops fired on a rally protesting against new taxes, killing four Maltese men. The event, known as Sette Giugno (Italian for 7 June), is commemorated every year and is one of five National Days. HP Pavilion dv6-6006ea batteryIn the early 1930s the British Mediterranean Fleet, which was at that time the main contributor to commerce on the island, moved to Alexandria as an economic measure and to be out of range of Italian bombers. During World War II, Malta played an important role owing to its proximity to Axis shipping lanes HP Pavilion dv6-6005sg battery. The bravery of the Maltese people during the second Siege of Malta moved King George VI to award the George Cross to Malta on a collective basis on 15 April 1942 "to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history". Some historians argue that the award caused Britain to incur disproportionate losses in defending Malta, as British credibility would have suffered if Malta surrendered, as Singapore had. HP Pavilion dv6-6005eg battery [61] A replica of the George Cross now appears in the upper hoist corner of the Flag of Malta. The collective award remained unique until April 1999, when the Royal Ulster Constabulary became the second – and, to date, the only other – recipient of a collective George Cross HP Pavilion dv6-6005ea battery.[62] [edit]Independence and Republic Malta joined the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. Malta achieved its independence on 21 September 1964 (Independence Day) after intense negotiations with the United Kingdom, led by Maltese Prime Minister George Borg Olivier. Under its 1964 constitution HP Pavilion dv6-6004sa battery, Malta initially retained Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta and thus Head of State, with a Governor-General exercising executive authority on her behalf. In 1971, the Malta Labour Party led by Dom Mintoff won the General Elections, resulting in Malta declaring itself a republic on 13 December 1974 (Republic Day) within the Commonwealth, with the President as head of state HP Pavilion dv6-6003eg battery. A defence agreement signed soon after independence (and re-negotiated in 1972) expired on 31 March 1979. Malta adopted a policy of neutrality in 1980. In 1989, Malta was the venue of a summit between US President George H.W. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, their first face-to-face encounter, which signalled the end of the Cold War HP Pavilion dv6-6002sg battery. On 16 July 1990, Malta, through its foreign minister, Guido de Marco, applied to join the European Union. After tough negotiations, a referendum was held on 8 March 2003, which resulted in a favourable vote. General Elections held on 12 April 2003, gave a clear mandate to the Prime Minister, Eddie Fenech Adami HP Pavilion dv6-6002eg battery, to sign the Treaty of accession to the European Union on 16 April 2003 in Athens, Greece. Malta joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.[63] Following the European Council of 21–22 June 2007, Malta joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2008.[64] [edit]Politics The Courthouse, Valletta. Main articles: Politics of Malta and Government of Malta HP Pavilion dv6-6001sg batteryMalta is a republic,[65] whose parliamentary system and public administration is closely modeled on the Westminster system. Malta had the second highest voter turnout in the world (and the highest for nations without mandatory voting), based on election turnout in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995 HP Pavilion dv6-6001eg battery.[66] The unicameral House of Representatives, (Maltese: Kamra tad-Deputati), is elected by direct universal suffrage through single transferable vote every five years, unless the House is dissolved earlier by the President on advice of the Prime Minister. The House of Representatives is made up of sixty-nine Members of Parliament HP Pavilion dv6-6001ea battery. However, where a party wins an absolute majority of votes, but does not have a majority of seats, that party is given additional seats to ensure a parliamentary majority. The Constitution of Malta provides that the President appoint as Prime Minister the member of the House who is best able to command a (governing) majority in the House HP Pavilion dv6-6000eg battery. The President of Malta is appointed for a five-year term by a resolution of the House of Representatives carried by a simple majority. The role of the President as head of state is largely ceremonial. The main political parties are the Nationalist Party, which is a Christian democratic party, and the Labour Party, which is a social democratic party HP Pavilion dv6-6000 battery . The Nationalist Party is currently at the helm of the government, the Prime Minister being Lawrence Gonzi. The Labour Party, with Joseph Muscat as its leader, is in opposition. There are a number of smaller political parties in Malta that presently have no parliamentary representation. Until World War II Maltese politics was dominated by the language question fought out by Italophile and Anglophile parties( HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf battery).[67] Post-War politics dealt with constitutional questions on the relations with Britain (first with integration then independence) and, eventually, relations with the European Union. [edit]Administrative divisions Main article: Local councils of Malta Administrative divisions of Malta. Malta has had a system of local government since 1993, based on the European Charter of Local Self-Government. There are at present 68 local councils ( HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef battery) (54 in Malta and 14 in Gozo). Sixteen "hamlets", which form part of larger councils, have their own Administrative Committee. There are no intermediate levels between local government and national government and the levels of the six districts (five on the main island) and of the three regions (two on the main island) serve primarily statistical purposes( HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf battery). Each council is made up of a number of councillors (from five to eleven, depending and relative to the population they represent). A Mayor and a Deputy Mayor are elected by and from the Councillors. The Executive Secretary, who is appointed by the council, is the executive, administrative and financial head of the council( HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef battery). Councillors are elected every four years through the single transferable vote. People who are eligible to vote in the election of the Maltese House of Representatives as well as resident citizens of the EU are eligible to vote. Due to the recent reform of the system, no elections will be held before 2012 from when elections will be held every two years for an alternating half of the councils( HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf battery). Local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality (including repairs to non-arterial roads), allocation of local wardens and refuse collection; they also carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds and answer government-related public inquiries( HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef battery). [edit]Military Main article: Armed Forces of Malta The objectives of the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM) are to maintain a military organisation with the primary aim of defending the islands' integrity according to the defence roles as set by the government in an efficient and cost effective manner. This is achieved by emphasising the maintenance of Malta's territorial waters and airspace integrity( HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf battery). The AFM also engages in combating terrorism, fighting against illicit drug trafficking, conducting anti-illegal immigrant and anti-illegal fishing operations, operating Search and rescue (SAR) services, and physical/electronic security/surveillance of sensitive locations. Malta's Search and Rescue area extends from east of Tunisia to west of Crete covering an area of around 250,000 km2( HP Pavilion dv6-3350ef battery). As a military organisation, the AFM provides backup support to the Malta Police Force (MPF) and other government departments/agencies in situations as required in an organised, disciplined manner in the event of national emergencies (such as natural disasters) or internal security and bomb disposal( HP Pavilion dv6-3300sg battery). On another level, the AFM establishes and/or consolidates bilateral co-operation with other countries to reach higher operational effectiveness related to AFM roles. [edit]Geography Main article: Geography of Malta Satellite image of Malta Malta is an archipelago in the central Mediterranean (in its eastern basin), some 80 km (49.71 mi) south of the Italian island of Sicily across the Malta Channel( HP Pavilion dv6-3300 battery). Only the three largest islands – Malta (Malta), Gozo (Għawdex), and Comino (Kemmuna) – are inhabited. The smaller islands (see below) are uninhabited. The islands of the archipelago lie on the Malta plateau, a shallow shelf formed from the high points of a land bridge between Sicily and North Africa that became isolated as sea levels rose after the last Ice Age( HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea battery),.