San Salvador (English: Holy Savior) is the capital city of the Republic of El Salvador, and the capital of the San Salvador department.[1] It is the country's most populated municipality as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.[2] As a gamma global city, San Salvador is also an important financial center within Central America and in the world economy sony vgp-bps2 battery. The city is home to the Concejo de Minisitro de El Salvador (Council of Ministries of El Salvador), La Asamblea Legislativa (The Legislative Assembly of El Salvador), the Corte Suprema de Justicia (The Supreme Court), and other governmental institutions, as well as the official residence of the president of the republic. San Salvador is located in the Salvadoran highlands sony vgp-bps3 battery, surrounded by volcanoes and prone to earthquakes. The Spaniards called the area "El Vale de Las Hamacas" (English: The Valley of Hammocks), a translation of the name given it by the native Pipil people in allusion to the need for beds that would sway with the earth's movements during an earthquake. With a population of 567,698 (2,442,017 in the metro area), it is the fifth most populated city in Central America, and its metropolitan area is the second most populated sony vgp-bps4 battery. The city is also home to the Catholic Archdiocese, as well as many Protestant branches of Christianity, including Evangelicals, Latter-day Saints, Baptists, and Pentecostals. San Salvador has the second largest Jewish community in Central America,[3] and a small Muslim community. Castilian is spoken by the entire population, and a high percentage speaks English sony vgp-bps5 battery. San Salvador has been the host city for various regional and international sporting, political, and social events. It hosted the Central American and Caribbean Games in 1935 and 2002, and the Central American Games in 1977 and 1994. The Olympic Committee of El Salvador has expressed interest in bidding for the 2019 Pan-American Games; if successful, it will be the first time the Pan American Games have been hosted in Central America. sony vgp-bps7 battery San Salvador has also been the host city of the 18th Ibero-American Summit, held October 29–31, 2008—this is the most important sociopolitical event in the Spanish and Portuguese sphere.[5] The Central American Integration System (SICA) has its headquarters in San Salvador.[6] In 1991, the institutional framework of SICA included Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama sony vgp-bpl7 battery. Belize joined in 2000 as a full member, while the Dominican Republic became an associated state in 2004. The Central American Bank for Economic Integration (BCIE) also has its headquarters in San Salvador. Before the Spanish conquest, the Pipil people established their capital, Cuzcatlán, near the current location of San Salvador. Not much is known about Cuzcatlán, as it was abandoned by its inhabitants in an effort to avoid Spanish rule sony vgp-bps8 battery. Under the orders of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, his associates Gonzalo de Alvarado and Diego de Holguín occupied the empty settlement and began to develop it. Diego de Holguín became the first mayor of San Salvador after the town was founded on April 1, 1525. The town changed location twice, in 1528 and 1545. Originally established in what is now the archaeological site of Ciudad Vieja sony vgp-bps8a battery, north of the present-day city, it was moved to the Valle de Las Hamacas, so named for the intense seismic activity that characterizes it. The new site was chosen because it had more space and more fertile land, thanks to the Acelhuate River. The population of the city remained relatively small until the early 20th century. In January 1885, during the presidency of Dr. Rafael Zaldivar, a group of businessmen and the president's family contributed funds for building the sony vgp-bps8b batterySara Zaldivar Asylum for Indigents and the Elderly. In 1902, the Hospital Rosales was built, named after its benefactor, Dr. Jose Rosales, a banker who gave his fortune to the hospital and to the orphanage. The hospital's construction was begun by president Carlos Ezeta and finished during the presidency of Tomás Regalado. In 1905 president Pedro José Escalón initiated construction of the National Palace, funded by coffee exportation taxes sony vgp-bpl8 battery. The Monumento a los Próceres de 1811(Monument to the Heroes of 1811), located in the Plaza Libertad, and the Teatro Nacional were built in 1911 during Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo's presidency. In 1917, an earthquake during an eruption of the nearby San Salvador volcano (also known as Quetzaltepec) damaged the city, but it escaped additional damage because the lava flowed down the back side of the volcano. On December 2, 1931 sony vgp-bps9 battery, president Arturo Araujo was ousted by a military coup d'état and replaced by a military directorate. The directorate named vice-president Maximiliano Hernández Martínez as president and Araujo went into exile. The Martínez regime lasted from December 4, 1931 to May 6, 1944. In 1964, the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) candidate, José Napoleon Duarte, an engineer, was elected mayor; he served from 1964 to 1970 sony vgp-bps9/s battery. During his term he ordered construction of the Pancho Lara park in the Vista Hermosa neighborhood, renewed the electrical grid, and set up a system of schools for adult education. The 1960s to the 1980s were the golden age of San Salvador in all aspects of security, quality of life, and modernization. Today the tallest building in the country has 28 floors and is 110 meters high sony vgp-bps9a/s battery. With the commencement of the civil war in the 1980s, many modernization projects were halted. Examples of suspended projects include a 40-story government building approximately 160 meters in height, and the Sheraton Hotel Tower, a 26-story building with a rotating restaurant on top sony vgp-bps9/b battery. In 1969, celebrations in the Cuscatlán stadium were held in honor of the returning troops from the Football War with Honduras. The Boulevard de los Héroes (Boulevard of the Heroes) was named after the Salvadoran soldiers who fought there. The 1986 San Salvador earthquake destroyed many government buildings and other important structures, injuring and killing hundreds sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. Thousands