[68] The archipelago is therefore situated in the zone between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates.,[69][70] Numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours. The landscape consists of low hills with terraced fields. The highest point in Malta is Ta' Dmejrek, at 253 m (830 ft), near Dingli. Although there are some small rivers at times of high rainfall, there are no permanent rivers or lakes on Malta( HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea battery). However, some watercourses have fresh water running all year round at Baħrija, l-Imtaħleb and San Martin, and at Lunzjata Valley in Gozo. Phytogeographically, Malta belongs to the Liguro-Tyrrhenian province of the Mediterranean Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Malta belongs to the ecoregion of "Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub"( HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea battery).[71] Maltese landscape, Għadira The minor islands that form part of the archipelago are uninhabited and include: Barbaganni Rock (Gozo) Cominotto, (Kemmunett) Delimara Island (Marsaxlokk) Filfla (Żurrieq)/(Siġġiewi) Fessej Rock Fungus Rock, (Il-Ġebla tal-Ġeneral) (Gozo) Għallis Rock (Naxxar) Ħalfa Rock (Gozo) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo battery) Large Blue Lagoon Rocks (Comino) Islands of St. Paul/Selmunett Island (Mellieħa) Manoel Island, which connects to the town of Gżira, on the mainland, via a bridge Mistra Rocks (San Pawl il-Baħar) Taċ-Ċawl Rock (Gozo) Qawra Point/Ta` Fraben Island (San Pawl il-Baħar) Small Blue Lagoon Rocks (Comino) Sala Rock (Żabbar) Xrobb l-Għaġin Rock (Marsaxlokk) Ta'that il-Mazz Rock( HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa battery) [edit]Climate Main article: Climate of Malta Blue Lagoon Bay between Comino and Cominotto island Malta has a Subtropical–Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa),[72][73] with mild winters and warm to hot summers. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. The average yearly temperature is 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) during the day and 15 °C (59 °F) at night. In the coldest month – January – the temperature ranges from 12 to 20 °C (54 to 68 °F) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3141sa battery) during the day and 7 to 12 °C (45 to 54 °F) at night. In the warmest month – August – the temperature ranges from 28 to 34 °C (82 to 93 °F) during the day and 19 to 24 °C (66 to 75 °F) at night. Generally – summer's/holiday season lasts to 8 months, starting from around mid-April with temperatures 19–23 °C (66–73 °F) during the day and 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) at night( HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa battery), ending in November with temperatures 17–23 °C (63–73 °F) during the day and 11–20 °C (52–68 °F) at night, although also in the remaining 4 months temperatures sometimes reach 20 °C (68 °F). Amongst all capitals in the continent of Europe, Valletta – the capital of Malta has the warmest winters, with average temperatures of 15–16 °C (59–61 °F) during the day and 9–10 °C (48–50 °F) at night in the period January–February( HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa battery). In March and December average temperatures is around 17 °C (63 °F) during the day and 11 °C (52 °F) at night.[74] Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. Also, Malta is one of the few places in Europe which are "green" all year round. Average annual temperature of the sea is 20 °C (68 °F) (the highest in the continent of Europe), from 16 °C (61 °F) in January to 26 °C (79 °F) in August( HP Pavilion dv6-3130sa battery). In the entire 6 months – from June to November – the average sea temperature exceeds 21 °C (70 °F)[75] Sunshine hours total around 3,000 per year (one of the highest results in Europe), from an average above five hours of sunshine per day in December to an average above 12 hours in July.[75] This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe, for comparison: London – 1,461( HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa battery);[76] however in winter it has up to several times more sunshine, for comparison: London has 37 hours[76] while Malta has 155 or 164 (depending on the sources) hours of sunshine in December. Economy Main article: Economy of Malta Valletta's maritime industrial zone Malta is classified as an advanced economy together with 32 other countries according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3125sa battery).[78] Until 1800 Malta depended on cotton, tobacco and its shipyards for exports. Once under British control, they came to depend on the dockyard for support of the Royal Navy, especially during the Crimean War of 1854. The military base benefited craftsmen and all those who served the military( HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa battery). In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal gave Malta's economy a great boost, as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered the port. Ships stopping at Malta's docks for refuelling helped the Entrepôt trade, which brought additional benefits to the island. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa battery) However, towards the end of the 19th century the economy began declining, and by the 1940s Malta's economy was in serious crisis. One factor was the longer range of newer merchant ships that required less frequent refuelling stops. The dolphin show at Mediterraneo Marine Park. Tourism generates a significant part of the GDP of Malta( HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa battery) Currently, Malta's major resources are limestone, a favourable geographic location and a productive labour force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade (serving as a freight trans-shipment point), manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles) and tourism( HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa battery). Film production is a growing contributor to the Maltese economy, with several big-budget foreign films shooting in Malta each year. The country has increased the exports of many other types of services such as banking and finance. Malta is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue) The government is investing heavily in education, including college( HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa battery). In preparation for Malta's membership in the European Union, which it joined on 1 May 2004, it privatised some state-controlled firms and liberalised markets. For example, the government announced on 8 January 2007 that it is selling its 40% stake in MaltaPost, in order to complete a privatisation process which has been ongoing for the past five years( HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa battery). In 2010, Malta has managed to privatize telecommunications, postal services, shipyards and shipbuilding. Malta and Tunisia are currently discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for petroleum exploration. These discussions are also undergoing between Malta and Libya for similar arrangements( HP Pavilion dv6-3117sa battery). Malta does not have a property tax. According to Eurostat data, Maltese PPS GDP per capita stood at 76 per cent of the EU average in 2008.[79] [edit]Banking and finance The two largest commercial banks are Bank of Valletta and HSBC Bank Malta, both of which can trace their origins back to the 19th century. Malta is one of the world's financial centers.[80] The Central Bank of Malta (Bank Ċentrali ta' Malta), has two key areas of responsibility( HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx battery): the formulation and implementation of monetary policy and the promotion of a sound and efficient financial system. It was established by the Central Bank of Malta Act on 17 April 1968. The Maltese government entered ERM II on 4 May 2005, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2008. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa battery) [edit]Transport Main article: Transport in Malta Traffic in Malta moves on the left, as in the UK. Car ownership in Malta is exceedingly high, given the very small size of the islands; it is the fourth highest in the European Union. The number of registered cars in 1990 amounted to 182,254, giving an automobile density of 582 /km2 (1,510 /sq mi). ( HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx battery) Malta has 2,254 kilometres (1,401 mi) of road, 1,972 km (1,225 mi) (87.5%) of which are paved and 282 km (175 mi) were unpaved (December 2003).[83] Maltese bus. The main roads of Malta from the southest point to the northest point are these: Triq Birżebbuġa in Birżebbuġa, Għar Dalam Road and Tal-Barrani Road in Żejtun, Santa Luċija Avenue in Paola, Aldo Moro Street (Trunk Road) ( HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa battery), 13 December Street and Ħamrun-Marsa Bypass in Marsa, Regional Road in Santa Venera/Msida/Gżira/San Ġwann, St Andrew's Road in Swieqi/Pembroke, Malta, Coast Road in Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq, Salina Road, Kennedy Drive, St. Paul's Bypass and Xemxija Hill in San Pawl il-Baħar, Mistra Hill, Wettinger Street (Mellieħa Bypass) and Marfa Road in Mellieħa( HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa battery). Principal highways Buses (xarabank or karozza tal-linja) are the primary method of public transport. Established in 1905, the service underwent an extensive reform in July 2011. The management structure changed from having self-employed drivers driving their own vehicles to a service being offered by a single company through a public tender ( HP Pavilion dv6-3113sa battery) (in Gozo, being considered as a small network, the service was given through direct order).