of people were displaced by the disaster and many struggled to find shelter in the ruins. In 1986, Mayor Morales Ehrlich closed streets in the downtown of the city to create a large market, which has resulted in chronic traffic congestion. Since 2009, the mayor Norman Quijano has worked for the redevelopment of parks and historic buildings in the Rescate del Centro Historico, which involves the removal of street vendors sony vgp-bps9a battery. This has led to several riots in the area, but he has managed to place the vendors in new markets where they can operate their own stalls. Quijano is widely regarded as the first mayor to truly care for the welfare of the city, consequently he was reelected in 2012. The Chapultepec Peace Accords were signed on January 16, 1992, ending 22 years of civil war. The signing is celebrated as a national holiday with people flooding downtown San Salvador in the Plaza Gerardo Barrios and in La Libertad Park sony vgp-bps9b battery. [edit]Municipal government San Salvador City as darkness descends on the greater metropolitan area. The cities in El Salvador, by constitutional provision (Article 203), are economically and administratively autonomous. San Salvador is governed by a council consisting of a mayor (elected by direct vote every three years, with an option to be re-elected), a trustee and two or more aldermen whose number varies in proportion to the population of the municipality sony vgp-bpl9c battery. Mayor Quijano, a member of the Nationalist Republican Alliance party, is accompanied by a trustee, twelve aldermen, four substitute aldermen, and a secretary. The functions and powers of this government are framed within the rules of the Municipal Code. San Salvador's government is composed of various departments, including the departments of festivals, parks, cemeteries sony vgp-bpl9 battery, and finance. To safeguard the interests of the municipality, there is a board of metropolitan agents. Each of the six city districts also has a government department. The mayor is a member of the Council of Mayors of the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador (COAMSS), composed of fourteen local councils that make up the area known as Greater San Salvador sony vgp-bps10 battery. Sub-division and projects The San Salvador Municipality is divided into Districts. Currently the city has six Districts as listed below: District One - Historic Downtown, Colonia Layco, Colonia La Rabida. (Population: 118,325) District Two - Colonia Centro America, Colonia Miralvalle, Colonia Flor Blanca, Colonia Miramonte. (Population: 110,475) District Three - Colonia Escalon, Colonia San Benito, Colonia La Mascota, Colonia Maquilishuat. (Population: 51,325) Sony VGP-BPS12 BatteryDistrict Four - Colonia San Francisco, Colonia La Cima (I-IV), Colonia La Floresta. (Populaton: 68,465) District Five - Colonia Monserrat, Colonia Modelo, Centro Urbano Candelaria. (Population: 126,290) District Six - Barrio San Esteban. (Population: 92,908) Total Population in all Six Districts: 567,788 The city is located in the Boquerón Volcano Valley, a region of high seismic activity. The city's average elevation is 659 meters above sea level (2,162 feet), but ranges from a highest point of 1,186 m (3,891 ft) Sony VGP-BPL12 Batteryabove sea level to a lowest point of 596 m (1,955 ft) above sea level. The municipality is surrounded by these natural features of the landscape: southward by the Cordillera del Balsamo (Balsam Mountain Range); westward by the Boquerón Volcano and Cerro El Picacho, the highest point in the municipality at 1,929 meters (6,328 ft). El Boquerón Volcano was dormant since its last eruption in 1917 Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery, but has been active recently. East of the municipality lies the San Jacinto Hill and the caldera of Lake Ilopango, the largest natural body of water in the country with an area of 72 km² (28 sq mi). The caldera is seismically active, but has not erupted since 1880.[7] San Salvador has a tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen climate classification, and enjoys warm weather all year round, with daily mean temperatures of 27°C (80°F). Its weather cools from the months of November through February due to seasonal winds of the dry season Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery. During these months one can expect a daily mean of 24.5°C (76°F). The hottest months of the year are April and May, during the transition from the dry season (October–April), to the rainy season (May–September). In April and May temperatures may reach 32°C (90°F). The highest reading ever recorded was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F), the lowest was 8.2 °C (46.8 °F). The highest dew point was 27 °C (81 °F) and the lowest −10 °C (14 °F) Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. Thunderstorms occur almost daily during the rainy season, mostly in the afternoon and through the night—by morning the sky clears and the days are usually sunny till the afternoon storms. San Salvador has a relatively benign climate; the temperature range is constant through the year, and it gets more than adequate rain. Occasional cold fronts can drop temperatures to a range of 10°C (50°F)–15°C (59°F). The passage of cold fronts is facilitated by the volcanic range west of the city Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery: air cools as it moves over the high altitudes of this region, then descends to the San Salvador Valley. Hail storms and snow occur rarely, while tornadoes have never been recorded. Hurricanes pass over the city only occasionally. El Boquerón crater, San Salvador San Salvador has a very hilly terrain; there are few parts of the municipality where the elevation is consistent. San Salvador shares many topographic features with neighboring municipalities in the San Salvador and the La Libertad departments Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. The most notable topographical feature visible in San Salvador and its metropolitan area is the Boquerón Volcano, which looms over this region in its foot hills at a height of 1,893 m (6,211 ft) above sea level. San Salvador shares Cerro El Picacho, 1931 m (6,331 ft) above sea level, with the neighboring municipality of Mejicanos Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. Flora found in the volcanic region of El Boquerón The portion of the Cordillera del Balsamo (Balsam Mountain Range) that sits in the Municipality has an average elevation of 1030 m above sea level. The Cordillera del Balsamo is named after the Myroxylon balsamum tree, one of two species of Central American and South American trees in the Fabaceae family (Leguminosae). The tree, often called Quina or Balsamo, is well known in the western world as the source of Peru balsam and Tolu balsam Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery. El Salvador is the main exporter of these resins, which are still extracted manually. El Cerro de San Jacinto (San Jacinto Hill), is located on the eastern border of the municipality and is shared with Soyapango, Santo Tomás and San Marcos. The summit is located at 1,153 m above sea level (3,782 ft). The hill was once famous for the San Jacinto Cable Car and Park located at its summit, but the facilities were eventually abandoned. Soil types include regosol, latosol, and andosol, as well as soils derived from andesitic and basaltic rocks Sony VGP-BPS13A battery. Aerial view of Lake Ilopango caldera The river nearest San Salvador is the Acelhuate, which is 2.2 km (1.4 miles) long. Although not within the municipality, it forms a natural boundary between San Salvador and Soyapango. The Acelhuate served as a water source for San Salvador during the late 1800s and early 1900s, but due to urbanization is now quite polluted. There are small streams running down from Lake Ilopango, and a few old aqueduct systems Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery, but the municipality itself has no major bodies of water. Lake Ilopango, although not located in the municipality, is the closest large body of water, being only minutes away from the San Salvador historic center. The lake is also the largest natural body of water in the country, with an area of 72 km² (28 sq mi). The Cerrón Grande reservoir, 78 km (48 mi) north of San Salvador, was formed by damming the Lempa River in the municipalities of Potonico, (Chalatenango) and Jutiapa (Cabañas) Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery. The Cerrón Grande Hydroelectric Dam provides a substantial portion of the region's electricity. Spanish, or Castilian (as most people call it), is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. English is spoken more widely than in the past, due mainly to cultural influences from the United States, especially in entertainment. About 86% of the population is considered to be Mestizo, and 12% fall under the category of white, or creole, having mostly Spanish ancestry Sony VGP-BPS13S battery, and a few of French or German descent. Other smaller ethnic groups in the white population are descendants of Swiss, Italians, Syrians, Turks, Jews (mostly Sephardic), and Christian Palestinians, who immigrated to escape persecution from the Muslim community of the West Bank. San Salvador has a population of 567,698 inhabitants, accounting for about 9.45% of the country's population Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery, while the metropolitan area has 2,442,017 inhabitants, or 40.6% of the country's total population. The San Salvador metropolitan area is the second most populated metro area in Central America, surpassed only by the Guatemala City metropolitan area which has over 4 million inhabitants. The population of San Salvador is predominantly Roman Catholic, with a significant minority of Protestants Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery. There is more diversity of religion than in most Latin American countries. Although the Protestant population is mostly Evangelical, there are also Baptist, Pentecostal, and Seventh-Day Adventist churches. One of the largest Protestant churches in the city is the Centro Internacional de Alabanza (International Center of Praise), another is the Tabernaculo Biblico Bautista, Amigos de Israel (Bible Baptist Tabernacle, Friends of Israel). Much of the Protestant population of the country is especially sympathetic to Israel Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery, as indicated by the fact that a city street, Avenida Jerusalén (Jerusalem Avenue), was named after the capital of Israel. There is also a considerable population of members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Mormon community in El Salvador recently built its first temple in El Salvador, a structure of impressive engineering and architecture. There are also smaller Latter Day Saints chapels in Districts 1 and 3 Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. As in most of the country, Roman Catholicism still plays a prominent role in the celebration of holidays, including Las Fiestas Agostinas (The August Festivals) in honor of Jesus Christ, the patron "saint" of El Salvador, referred to as El Salvador del Mundo (The Savior of the World). These events are becoming less prominent with a sharp decline in the Roman Catholic population during the past decade Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery. San Salvador is also home to about 3,500 Jews; the Jewish community is still robust, but less so since the 1980s, as a large number of them left with the start of the Salvadoran Civil War. Many Jews had migrated to El Salvador during World War II due to the the work of José Castellanos Contreras, the Salvadoran diplomatic Consul General in Geneva, Switzerland, who helped a Jewish-Hungarian businessman named Gyorgy Mandl (he later adopted the name George Mantello) Sony VGP-BPL21 batterysave up to 40,000 Jews in Central Europe from the Nazi persecution by giving them Salvadoran nationality papers. The city has a small Christian Arabic community of immigrants from Palestine, and an even smaller Muslim population, but Islam is not well accepted publicly in the country. The country's strong Christian roots and popular sympathy for Israel tend to restrict the practice of Islam. The city also has Korean Evangelical Churches that hold services in the Korean language for a growing Korean population Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. San Salvador is rich in Spanish heritage, and its historical center contains architecture of a kind not found elsewhere in Latin America. The Metropolitan Cathedral was built in the 1950s combining Baroque and eclectic styles of architecture. The National palace, built in 1905, is a mix of Gothic, Neoclassical, and Renaissance Revival architecture. Sony VGP-BPS21A battery The National Theater is the oldest theater in Central America, being built in 