[84] The public tender was won by Arriva Malta, a member of the Arriva group. The new service includes a day and night services. The fast Crossline services operating at a frequency of 30 minutes. The Crossline service shall connect with Mainline services, which will operate at a frequency of between 10 and 30 minutes( HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa battery). At regional and local levels the feeder lines will serve villages and neighbouring areas at a frequency of 30 minutes. Interchanges are located in Valletta, Mater Dei Hospital, Swieqi, Paola, Marsa, Malta International Airport and Msida. Between 1883 and 1931, Malta had a railway line that connected Valletta to the army barracks at Mtarfa via Mdina and a number of towns and villages( HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa battery). The railway fell into disuse and eventually closed altogether, following the introduction of electric trams and buses. At the height of the bombing of Malta during World War II, Mussolini announced that his forces had destroyed the railway system but by the time war broke out, the railway had been mothballed for more than nine years( HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa battery). Grand Harbour Malta Freeport, one of the largest European ports. Malta has three large natural harbours on its main island: The Grand Harbour (or Port il-Kbir), located at the eastern side of the capital city of Valletta, has been a harbour since Roman times. It has several extensive docks and wharves, as well as a cruise liner terminal. A terminal at the Grand Harbour serves ferries that connect Malta to Pozzallo & Catania in Sicily( HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea battery). Marsamxett Harbour, located on the western side of Valletta, accommodates a number of yacht marinas. Marsaxlokk Harbour (Malta Freeport), at Birżebbuġa on the south-eastern side of Malta, is the islands' main cargo terminal. Malta Freeport is the 11th busiest container ports in continent of Europe and 46th in the World with a trade volume of 2.3 million TEU's in 2008. ( HP Pavilion dv6-3100sa battery) There are also two man-made harbours that serve a passenger and car ferry service that connects Ċirkewwa Harbour on Malta and Mġarr Harbour on Gozo. The ferry makes numerous runs each day. Malta International Airport Malta International Airport (Ajruport Internazzjonali ta' Malta) is the only airport serving the Maltese Islands( HP Pavilion dv6-3100 battery). It is built on the land formerly occupied by the RAF Luqa air base. A heliport is also located there, but the scheduled service to Gozo ceased in 2006. The heliport in Gozo is at Xewkija. Since June 2007, Harbour Air Malta has operated a thrice-daily floatplane service between the sea terminal in Grand Harbour and Mgarr Harbour in Gozo (HP Pavilion dv6-3089la battery). Two further airfields at Ta' Qali and Ħal Far operated during World War II and into the 1960s but are now closed. Today, Ta' Qali houses a national park, stadium, the Crafts Village visitor attraction and the Malta Aviation Museum. This museum preserves several aircraft, including Hurricane and Spitfire fighters that defended the island in World War II (HP Pavilion dv6-3088la battery). An Air Malta plane The national airline is Air Malta, which is based at Malta International Airport, and which operates services to 36 destinations in Europe and North Africa. The owners of Air Malta are the Government of Malta (98%) and private investors (2%). Air Malta employs 1,547 staff. It has a 25% shareholding in Medavia (HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea battery). Air Malta has concluded over 191 interline ticketing agreements with other IATA airlines. It also has a codeshare agreement with Qantas covering three routes. In September 2007, Air Malta made two agreements with Abu Dhabi-based Etihad Airways by which Air Malta wet-leased two Airbus aircraft to Etihad Airways for the winter period starting 1 September 2007 (HP Pavilion dv6-3077la battery), and provided operational support on another Airbus A320 aircraft which it leased to Etihad Airways. [edit]Communications The mobile penetration rate in Malta stood at 101.3% as at the end of 2009.[86] Malta uses the GSM900 & UMTS(3G) mobile phone systems. This is compatible with the rest of the European countries, Australia and also New Zealand (HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea battery). There are no area codes in Malta, subscribers' numbers having eight digits. Fixed line telephone numbers have the prefix 2, while mobile telephone numbers have the prefix 7 or 9. When calling Malta from abroad, one must first dial the international access code, then the country code +356 and the subscriber's number (HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea battery). [edit]Currency Main articles: Maltese euro coins and Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Malta) Maltese euro coins feature the Maltese Cross on €2 and €1 coins, the Maltese Coat of Arms on the €0.50, €0.20 and €0.10 coins, and the Mnajdra Temples on the €0.05, €0.02 and €0.01 coins (HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea battery).[87] Malta has produced collectors' coins with face value ranging from 10 to 50 euro. These coins continue an existing national practice of minting of silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the eurozone. For instance, a €10 Maltese commemorative coin cannot be used in any other country (HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea battery). From 1972 until introduction of the Euro in 2008, the currency was the Maltese Lira, which had replaced the Maltese pound. The pound replaced the Maltese scudo in 1798. [edit]Tourism Malta is a popular tourist destination, with 1.2 million tourists every year.[3] Three times more tourists visit than there are residents. Tourism infrastructure has increased dramatically over the years and a number of good-quality hotels are present on the island (HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa battery), although overdevelopment and the destruction of traditional housing is of growing concern. An increasing number of Maltese now travel abroad on holiday.[88] In recent years, Malta has advertised itself as a medical tourism destination,[89] and a number of health tourism providers are developing the industry. However, no Maltese hospital has undergone independent international healthcare accreditation (HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa battery). Malta is popular with British medical tourists,[90] pointing Maltese hospitals towards seeking UK-sourced accreditation, such as with the Trent Accreditation Scheme. Dual accreditation with the American-oriented Joint Commission is necessary if hospitals in Malta wish to compete with the Far East and Latin America for medical tourists from the United States (HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa battery). [edit]Science and technology Malta signed a cooperation agreement with the European Space Agency (ESA) for more-intensive cooperation in ESA projects.[91] [edit]Demographics Main article: Demographics of Malta Valletta, Malta's historical capital city Malta conducts a census of population and housing every ten years. The census held in November 2005 managed to count an estimated 96% of the population (HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa battery). A preliminary report was issued in April 2006, and results were weighted to an estimate for 100% of the population. Native Maltese people make up the majority of the island. However there are minorities, the largest of which are British people, many of whom retired to Malta. The population of Malta as of July 2011 was estimated at 408,000 (HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa battery).[92] As of 2005, 17% were aged 14 and under, 68% were within the 15–64 age bracket whilst the remaining 13% were 65 years and over. Malta's population density of 1,282 per square kilometer (3,322/sq mi) is by far the highest in the EU, and one of the highest in the world. The only census year showing a fall in population was that of 1967, with a 1.7% total decrease, attributable to a substantial number of Maltese residents who emigrated (HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo battery).[7] The Maltese-resident population for 2004 was estimated to make up 97.0% of the total resident population.[93] All censuses since 1842 have shown a slight excess of females over males. The 1901 and 1911 censuses came closest to recording a balance. The highest female-to-male ratio was reached in 1957 (1088:1000), and since the ratio has been constantly dropping (HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx battery). The 2005 census showed a 1013:1000 female-to-male ratio. Population growth has slowed down, from +9.5% between the 1985 and 1995 censuses, to +6.9% between the 1995 and 2005 censuses (a yearly average of +0.7%). The birth rate stood at 3860 (a decrease of 21.8% from the 1995 census) and the death rate stood at 3025 (HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa battery). Thus, there was a natural population increase of 835 (compared to +888 for 2004, of which over a hundred were foreign residents).