1917 in the French Renaissance Revival style with details in the Rococo, Romantic and Art Nouveau architectural styles. The building contains three levels of seats, including a Presidential box at the center of the second level, and has seating for 650 people. The structure is surmounted by an ellipsoidal dome, the interior of which is adorned with a mural painted by Carlos Cañas and a striking crystal chandelier Sony VGP-BPS21B battery. San Salvador is also home to an important museum, the Mueso de Arte de El Salvador (MARTE), whose collection includes artworks dating from the mid-19th century to the contemporary era. The museum has held temporary exhibitions of works by internationally renowned artists like Picasso, Rembrandt, Salvador Dalí and Joan Miró Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery. The Museo Nacional de Antropología (MUNA) or National Museum of Anthropology, founded in 1883 by Dr. David J. Guzmán, has exhibits on human settlements, agriculture, artisans, commerce and trade, religion, arts and communication. The museum aims to foster cultural awareness for Salvadorans through exhibitions, research, publications and educational programs Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. In 2011, the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities or Unión de Ciudades Capitales Iberoamericanas (UCCI), selected San Salvador as a "Latin American capital of culture", recognizing San Salvador's cultural diversity. The city government is restoring the downtown area, with the goal of celebrating the city's past and promoting cultural diversity. The Contracultura website at http://www.contracultura.com.sv/ has information about the cultural movement in El Salvador Sony VGP-BPS13 battery(without CD). The symbols of the city are the shield, flag, anthem, and staff of office. The first three were created as a result of a contest launched in 1943. The shield (designed by the painter José Mejía Vides) shows four quadrants: the two quadrants at the top right and bottom left oblique carry the blue and white (representing the national flag), the top left frame displays an emerald necklace, symbol, and the lower right shows the bell of the Church of La Merced Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery(without CD), which represents the beginning of San Salvador's independence movement in 1811, when José Matías Delgado rang the bells. The flag was designed at the request of the city government. The anthem was written by Carlos Bustamante (lyrics) and Ciriaco de Jesús Alas (music). The municipal staff shows a series of figures and symbols relating to local history. From top to bottom these images are: a native Amerindian Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery(without CD), first mayor Don Diego de Olguín, Carlos V of Spain, the Royal Decree which gave San Salvador its name, Mayor Don Antonio Gutierrez, priest José Matías Delgado, the seal of liberation of 1811, the 1821 independence seal, the shield of the Municipal Freedom Union, the national emblem, and God Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery(without CD). San Salvador serves not only as the capital of El Salvador, but also as the premier city in the country. The metropolitan area accounts for only 3% of the national territory, yet 70% of public and private investment is made there. The economy of San Salvador, Antiguo Cuscatlán, and Santa Tecla, is a mixed one composed mainly of services, private education, banking, business headquartering, and industrial manufacturing Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery(without CD). Other municipalities in the metropolitan area depend either on industry, like Soyapango and Ilopango, on public services, like Mejicanos, or on power generation, as in Nejapa and Apopa. The other municipalities have not developed their own economies, and provide work forces for industry in neighboring municipalities Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery(without CD). San Salvador, as well as the rest of the country, has used the U.S. dollar as its currency of exchange since 2001. This has been a boon to the Salvadoran economy, as it encourages foreign investors to launch new companies in El Salvador, saving them the inconvenience of conversion to other currencies. San Salvador's economy is based more on the service sector and retailing, than on industry or manufacturing Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery(without CD). [edit]Financial sector As the nation's capital, San Salvador supports many commercial activities, including food and beverage production, the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, the sale of automobiles, handicrafts, and construction materials, and appliance repair. Grupo TACA, a multinational consortium which includes the national airline of El Salvador, Costa Rica, and other Central American countries, has its headquarters in San Salvador. Sony VGP-BPS13A battery(without CD) Other companies with headquarters in San Salvador include the Unicomer Group, Almacenes Simán, Grupo Roble, Grupo Real, Excel Automotríz, and Grupo Q. Many international companies like Dell, Microsoft, Continental airlines, Hewlett-Packard, etc., have their regional headquarters in San Salvador. Banks in the cty include Banco Agrícola, Citibank, HSBC, Scotiabank, BAC-Credomatic Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery(without CD), Banco Promérica, Banco Pro-Credit and the Mexican Banco Azteca. Important insurance companies include Asesuisa, SISA, Mapfre-La Centroamericana and Scotia Seguros. Major department stores in San Salvador include Almacenes Simán, and Sears, Walmart, La Despensa de Don Juan, Super Selectos, and PriceSmart Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery(without CD). The city's financial businesses are not located in the historic center, but are spread throughout the other districts in the city, particularly in District 2 and District 3. World Trade Center The World Trade Center San Salvador is located in District 3 (Colonia Escalon) on 87th Avenida Norte and Calle del Mirador. The World Trade Center offers some of the best office locations in the country: it is interconnected to two hotels (one of which is the Crowne Plaza Hotel) Sony VGP-BPS13S battery(without CD), a convention center and a commercial center containing retail shops and restaurants. As of October, 2012, the center consists of two towers of 8 levels each, with a total of 13 thousand m² of office space. Since their completion, the first two towers have maintained a 100 percent occupancy rate with multinational companies, embassies, and firms such as Banco Multisectorial de Inversiones (BMI), Ericsson, Continental Airlines, Microsoft, Inter-American Development Bank, and Banco Promérica maintaining offices there Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery(without CD). Centro Financiero Gigante Centro Financiero Gigante is a complex of office buildings consisting of five towers: the highest of which is 77 meters (253 ft) tall and has 19 floors. Centro Financiero Gigante is a phased project which began with the construction of the two towers. After several years the number of buildings has increased, and it has become one of the most significant business complexes in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery(without CD). The tallest tower is occupied by the Telefónica phone company, the next tallest tower is used by RED Business Communication Systems. The complex also includes the Banco Azteca center, Stream Global Services representing Dell in Central America, The Israeli Embassy of San Salvador, Tigo, call centers, and other small offices and banks Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery(without CD). The project started in 1997 with Phase I, the construction of the two tallest towers. In Phase II a 7 story-high tower for the old Dell company in Central America was built, and in Phase III a 12 story-high tower for Tigo and a 10-story-high tower for Telemovil. The final phase was remodeling of the Telemovil building to convert it into the Banco Azteca Center Sony VGP-BPS13B battery(without CD). Alameda Manuel Enrique Araujo and Zona Rosa Along Alameda Manuel Enrique Araujo there are many businesses, banks, and financial centers, government institutions and museums, such as: AFP Confia, the Superior Council of Public Health, the HSBC Central Office, AFP Crecer, the Ministry of Public Works, the Centro Internacional de Feria y Convenciones (International Center of Fairs and Conventions) Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery(without CD), the Presidential Palace, the Museo Nacional de Antropología David J. Guzman (National Museum of Anthropology), the Banco Promerica Financial Center, the Ministry of Tourism, the Channel 2 & 4 Studio Center, the Channel 6 Studio Center, and the Centro de Compañía de Alumbrado Eléctrico de San Salvador (CAESS-Centro) or Electric Lighting Company of San Salvador Center Sony VGP-BPL21 battery(without CD). Communications See also: Telecommunications in El Salvador A relatively large proportion of residents have telephones, televisions, and access to the internet, and several communications companies have their headquarters in San Salvador. The largest are Tigo, Claro-Telecom, Movistar-Telefónica, and Digicel. All of these companies provide 3G networks, cable TV, and internet services. El Salvador's television stations are based primarily in San Salvador. Stations include the following Sony VGP-BPS21 battery(without CD): YSTV Channel 2, also known as Teledos; a Telecorporación Salvadoreña (TCS)station YSU4 Channel 4, also known as Canal Cuatro; a TCS station YSWA Channel 6, also known as Canal Seis; a TCS station YSWE Channel 8, a broadcasting service known as Ágape TV YSWD-TV Channel 10, an educational television station TV Doce Channel 12, Telesistema a broadcasting service Channel 15, an MTV Networks Latin America station CF 17, a church-owned independent religious television station Canal 19 (Channel 19), broadcasting Nickelodeon Latin America Canal 21 (Channel 21), broadcasting Telemundo Sony VGP-BPS21A battery(without CD)Musica a Colores Channel 23, an independent station broadcasting music videos Fundación Canal 25 (Channel 25), broadcasting Trinity Broadcasting Network Canal 27 (Channel 27), an independent religious television station UTEC Channel 33 VTV Channel 35; station owned by Telecorporación Salvadoreña Canal Católico channel 57, a religious television station operated by the Roman Catholic Church CJC Channel 65 Sony VGP-BPS21B battery(without CD)TCI Channel 67 Services and Retail Shopping San Salvador's economy is based mostly on the service sector, where the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods. San Salvador has many restaurants, and at any given time of the day most restaurants are open, with people eating. Even on an average Saturday when one might expect the rush hour in a restaurant to be from 11:00 am until 1:00 pm, the restaurants in San Salvador are full as late as 3:00 pm Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery. The city also has many shopping malls, including Metrocentro, the largest shopping mall in Central America, as well as retail stores such as Wal-Mart, Office Max, and a Pricesmart warehouse club. The tallest shopping mall in the region, Centro Comercial Galerias, was built around and over an old mansion, La Casona, dating from the late 1950s, which was home to a family of Palestinian origin, the Guirolas Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. It is the only mall in the world with such an attraction. The house has been perfectly preserved and is used as a space for shops, cafes, and small restaurants. Galerías has three underground parking levels, three stories of shops and food courts, one story that serves as the administrative offices ofGrupo Siman, which owns the complex, and a retail store. The uppermost two floors of the mall are used as a cinema, giving the structure a total of 9 stories including the parking levels Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery. San Salvador has hundreds of locally owned restaurants, but is also home to several international restaurant chains. Pizza Hut is popular here, but is based on a different concept than in the United States. In El Salvador a Pizza Hut franchise offers more options—serving salads, pastas, and desserts in addition to pizza, similarly to the Olive Garden chain in the U.S. Many other fast food chains operate in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery, including Pollo Campero and most of the other chains popular in the U.S. The city also has "splurge" restaurants unique in Central America, as well as fine dining restaurants featuring Mexican, Spanish, South American and other international cuisines. San Salvador has small industrial zones scattered throughout the municipality, although