[94] The Valletta Waterfront illuminations The population's age composition is similar to the age structure prevalent in the EU. Since 1967 there was observed a trend indicating an ageing population, and is expected to continue in the foreseeable future (HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa battery). Malta's old-age-dependency-ratio rose from 17.2% in 1995 to 19.8% in 2005, reasonably lower than the EU's 24.9% average. In fact, 31.5% of the Maltese population is aged under 25 (compared to the EU's 29.1%); but the 50–64 age group constitutes 20.3% of the population, significantly higher than the EU's 17.9% (HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa battery). In conclusion, Malta's old-age-dependency-ratio is expected to continue rising steadily in the coming years. Maltese legislation recognizes both civil and canonical (ecclesiastical) marriages. Annulments by the ecclesiastical and civil courts are unrelated and are not necessarily mutually endorsed. Malta voted in favor of divorce legislation in a referendum held on 28 May 2011.[95] Abortion in Malta is illegal. A person must be 16 to marry (HP Pavilion dv6-3045sa battery).[96] The number of brides aged under 25 decreased from 1471 in 1997 to 766 in 2005; while the number of grooms under 25 decreased from 823 to 311. There is a constant trend that females are more likely than males to marry young. In 2005 there were 51 brides aged between 16 and 19, compared to 8 grooms (HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa battery).[94] At the end of 2007 the population of the Maltese Islands stood at 410,290 and is expected to reach 424,028 by 2025. At the moment, females slightly outnumber males, making up 50.3 per cent of the population. The largest proportion of persons – 7.5 per cent – were aged 25–29, while there were 7.3% falling into each of the 45–49 and 55–59 age brackets (HP Pavilion dv6-3042tx battery).[97] [edit]Languages Main article: Languages of Malta See also: #Languages in education The Maltese language (Maltese: Malti) is the constitutional national language of Malta. Alongside the Maltese Language, English is also an official language of the country and hence the laws of the land are enacted both in Maltese and English. However, the Constitution states that if there is any conflict between the Maltese and the English texts of any law, the Maltese text shall prevail (HP Pavilion dv6-3040sa battery). Maltese is originally a Semitic language descended from Siculo-Arabic (from southern Italy).[98] The Maltese alphabet consists of 30 letters based on the Latin alphabet, including the diacritically altered letters ż, ċ and ġ, as well as the letters għ, ħ, and ie. Maltese has a semitic base with substantial borrowing from Sicilian, Italian, a little French, and more recently, and increasingly, English (HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa battery).[99] The language includes different dialects that can vary strongly from one town to another or from one island to another. The Eurobarometer states that 100% of the population speak Maltese. Also, 88% of the population speak English, 66% speak Italian, and 17% speak French.[100] This widespread knowledge of second languages makes Malta one of the most multi-lingual countries in the European Union (HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa battery). A study collecting public opinion on what language was "preferred" discovered that 86% of the population express a preference for Maltese, 12% for English, and 2% for Italian.[101] Still, Italian television channels from Italy-based broadcasters, such as Mediaset and RAI, reach Malta and remain popular. Italian was in fact an official language of Malta alongside Maltese until 1934, when English replaced it (HP Pavilion dv6-3032tx battery). [edit]Religion Main article: Religion in Malta The façade of St. John's Co-Cathedral The Constitution of Malta declares Roman Catholicism as the state religion although entrenched provisions for the freedom of religion are made. Freedom House and the World Factbook report that 98% of the population is Roman Catholic, making the nation one of the most Catholic countries in the world (HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa battery). There are more than 360 churches in Malta, Gozo, and Comino, or one church for every 1,000 residents. The parish church (Maltese: "il-parroċċa", or "il-knisja parrokjali") is the architectural and geographic focal point of every Maltese town and village, and its main source of civic pride. This civic pride manifests itself in spectacular fashion during the local village festas (HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa battery), which mark the day of the patron saint of each parish with marching bands, religious processions, special Masses, fireworks (especially petards), and other festivities. The Mosta Dome known as "Ir-Rotunda" Malta is an Apostolic See; the Acts of the Apostles tells of how Christians believe St. Paul, on his way from Crete to Rome to face trial, was shipwrecked on the island of "Melite", which many Bible scholars identify with Malta, an episode dated around AD 60 (HP Pavilion dv6-3030tx battery).[16] The Acts of the Apostles says St. Paul spent three months on the island, curing the sick including the father of Publius, the "chief man of the island". Various traditions are associated with this account. The shipwreck is said to have occurred in the place today known as St Paul's Bay. Saint Publius is said to have been made Malta's first bishop and a grotto in Rabat (HP Pavilion dv6-3030sa battery), now known as "St Paul's Grotto" (and in the vicinity of which evidence of Christian burials and rituals from the 3rd century AD has been found), is amongst the earliest known places of Christian worship on the island. Further evidence of Christian practices and beliefs during the period of Roman persecution appears in catacombs that lie beneath various sites around Malta (HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx battery), including St Paul's Catacombs and St Agatha's Catacombs in Rabat, just outside the walls of Mdina. The latter, in particular, were beautifully frescoed between 1200 and 1480, although marauding Turks defaced many of them in the 1550s. There are also a number of cave churches, including the grotto at Mellieħa, which is a Shrine of the Nativity of Our Lady where, according to legend, St. Luke painted a picture of the Madonna. It has been a place of pilgrimage since medieval times (HP Pavilion dv6-3025sa battery). The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon record that in 451 AD, a certain Acacius was Bishop of Malta (Melitenus Episcopus). It is also known that in 501 AD, a certain Constantinus, Episcopus Melitenensis, was present at the Fifth Ecumenical Council. In 588 AD, Pope Gregory I deposed Tucillus (HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa battery), Miletinae civitatis episcopus, and the clergy and people of Malta elected his successor Trajan in 599 AD. The last recorded Bishop of Malta before the invasion of the Islands was a Greek by the name of Manas, who was subsequently incarcerated at Palermo.[104] Maltese historian, Giovanni Francesco Abela, states that following their conversion to Christianity at the hand of St. Paul (HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa battery), the Maltese retained their Christian religion, despite the Fatimid invasion.[105] Abela's writings describe Malta as a divinely ordained "bulwark of Christian, European civilization against the spread of Mediterranean Islam".[106] The native Christian community that welcomed Roger I of Sicily[26] was further bolstered by immigration to Malta from Italy, in the 12th and 13th centuries (HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa battery). Żejtun city centre Parish church For centuries, the Church in Malta was subordinate to the Diocese of Palermo, except when it was under Charles of Anjou, who appointed bishops for Malta, as did – on rare occasions – the Spanish and later, the Knights. Since 1808 all bishops of Malta have been Maltese. As a result of the Norman and Spanish periods, and the rule of the Knights, Malta became the devout Catholic nation that it is today (HP Pavilion dv6-3011tx battery). It is worth noting that the Office of the Inquisitor of Malta had a very long tenure on the island following its establishment in 1530: the last Inquisitor departed from the Islands in 1798, after the Knights capitulated to the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the period of the Republic of Venice, several Maltese families emigrated to Corfu (HP Pavilion dv6-3006tx battery). Their descendants account for about two-thirds of the community of some 4000 Catholics that now live on that island. The patron saints of Malta are Saint Paul, Saint Publius, Saint Agatha and Saint George. Although not a patron saint, St George Preca (San Ġorġ Preca) is greatly revered as the first canonised Maltese saint. Pope Benedict XVI canonised him on 3 June 2007. Also, a number of Maltese individuals are recognised as Blessed, including Maria Adeodata Pisani and Nazju Falzon, with Pope John Paul II having beatified them in 2001 (HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx battery). Various Roman Catholic religious orders are present in Malta, including the Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans and Little Sisters of the Poor. Most congregants of the local Protestant churches are not Maltese; their congregations draw on the many British retirees living in the country and vacationers from many other nations. There are approximately 500 Jehovah's Witnesses (HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa battery); The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), the Bible Baptist Church, and the Fellowship of Evangelical Churches have about 60 affiliates. There are also some churches of other denominations, such as St. Andrew's Scots Church in Valletta (a joint Presbyterian and Methodist congregation) and St Paul's Anglican Cathedral, as well as a Seventh-day Adventist church in Birkirkara (HP Pavilion dv6-3000 battery). The Jewish population of Malta reached its peak in the Middle Ages under Norman rule. In 1479, Malta and Sicily came under Aragonese rule and the Alhambra Decree of 1492 forced all Jews to leave the country, permitting them to take with them only a few of their belongings( HP Pavilion dm3z-1000 battery). Several dozen Maltese Jews may have converted to Christianity at the time in order to remain in the country. Today, there is one Jewish congregation. Zen Buddhism and the Bahá'í Faith claim some 40 members. There is one Muslim mosque. A Muslim primary school recently opened; its existence remains a point of some controversy. Of the estimated 3,000 Muslims in Malta, approximately 2,250 are foreigners, approximately 600 are naturalized citizens, and approximately 150 are native-born Maltese( HP Pavilion dm3z battery).[107] [edit]Migration [edit]Inbound migration As an EU member state and a party to the Schengen Agreement, Malta applies the EU's visa policy. This means that to enter the country: Nationals of the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA) (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) and their special territories and of Switzerland require only a passport or a national identity card. Except for Romanian and Bulgarian nationals( HP Pavilion dm3a-1000 battery), citizens of this category of countries do not require a permit to stay and work legally in Malta.[108] Nationals of a number of non-EU and non-EEA countries (most countries of the Western Balkans, most countries of the American continent, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia and Japan) require only a passport and not need a visa to reside in Malta for less than 90 days( HP Pavilion dm3a battery). Nationals of other countries need a passport and a visa to enter the country, visas being valid for one month. The estimated net inflow (using data for 2002 to 2004) was of 1,913 persons yearly. Over the last 10 years, Malta accepted back a yearly average of 425 returning emigrants( HP Pavilion dm3-1095es battery).[93] During 2006, a total of 1,800 illegal immigrants reached Malta making the crossing from the North African coast. Most of them intended to reach mainland Europe and happened to come to Malta due to their sub-standard vessels breaking down or being caught by Maltese and other EU officials.[109][110] In the first half of 2006( HP Pavilion dm3-1031tx battery), 967 irregular immigrants arrived in Malta – almost double the 473 who arrived in the same period in 2005.[111] Many immigrants have perished in the journey across the Mediterranean, with one notable incident being the May 2007 Malta migrant boat disaster. Around 45% of immigrants landed in Malta have been granted refugee (5%) or protected humanitarian status (40%)( HP Pavilion dm3-1013tx battery). A White Paper suggesting the grant of Maltese citizenship to refugees resident in Malta for over ten years was issued in 2005. Historically Malta gave refuge (and assisted in their resettlement) to eight hundred or so East African Asians who had been expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin and to just under a thousand Iraqis fleeing Saddam Hussein's regime( HP Pavilion dm3-1090es battery). Detention costs for the first half of 2006 alone cost € 746,385.[112] In 2005, Malta sought EU aid in relation to reception of irregular immigrants, repatriation of those denied refugee status, resettlement of refugees into EU countries, and maritime security.[113] In December 2005, the European Council adopted The Global Approach to Migration: Priority Actions focusing on Africa and the Mediterranean( HP Pavilion dm3-1030us battery); but the deployment of said actions has been limited to the western Mediterranean, thus putting further pressure on the central Mediterranean route for irregular immigration of which Malta forms a part. [edit]Outbound migration In the 19th century, most emigration from Malta was to North Africa and the Middle East, although rates of return migration to Malta were high( HP Pavilion dm3-1013ax battery).[114] Nonetheless, Maltese communities formed in these regions. By 1900, for example, British consular estimates suggest that there were 15,326 Maltese in Tunisia, and in 1903 it was claimed that 15,000 people of Maltese origin were living in Algeria.[115] Malta experienced significant emigration as a result of the collapse of a construction boom in 1907 and after World War II( HP Pavilion dm3-1080es battery), when the birth rate increased significantly, but in the 20th century most emigrants went to destinations in the New World, particularly the United States and Australia. After World War II, Malta's Emigration Department would assist emigrants with the cost of their travel. Between 1948 and 1967, 30 per cent of the population emigrated( HP Pavilion dm3-1030sa battery).[114] Between 1946 and the late 1970s, over 140,000 people left Malta on the assisted passage scheme, with 57.6% migrating to Australia, 22% to the UK, 13% to Canada and 7% to the United States.[116] Emigration dropped dramatically after the mid-1970s and has since ceased to be a social phenomenon of significance( HP Pavilion dm3-1012tx battery). However, since Malta joined the EU in 2004 expatriate communities emerged in a number of European countries particularly in Belgium and Luxembourg. [edit]Education Main article: Education in Malta See also: List of schools in Malta Primary schooling has been compulsory since 1946; secondary education up to the age of sixteen was made compulsory in 1971. The state and the Church provide education free of charge( HP Pavilion dm3-1080ef battery), both running a number of schools in Malta and Gozo, including De La Salle College in Cospicua, St. Aloysius' College in Birkirkara, St. Joseph's School in Blata l-Bajda and Saint Monica Girls' School in Mosta. A number of private schools are run in Malta, including San Andrea School and San Anton School in the valley of L-Imselliet (l/o Mġarr) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1030er battery), St. Martin's College in Swatar and St. Michael's School in San Ġwann. As of 2008, there are two international schools, Verdala International School and QSI Malta. The state pays a portion of the teachers' salary in Church schools.[118] Education in Malta is based on the British model. Primary school lasts six years. At the age of 11 pupils sit for an examination to enter a secondary school, either a church school (the Common Entrance Examination) or a state school( HP Pavilion dm3-1012ax battery). Pupils sit for SEC O-level examinations at the age of 16, with passes obligatory in certain subjects such as mathematics, English and Maltese. Pupils may opt to continue studying at a sixth form college such as Junior College, St Aloysius' College, De La Salle College, St Edward's College or else at another post-secondary institution such as MCAST( HP Pavilion dm3-1075eo battery). The sixth form course lasts for two years, at the end of which students sit for the Matriculation examination. Subject to their performance, students may then apply for an undergraduate degree or diploma. The University of Malta (U.o.M.) provides Tertiary education at diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate level. The adult literacy rate is 99.5% http://www.indexmundi.com/facts/malta/literacy-rate( HP Pavilion dm3-1030ei battery) Maltese and English are both used to teach students at primary and secondary school level, and both languages are also compulsory subjects. Public schools tend to use both Maltese and English in a balanced manner. Private schools prefer to use English for teaching, as is also the case with most departments of the University of Malta( HP Pavilion dm3-1011tx battery); this has a limiting effect on the capacity and development of the Maltese language.[101] Most university courses are in English.[98] Of the total number of students studying a first foreign language at secondary level, 51% take Italian whilst 38% take French. Other choices include German, Russian, Spanish, and Arabic. ( HP Pavilion dm3-1070es battery) [edit]Healthcare Malta has a long history of providing publicly funded health care. The first hospital recorded in the country was already functioning by 1372.[120] Today, Malta has both a public healthcare system, known as the government healthcare service, where healthcare is free at the point of delivery, and a private healthcare system. ( HP Pavilion dm3-1030eg battery) Malta has a strong general practitioner-delivered primary care base and the public hospitals provide secondary and tertiary care. The Maltese Ministry of Health advises foreign residents to take out private medical insurance.