most of them are concentrated in the eastern section near the border with Soyapango. Much of the industry is related to food processing, beverage manufacturing Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery, and sugar refining. Construction materials ranging from ceramic tiles to concrete blocks and concrete are produced in large quantities; plastics extrusion, including the production of piping, is also an important industry. Industrias La Constancia, El Salvador's largest brewer and bottler of purified water, dominates the Salvadoran export market of beers and bottled water. The company became part of the second largest brewer in the world, SABMiller, in 2005 Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. Its flagship brand is Pilsener, a Pilsner style lager beer which has been the recipient of many awards nationally and internationally; it is the national beer of El Salvador. In 2011, La Constancia centralized its operations and opened its new headquarters in San Salvador, where it moved in 1928 from the Santa Ana Department. The company produces the Agua Cristal brand of bottled water Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery, the best selling in El Salvador and in the Central American region. The Coca Cola company uses the La Constancia installations to manufacture its beverage brands sold in El Salvador and the rest of Central America. Unilever, a British–Dutch multinational consumer goods company, has a plant in San Salvador. Its products include foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products. It is the world's third-largest consumer goods company as of 2011, and owns over 400 brands. Unilever manufactures all its products sold in Central America in San Salvador Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery. Landmarks and buildings The Complete Skyline as 2011 In contrast to many other cities, the financial center of San Salvador is not located downtown, but at the periphery, towards the northwestern sections of the city. Downtown or "Old" San Salvador possesses many historical buildings, including the National Palace, the National Theater, the Plaza Libertad, and the Cathedral. Due to continuous seismic activity Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery, downtown San Salvador currently has no major high rise buildings. However, modern building technology is allowing the construction of taller earthquake-resistant buildings. The rest of the city has undergone a major change of skyline following the year 2008, with many projects completed or underway. Main article: San Salvador Historic Downtown Historic Downtown District 1 District 1 is the historical center of the capital city. The original buildings of the Spanish colonial era have been mostly destroyed by natural disasters Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery. Notable surviving buildings were erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This district has long been the country's political, economic and religious center. The earthquake of 1986 severely damaged the area, and due to rising unemployment it has been occupied by a large quantity of street vendors and other informal traders. The tallest buildings in District 1 are those in the Governmental Center. The tallest building is 14 stories and 65 m in height Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. The tallest structure is not a building, but rather the cathedral's bell tower, which is approximately 80 m in height. A view of District 2 District 2[9] is mostly residential, and its northern section has a slower pace, with few traffic jams. The district has a long history. During the 1980s, construction in this area was originally intended to be the focal point for the modernization of San Salvador, but due to the outbreak of civil war, many of these projects were cancelled Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. The planned new Government Center was to have a 40 story office complex. This and other proposed facilities, including medical facilities, were never built. Although the projected growth in the area never reached its predicted potential, some other projects were completed during this period. Grupo Roble opened the Metrocentro Project, still the largest mall in Central America Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery. This project has a mall, hotel, and small business plaza with the company headquarters tower, known today as Torre Roble, which stands 14 stories (56 m) high. Long after the civil war was over, the Centro Financiero Gigante Project along the Plaza Las Americas was started, consisting of four phases: one with the two main towers and three phases with a smaller tower Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. Many business and banking headquarters have opened around thePlaza Las Americas, such as those of Banco Agricola, AFP Confia, Torre Montecristo and the Centro Finaciero Gigante, where Tigo, Telefónica, RED, Banco Azteca and the Israeli Embassy have offices. Plaza Futura Fountain District 3 is undergoing a building boom, with many highrises recently completed, and many more under construction. District 3 is the district with the greatest economic activity Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery. The Torre Futura World trade center is the tallest building in San Salvador and second tallest building in the country at 99 m and 19 stories. The Alisios 115 Apartment Tower, 96 m and 26 stories high, is located in the Zona Rosa, a key location in the city. Next to this building two additional towers, 24 stories and 92 m high, will be built. Campestre 105 Towers I, II, and III stand on the top of the Masferrer Roundabout Plaza SONY VGN-FZ11E battery, the tallest tower with 24 stories and 79.5 m in height followed by its sister towers with respective floor counts of 21 and 13. Next to the Campestre 105 stands the Terra Alta Apartment Tower, 26 stories and 90 m high. The Hilton Hotel is another standout building of the city's skyline. Next to the Zona Rosa lies the San Benito area, with the main apartment tower complexes SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. Agrisal has announced plans to build a complex which includes a 25 story high corporate tower connected to a hotel tower and a shopping complex. District 3 includes the International Center of Conventions and Fairs, the National Museum of Anthropology, and almost all the foreign embassies. District 3 is the safest district, and the district with the most tourism activity. This district has many monuments SONY VGN-FZ11M battery, most notably the statue of Jesus Christ, El Salvador del Mundo, at the Plaza Las Americas. There are also many government buildings, including the Ministry of Public Works and the Ministry of Tourism, as well as the headquarters of corporations in the financial services sector, such as HSBC and AFP Crecer. Shopping centers in this district include Plaza Basilea, Plaza Zona Rosa, El Paseo, and Galerias as well as many stores of international chains based in North America and Europe. SONY VGN-FZ11S battery[edit]District 4 District 4 is composed of three main neighborhoods, La Cima (I, II, and III), Colonia Militar, and Colonia San Francisco. The ridgeline in this area contains residential neighborhoods for the upper-middle class and upper classes, where many of the residences are mansions. The RN-5, a major highway in the city, runs through this district. Alongside RN-5 is the Torre Cuscatlán, now renamed Torre Citibank SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery, a tower 79m high with 19 floors and two underground parking levels. For many years it was the tallest building in the city. The Torre Citi has been standing by itself for 30 years. Several construction projects were planned near the building in the 1980s, but were canceled because of the civil war. Later projects were halted in 2009 because of the economic recession SONY VGN-FZ130E/B battery. Another major landmark in District 4 is the Cuscatlán Stadium, the second largest stadium in Central America with a capacity of over 35,000 spectators. District 5 contains mostly middle-class and lower-middle-class homes, and also includes the National Zoo. The district borders San Marcos on the east. Many tourists visit this district for its eateries, particularly its numerous pupuserias, even though it has a relatively high crime rate SONY VGN-FZ15 battery. District 5 has many viewpoints which look out over San Salvador and other cities beyond,[11] such as San Marcos, Mejicanos, and Ciudad Delgado. District 6, bordering Soyapango on the east and Ciudad Delgado on the north, is the smallest district in San Salvador. The neighborhood is middle-lower class, and is known to be quite dangerous. The most outstanding landmark is the San Jacinto Hill; the Old Presidential House was formerly here SONY VGN-FZ15G battery. Urban development Early colonial development could not anticipate the extensive growth of the city in the following centuries. Thus, the city contains many narrow streets which create traffic problems, and sidewalks are often overcrowded. As the expansion of San Salvador continues, the need for infrastructure improvements becomes more acute SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. During the 1960s, urban expansion was most prevalent in the northern and southern parts of the city, while the 1970s saw growth continue further south, north and west. Colonias Miravalle, Montebello, Satellite, Maquilishuat, San Mateo Lomas de San Francisco, Alta Mira, Loma Linda, La Floresta, and Jardines de la Libertad were built during this period SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. The expansion of San Salvador, while occurring in all directions, was primarily in the direction of the volcano of San Salvador. The increased demand for housing was due to an increase in the numbers of middle class workers, members of the military, and professionals. Around 2000, the city expansion westward slowed. There was an expansion of middle-class neighborhoods such as Merliot, Santa Elena and the Tier, but the product of internal migration and SONY VGN-FZ15S battery the cessation of armed conflict created a high demand for urban public housing. This gave rise to large urban development projects mostly in the east and north, to the phenomenon of "bedroom communities", and to a disorderly growth pattern. AMSS (San Salvador Metropolitan Area) Cathedral de Nuestra Señora del Carmen in downtown Santa Tecla San Salvador, founded in 1525, was the second city in Central America established by the Spanish colonizers. When El Salvador became independent in 1821 SONY VGN-FZ15T battery, San Salvador had a population of 10,000. A large migration of rural residents to the capital increased the population to 25,000 by 1825. When the city was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1854, the surviving population left and created a new city, Santa Tecla, which served as the temporary capital from 1854 to 1859, until San Salvador was rebuilt SONY VGN-FZ17 battery. Birds eye view of Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo plaza The continued development of San Salvador was spurred by the success of the local coffee industry, and it became a very productive commercial city. By 1890 the city had 94,580 Inhabitants. In 1901 it was composed of the urban center (population 80,167), Vista Hermosa (13,123), and Planes de Rendero (1,560), and expanded toward the volcano in the following years SONY VGN-FZ17G battery. In the 1970s the city population leaped from 430,500 to 700,000. As San Salvador grew, it merged with neighboring cities, forming the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador (AMSS), a conglomerate of 14 municipalities. These were consolidated in 1993, through Legislative Decree No. 732 of the Law on Territorial Development and the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador and Neighboring Municipalities SONY VGN-FZ17L battery. The act stipulates that the constituent cities form a single urban unit. Since 1990, due to the rapid growth of San Salvador and neighboring municipalities, the government established initiatives to plan and guide the development of the metropolis. The AMSS is the heart of the country's political, financial, economic and cultural life. It accounts for 27% of the population and 70% of public and private investment, in only 3% of the national territory SONY VGN-FZ18 battery. Together the fourteen municipalities give the AMSS a total population of 2,177,432 inhabitants (2009 census). The Government expects a total population of 2.5 million by the year 2011. Tourism and sites of interest Historic Downtown Main article: San Salvador Historic Downtown The historic downtown of San Salvador includes the area where the capital city of El Salvador has been located since the 16th century. The original buildings of the Spanish colony