[123] Malta was ranked number five in the World Health Organization's ranking of the world's health systems,[124] compared to the United States (at 37), Australia (at 32), United Kingdom (at 18) and Canada (at 30) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1011tu battery). The healthcare system in Malta closely resembles the British system,[125] as healthcare is free at the point of delivery. Malta also boasts voluntary organisations such as St John Ambulance, who provide first aid/nursing services during events involving crowds. Main article: List of hospitals in Malta The Mater Dei Hospital, Malta's primary hospital, opened in 2007. It has one of the largest medical buildings in Europe. Other government hospitals in Malta include( HP Pavilion dm3-1070eo battery): Paul Boffa Hospital, an oncology hospital in Floriana St Vincent De Paule Hospital, a geriatrics hospital Gozo General Hospital, the only hospital on Gozo In addition, Malta has three major private hospitals: St Philip's Hospital, with a capacity of 75 beds, is in Santa Venera (currently closed). St James Capua Hospital (the former Capua Palace Hospital), with 80 beds, is in Sliema. ( HP Pavilion dm3-1030ef battery) St James Hospital has several sites, including a 13 bed unit in Zabbar, as well as a partner hospital in Libya. St Mark's Clinic, in Msida, with a capacity of 5 beds, also offers some private hospital services.[125] Maltese student checking blood pressure The University of Malta has a medical school, and a Faculty of Health Sciences. The latter offering diploma, (BSc)degree and postgraduate degree courses in a number of health care disciplines( HP Pavilion dm3-1010tx battery). The Medical Association of Malta represents practitioners of the medical profession. MMSA is a separate body representing Maltese medical students, and is a member of EMSA and IFMSA. MIME, the Maltese Institute for Medical Education, is an institute set up recently to provide CME to doctors in Malta as well as medical students( HP Pavilion dm3-1070ea battery). The Foundation Program followed in the UK has been introduced in Malta in order to stem the 'brain drain' of newly graduated doctors to the British Isles. MADS, the Malta Association of Dental Students, is a student association set up to promote the rights of Dental Surgery Students studying within the faculty of Dental Surgery of the University of Malta( HP Pavilion dm3-1030ed battery). It is affiliated with IADS, the International Association of Dental Students. [edit]Culture Main article: Culture of Malta The culture of Malta reflects the various cultures that have come into contact with the Maltese Islands throughout the centuries, including neighbouring Mediterranean cultures, and the cultures of the nations that ruled Malta for long periods of time prior to its independence in 1964( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ew battery). [edit]Music Main article: Music of Malta Manoel Theatre, Europe's third-oldest working theatre. Now Malta's National Theatre and home to the Malta Philharmonic Orchestra. While Maltese music today is largely Western, traditional Maltese music includes what is known as għana. This consists of background folk guitar music, while a few people( HP Pavilion dm3-1065eo battery), generally men, take it in turns to argue a point in a sing-song voice. The aim of the lyrics, which are improvised, is to create a friendly yet challenging atmosphere, and it takes a number of years of practice to be able to combine the required artistic qualities with the ability to debate effectively( HP Pavilion dm3-1030ea battery). [edit]Literature Main article: Maltese literature Documented Maltese literature is over 200 years old. However a recently unearthed love ballad testifies to literary activity in the local tongue from the Medieval period. Malta followed a Romantic literary tradition, culminating in the works of Dun Karm, Malta's National Poet. Subsequent writers like Ruzar Briffa and Karmenu Vassallo tried to estrange themselves from the rigidity of formal themes and versification( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ev battery). It was late in the 1960s that Maltese literature experienced its most radical transformation amongst poets, prose writers and dramatists. Names of significant poets that stand out from the last quarter of the 20th century include Mario Azzopardi, Victor Fenech, Oliver Friggieri, Joe Friggieri, Charles Flores, Daniel Massa( HP Pavilion dm3-1060es battery), Maria Ganado, Lillian Sciberras and Akille Mizzi. In prose, Frans Sammut, Paul P. Borg and Joe J. Camilleri led the avant-garde meanwhile among the prominent names in theatre are Francis Ebejer, Alfred Sant, Doreen Micallef, Oreste Calleja, Joe Friggieri and Martin Gauci( HP Pavilion dm3-1028tx battery). The next generation of writers widened the tracks further, especially in prose. Guze' Stagno, Karl Schembri and Clare Azzopardi are young writers fast establishing themselves while in poetry, significant names include Adrian Grima, Immanuel Mifsud, Norbert Bugeja and Simone Inguanez( HP Pavilion dm3-1010et battery). Typical architecture built in recent years in Malta. In literary criticism, Peter Serracino Inglott, Oliver Friggieri and Charles Briffa introduced perceptive historical, philosophical and psycho-social themes into Maltese theory. Other writers, born in Malta or of Maltese descent, have established careers abroad. These included the novelist Trezza Azzopardi, best-selling children's author Saviour Pirotta and comic-book artist/journalist Joe Sacco( HP Pavilion dm3-1060er battery). [edit]Art and architecture Lower Barrakka Gardens Maltese architecture has been influenced by many different Mediterranean cultures and British architecture over its history. The first settlers on the island constructed Ġgantija, one of the oldest manmade freestanding structure in the world. The Neolithic temple builders 3800–2500 BC endowed the numerous temples of Malta and Gozo with intricate bas relief designs( HP Pavilion dm3-1027tx battery), including spirals evocative of the tree of life and animal portraits, designs painted in red ochre, ceramics, and a vast collection of human form sculptures, particularly the Venus of Malta. These can be viewed at the temples themselves (most notably, the Hypogeum and Tarxien Temples) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1010eo battery), and at the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. Malta is currently undergoing several large scale building projects including the construction of SmartCity Malta, the M-Towers and Pendergardens, while areas such as the Valletta Waterfront and Tigne Point are receiving renovation( HP Pavilion dm3-1060eo battery). The Roman period introduced highly decorative mosaic floors, marble colonnades and classical statuary, remnants of which are beautifully preserved and presented in the Roman Domus, a country villa just outside the walls of Mdina. The early Christian frescoes that decorate the catacombs beneath Malta reveal a propensity for eastern( HP Pavilion dm3-1026tx battery), Byzantine tastes. These tastes continued to inform the endeavours of medieval Maltese artists, but they were increasingly influenced by the Romanesque and Southern Gothic movements. Towards the end of the 15th century, Maltese artists, like their counterparts in neighbouring Sicily, came under the influence of the School of Antonello da Messina( HP Pavilion dm3-1010el battery), which introduced Renaissance ideals and concepts to the decorative arts in Malta.[126] Dimensions 117 cm × 157 cm (46 in × 62 in) Location St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta The artistic heritage of Malta blossomed under the Knights of St. John, who brought Italian and Flemish Mannerist painters to decorate their palaces and the churches of these islands, most notably, Matteo Perez d'Aleccio, whose works appear in the Magisterial Palace and in the Conventual Church of St. John in Valletta( HP Pavilion dm3-1060ef battery), and Filippo Paladini, who was active in Malta from 1590 to 1595. For many years, Mannerism continued to inform the tastes and ideals of local Maltese artists.[126] The arrival in Malta of Caravaggio, who painted at least seven works during his 15-month stay on these islands, further revolutionized local art. Two of Caravaggio's most notable works, The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist and Saint Jerome Writing( HP Pavilion dm3-1025sa battery), are on display in the Oratory of the Conventual Church of St. John. His legacy is evident in the works of local artists Giulio Cassarino (1582–1637) and Stefano Erardi (1630–1716). However, the Baroque movement that followed was destined to have the most enduring impact on Maltese art and architecture. The glorious vault paintings of the celebrated Calabrese artist, Mattia Preti transformed the severe( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ej battery), Mannerist interior of the Conventual Church St. John into a Baroque masterpiece. Preti spent the last 40 years of his life in Malta, where he created many of his finest works, now on display in the Museum of Fine Arts in Valletta. During this period, local sculptor Melchior Gafà (1639–1667) emerged as one of the top Baroque sculptors of the Roman School( HP Pavilion dm3-1060ea battery). The Siege of Malta – Flight of the Turks, by Matteo Perez d'Aleccio During the 17th and 18th century, Neapolitan and Rococo influences emerged in the works of the Italian painters Luca Giordano (1632–1705) and Francesco Solimena (1657–1747), and these developments can be seen in the work of their Maltese contemporaries such as Giovanni Nicola Buhagiar (1698–1752) and Francesco Zahra (1710–1773) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1025ez battery). The Rococo movement was greatly enhanced by the relocation to Malta of Antoine de Favray (1706–1798), who assumed the position of court painter to Grand Master Pinto in 1744. Neo-classicism made some inroads among local Maltese artists in the late 18th century, but this trend was reversed in the early 19th century, as the local Church authorities – perhaps in an effort to strengthen Catholic resolve against the perceived threat of Protestantism during the early days of British rule in Malta( HP Pavilion dm3-1010eg battery) – favoured and avidly promoted the religious themes embraced by the Nazarene movement of artists. Romanticism, tempered by the naturalism introduced to Malta by Giuseppe Calì, informed the "salon" artists of the early 20th century, including Edward and Robert Caruana Dingli( HP Pavilion dm3-1058nr battery). Parliament established the National School of Art in the 1920s. During the reconstruction period that followed the Second World War, the emergence of the "Modern Art Group", whose members included Josef Kalleya (1898–1998), George Preca (1909–1984), Anton Inglott (1915–1945), Emvin Cremona (1919–1986), Frank Portelli (b.1922), Antoine Camilleri (b.1922) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1024ca battery) and Esprit Barthet (b.1919) greatly enhanced the local art scene. [edit]Cuisine Main articles: Maltese cuisine and List of Maltese dishes Pastizzi, a typical Maltese snack A variety of Maltese bread, called ftira Maltese cuisine shows strong Sicilian and English influences as well as influences of Spanish, Maghrebin and Provençal cuisines. A number of regional variations, particularly with regards to Gozo( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ed battery), can be noted as well as seasonal variations associated with the seasonal availability of produce and Christian feasts (such as Lent, Easter and Christmas). Food has been important historically in the development of a national identity in particular the traditional fenkata (i.e. the eating of stewed or fried rabbit) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1055eo battery). [edit]Customs Main article: Maltese folklore A 2010 Charities Aid Foundation study found that Maltese were the most generous peoples in the world, with 83% contributing to charity.[127] Maltese folktales include various stories about mysterious creatures and supernatural events. These were most comprehensively compiled by the scholar (and pioneer in Maltese archeology) Manwel Magri[128] in his core criticism "Ħrejjef Missirijietna" ("Stories from our Forefathers")( HP Pavilion dm3-1024ax battery). This collection of material inspired subsequent researchers and academics to gather traditional tales, fables and legends from all over the Archipelago. Magri's work also inspired a series of comic books (released by Klabb Kotba Maltin in 1984): the titles included Bin is-Sultan Jiźźewweġ x-Xebba tat-Tronġiet Mewwija and Ir-Rjieħ. Many of these stories have been popularly re-written as Children's literature by authors writing in Maltese( HP Pavilion dm3-1010eb battery), such as Trevor Żahra. While giants, witches and dragons feature in many of the stories, some contain entirely Maltese creatures like the Kaw kaw, Il-Belliegħa and L-Imħalla amongst others. The traditional Maltese obsession with maintaining spiritual (or ritual) purity[129] means that many of these creatures have the role of guarding forbidden or restricted areas and attacking individuals who broke the strict codes of conduct that characterized the island's pre-industrial society( HP Pavilion dm3-1053xx battery). [edit]Traditions Traditional Maltese proverbs reveal a cultural preoccupation with childbearing and fertility: "iż-żwieġ mingħajr tarbija ma fihx tgawdija" (a childless marriage cannot be a happy one). This is a belief that Malta shares with many other Mediterranean cultures. In Maltese folktales the local variant of the classic closing formula( HP Pavilion dm3-1023tx battery), "and they all lived happily ever after" is "u għammru u tgħammru, u spiċċat" (and they lived together, and they had children together, and the tale is finished).[130] Rural Malta shares in common with Mediterranean society a number of superstitions regarding fertility, menstruation, and pregnancy, including the avoidance of cemeteries during the months leading up to childbirth, and avoiding the preparation of certain foods during menses( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ea battery). Pregnant women are encouraged to satisfy their cravings for specific foods, out of fear that their unborn child will bear a representational birth mark (Maltese: xewqa, literally "desire" or "craving"). Maltese and Sicilian women also share certain traditions that are believed to predict the sex of an unborn child, such as the cycle of the moon on the anticipated date of birth( HP Pavilion dm3-1050ss battery), whether the baby is carried "high" or "low" during pregnancy, and the movement of a wedding ring, dangled on a string above the abdomen (sideways denoting a girl, back and forth denoting a boy). Traditionally,, Maltese newborns were baptised as promptly as possible, partly out of fear of limbo should the child die in infancy, and partly because according to Maltese (and Sicilian) ( HP Pavilion dm3-1010ax battery) folklore an unbaptised child is not yet a Christian, but "still a Turk". Traditional Maltese delicacies served at a baptismal feast include biskuttini tal-magħmudija (almond macaroons covered in white or pink icing), it-torta tal-marmorata (a spicy, heart-shaped tart of chocolate-flavoured almond paste), and a liqueur known as rożolin, made with rose petals, violets and almonds( HP Pavilion dm3-1050er battery). On a child's first birthday, in a tradition that still survives today, Maltese parents would organize a game known as il-quċċija, where a variety of symbolic objects would be randomly placed around the seated child. These may include a hard-boiled egg, a Bible, crucifix or rosary beads, a book, and so on. Whichever object the child shows most interest in is said to reveal the child's path and fortunes in adulthood( HP Pavilion dm3-1022tx battery). Money refers to a rich future while a book expresses intelligence and a possible career as a teacher. Infants who select a pencil or pen will be writers. Choosing bibles or rosary beads refers to a clerical or monastic life. If the child chooses a hard-boiled egg, it will have a long life and many children( HP Pavilion dm3-1009tu battery). More recent additions include calculators (refers to accounting), thread (fashion) and wooden spoons (cooking and a great appetite). Recreation of a traditional Maltese 18th century wedding Traditional Maltese weddings featured the bridal party walking in procession beneath an ornate canopy, from the home of the bride's family to the parish church, with singers trailing behind serenading the bride and groom( HP Pavilion dm3-1050ep battery). The Maltese word for this custom is il-ġilwa. This custom along with many others has long since disappeared from the Islands, in the face of modern practices. New wives would wear the għonnella, a traditional item of Maltese clothing. However, it is no longer worn in modern Malta. Today's couples are married in churches or chapels in the village or town of their choice( HP Pavilion dm3-1022ax battery). The nuptials are usually followed by a lavish wedding reception, often including several hundred guests. Occasionally, couples will try to incorporate elements of the traditional Maltese wedding in their celebration. A resurgent interest in the traditional wedding was evident in May 2007, when thousands of Maltese and tourists attended a traditional Maltese wedding in the style of the 16th century( HP Pavilion dm3-1009ax battery), in the Village of Żurrieq. This included il-ġilwa, which led the bride and groom to a wedding ceremony that took place on the parvis of St. Andrew's Chapel. The reception that followed featured folklore music (għana) and dancing. [edit]Festivals Local festivals, similar to those in southern Italy, are commonplace in Malta and Gozo, celebrating weddings, christenings and, most prominently, saints' days, honouring the patron saint of the local parish( HP Pavilion dm3-1050eo battery). On saints' days, the festa reaches its apex with a High Mass featuring a sermon on the life and achievements of the patron saint, after which a statue of the religious patron is taken around the local streets in solemn procession, with the faithful following in respectful prayer. The religious atmosphere quickly gives way to several days of revelry, band processions( HP Pavilion dm3-1021tx battery), fireworks, and late night parties. Lija is one villages with a notable firework display. Carnival (Maltese: il-karnival ta' Malta) has had an important place on the cultural calendar after Grand Master Piero de Ponte introduced it to the Islands in 1535. It is held during the week leading up to Ash Wednesday, and typically includes masked balls, fancy dress and grotesque mask competitions, lavish late-night parties( HP Pavilion dm3-1008tu battery), a colourful, ticker-tape parade of allegorical floats presided over by King Carnival (Maltese: ir-Re tal-Karnival), marching bands and costumed revellers. Holy Week (Maltese: il-Ġimgħa Mqaddsa) starts on Palm Sunday (Ħadd il-Palm) and ends on Easter Sunday (Ħadd il-Għid). Numerous religious traditions, most of them inherited from one generation to the next, are part of the paschal celebrations in the Maltese Islands, honouring the death and resurrection of Jesus( HP Pavilion dm3-1050en battery). Mnarja, or l-Imnarja (pronounced lim-nar-ya) is one of the most important dates on the Maltese cultural calendar. Officially, it is a national festival dedicated to the feast of Saints Peter and St. Paul. In fact, one can trace its roots back to the pagan Roman feast of Luminaria (literally, "the illumination"), when torches and bonfires lit up the early summer night of 29 June( HP Pavilion dm3-1021ax battery). A national feast since the rule of the Knights, Mnarja is a traditional Maltese festival of food, religion and music. The festivities still commence today with the reading of the "bandu", an official governmental announcement, which has been read on this day in Malta since the 16th century. Originally, Mnarja was celebrated outside St. Paul's Grotto, in the north of Malta( HP Pavilion dm3-1008eg battery). However, by 1613 the focus of the festivities had shifted to the Cathedral of St. Paul, in Mdina, and featured torchlight processions, the firing of 100 petards, horseraces, and races for men, boys and slaves. Modern Mnarja festivals take place in and around the woodlands of Buskett, just outside the town of Rabat( HP Pavilion dm3-1050ee battery). It is said that under the Knights, this was the one day in the year when the Maltese were allowed to hunt and eat wild rabbit, which was otherwise reserved for the hunting pleasures of the Knights. The close connection between Mnarja and rabbit stew (Maltese: "fenkata") remains strong today( HP Pavilion dm3-1020er battery). In 1854 British governor William Reid launched an agricultural show at Buskett which is still being held today. The farmers' exhibition is still a seminal part of the Mnarja festivities today. Mnarja today is one of the few occasions when participants may hear traditional Maltese "għana". Traditionally, grooms would promise to take their brides to Mnarja during the first of year of marriage( HP Pavilion dm3-1008ax battery). For luck, many of the brides would attend in their wedding gown and veil, although this custom has long since disappeared from the Islands. In 2009 the first New Year's Eve street party was organized in Malta, parallel to what other major countries in the world organize. Although the event was not highly advertised and controversial, due to the closing of an arterial street on the day, it is deemed to have been successful and will most likely be organized every year( HP Pavilion dm3-1048la battery).[131] Isle of MTV is a one day music festival produced and broadcasted on an annual basic by MTV. The festival has been arranged annually in Malta since 2007, with major pop artists performing each year. Since the festival was brought to Malta it has been arranged at the Granaries in Floriana, an open space area with the capacity of roughly 50 000 individuals( HP Pavilion dm3-1020eo battery).[132] The Malta International Fireworks Festival is an annual festival that has been arranged in the Grand Harbor of Valletta since 2003. The festival offers fireworks displays of a number of Maltese as well as foreign fireworks factories. The festival is usually held in the last week of April every year( HP Pavilion dm3-1007tu battery). [edit]Holidays Sports See also: Rugby union in Malta, Cycling in Malta, and Rugby league in Malta Association football is the most popular sport in Malta. The national stadium is called Ta' Qali Stadium. It is generally noted that the population tends to be split half and half with regards to supporting Italy or England in football, due to the cultural affinities of the island( HP Pavilion dm3-1047nr battery).[133] The national football team has won several matches over big opponents that reached the final phases in World Cups, such as Belgium, Hungary, and Greece. Rugby union is popular in Malta, with the national men's team currently (May 2010) ranked 49th in the world – the third highest ranking that Malta holds in any international team sport after Table Football and Rugby League( HP Pavilion dm3-1020eg battery). Rugby league is played in Malta, with the national Men's Team currently ranked 23rd in the world (August 2011). The National team are known as the Malta Knights, and boast players currently playing in the European Superleague. Malta also hosts a snooker round, the Malta Cup, which as of 2008 became a non-ranking event. ( HP Pavilion dm3-1007ax battery)In 2008 Malta's Tony Drago was a member of a victorious European Mosconi Cup team, which was played in Portomaso, Malta.[citation needed] Boxer Jeff Fenech is of Maltese descent.[134] There are over 1200 rock climbing routes in Malta. The island offers a mixture of both trad climbing and sport climbing and also offers a good variety of bouldering and deep water soloing( HP Pavilion dm3-1047cl battery). The geography and small size of the island makes the climbing easily accessible. The sport is growing in popularity with local communities, as well as tourists and visitors. In the last decade the aviation sport of Microlight Flying was introduced to the island by the Island Microlight Club.[135] There are now a total of twenty-two microlight aircraft that operate out of the Malta International Airport( HP Pavilion dm3-1020ef battery). Boċċi is the Maltese version of the Italian game of bocce, French pétanque and British bowls. Other than certain differences in rules and the ground on which the game is played, one of the most obvious differences between Maltese boċċi and foreign equivalents is the shape of the bowls themselves which tend to be cylindrical rather than spherical in shape. Many small clubs ( HP Pavilion dm3-1007au battery) (usually called Klabbs tal-Boċċi in Maltese) can be found in Maltese and Gozitan localities, and are usually well-frequented and are quite active on a local and European level. [edit]Media Further information: List of newspapers in Malta The most widely read and financially the strongest newspapers are published by Allied Newspapers Ltd., mainly The Times (27%) and The Sunday Times (51.6%). Due to bilingualism half of the newspapers are published in English and the other half in Maltese( HP Pavilion dm3-1044nr battery). The Sunday newspaper It-Torċa (The Torch) published by the Union Press, a subsidiary of the GWU, is the paper with the biggest circulation in the Maltese language. Its sister paper, L-Orizzont, is the Maltese daily with biggest circulation. There is a high number of daily or weekly newspapers, there is one paper for every 28,000 people( HP Pavilion dm3-1020ed battery). Advertising, sales and subsidies are the three main methods of financing newspapers and magazines. However, most of the papers and magazines tied to institutions are subsidised by the same institutions, they depend on advertising or subsidies from their owners.[136] Further information: Radio stations in Malta There is a great a presence of the institutions – church, political parties, trade unions – in the print media, though not as in the broadcasting media( HP Pavilion dm3-1006tx battery). Trade Unions are not represented in the broadcasting media, but are in the print media, and only the General Workers Union owns a newspaper. The UHM, the second biggest union, has no newspaper, TV, or radio stations.[136] Further information: Television in Malta and Digital television in Malta There are six notorious major nationwide television channels in Malta: TVM, One Television, NET Television, Smash Television, Favourite Channel( HP Pavilion dm3-1040us battery), Calypso Music TV and Education 22 – currently transmitted by analogue terrestrial, free-to-air signals. The state and political parties subsidise most of the funding of these television stations. The Public Broadcasting Services is the state-owned station and is a member of the EBU. Media Link Communications Ltd and One Productions Ltd are affiliated with the Nationalist Party and Labour Party respectively( HP Pavilion dm3-1020ec battery). The rest are privately owned. The Broadcasting Authority supervises all local broadcasting stations and ensures their compliance with legal and licence obligations as well as the preservation of due impartiality; in respect of matters of political or industrial controversy or relating to current public policy( HP Pavilion dm3-1006ax battery); while fairly apportioning broadcasting facilities and time between persons belong to different political parties. The Broadcasting Authority ensures that local broadcasting services consist of public, private and community broadcasts that offer varied and comprehensive programming to cater for all interests and tastes( HP Pavilion dm3-1040ez battery). Cable, terrestrial and satellite reception are all available, though the cable service is the most diffused. Cable subscriptions reached almost 124,000 in February 2006 reaching about 80% of Maltese households, and a small but increasing number of households own satellite dishes to receive other European television networks such as the BBC from Great Britain and RAI and Mediaset from Italy( HP Pavilion dm3-1020eb battery).
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