have been mostly destroyed by natural disasters over the years. The few notable surviving buildings were erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mayor Norman Quijano started several large projects with the goal of restoring the former grandeur of the buildings in the center SONY VGN-FZ18E battery. One such project is to reroute the public transportation routes so they no longer pass through the historic downtown. Another project is the relocation of illegal street vendors to a designated public market. National Palace The current National Palace building replaced the old National Palace built in 1866–1870, which was destroyed by fire on December 19, 1889. The construction, done between 1905 and 1911, was the work of engineer José Emilio Alcaine SONY VGN-FZ18G battery, under the direction of the foreman Pascasio González Erazo. To finish the project, legislation was passed that collected one colon for every quintal of coffee exported. The materials used were imported from several European countries including Germany, Italy and Belgium. Its facilities were occupied by government offices until 1974 SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. The building contains four main rooms and 101 secondary rooms; each of the four main rooms has a distinctive color. The Red Room (Salon Rojo) is used for receptions held by the Salvadoran Foreign Ministry, and the ceremonial presentation of the credentials of ambassadors. It has been used for ceremonial purposes since the administration of General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez. The Yellow Room (Salon Amarillo) is used as an office for the President of the Republic SONY VGN-FZ18ME battery, while the Pink Room (Salon Rosado) housed the Supreme Court and later the Ministry of Defense. The Blue Room (Salon Azul) was the meeting place of the Legislature of El Salvador from 1906, and its classical architecture with Ionian, Corinthian and Roman elements is notable. The room is now called the Salvadoran Parliament in commemoration of its former purpose, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974 SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. Metropolitan Cathedral Main article: San Salvador Cathedral The new National Cathedral, facing Plaza Barrios in the city centre The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Holy Savior (Catedral Metropolitana de San Salvador) is the principal church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Salvador and the seat of the Archbishop of San Salvador. The church was twice visited by Pope John Paul II, who said that the cathedral was "intimately allied with the joys and hopes of the Salvadoran people SONY VGN-FZ18T battery." During his visits in 1983 and 1996, the Pope knelt and prayed before the Tomb of Archbishop Óscar Romero, assassinated in 1980, whose tomb here is a major draw for pilgrims. The Cathedral's site is the location of the old Temple of Santo Domingo (St. Dominic). Forty four people died on Palm Sunday, March 31, 1980, during the funeral of Archbishop Romero, as a result of a stampede after some gunmen SONY VGN-FZ19L battery, allegedly members of security forces (although it has never been corroborated), fired on mourners and on Romero's funeral cortege. The gunmen were never identified. The square in front of the Cathedral was the site of celebrations after the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords that ended the Salvadoran Civil War in 1992. The Cathedral was finished off with a festive tiled facade by the Salvadoran master Fernando Llort and inaugurated on March 19, 1999 SONY VGN-FZ19VN battery. National Theater Main article: Teatro Nacional de El Salvador National Theater of El Salvador The Teatro Nacional de El Salvador, or National Theater of El Salvador, is the oldest theater in Central America. It was designed by the French architect Daniel Beylard, with construction starting on November 3, 1911. The building was inaugurated on March 1, 1917. It is of French Renaissance style with modern touches, and was decorated by the Italian architect Lucio Capellaro SONY VGN-FZ20 battery. Its Grand Hall is considered one of the most beautiful and elegant halls in Central America. The National Theater is located on the southern side of Francisco Morazán Plaza on Calle Delgado. The Theater is in the French Renaissance style with details in other styles such as Rococo, Romantic, and Art Nouveau. It can seat 650 spectators in the Grand Hall. It has balconies on three levels; the Presidential Balcony, located between the third and second Floor SONY VGN-FZ210CE battery, has a direct view of center stage. The theater features an ellipsoidal dome containing a mural by painter Carlos Cañas and a striking crystal chandelier. Other spaces include the Chamber Hall and the Grand Foyer. It was declared a National Monument in 1979. Today, the theater is open to tourists, and since the Historic Downtown Restoration has been used for plays, shows, operas, song recitals, and modern dance performances. The theater is the largest and most luxurious in Central America SONY VGN-FZ21E battery. Calle Arce (Maple street) is a major street in San Salvador. Mayor Norman Quijano inaugurated the first phase of its redevelopment near the Plaza de la Salud, which focuses on improvements to the sidewalks between 21st and 19th Avenida Norte. Twelve antique lights, originally from Spain and dating from 1900, will be installed, along with six benches and forty trees SONY VGN-FZ21J battery. At the same time, sidewalks will be renovated with ramps to provide access for people with disabilities and seniors. Calle Arce is monitored by 24 members of the Corps Metropolitan Agents (CAM), who specialize in the maintenance and protection of the new public space. La Plaza Gerardo Barrios, also known as the Civic Plaza, is located in the heart of the city. The statue that dominates the site, designed by Francisco Durini SONY VGN-FZ21M battery, is dedicated to President Gerardo Barrios and was unveiled in 1909. It was the work of the sculptors Antonio and Carlos Ezeta, who were brothers. The figure, made of bronze, is placed on a pedestal of granite and depicts battle scenes and the shield of El Salvador. Plaza Gerardo Barrios is the site of many demonstrations and political rallies. Mass is celebrated there as well, and it is the destination of many parades. The plaza is the focal point for celebrations accompanying the feast of San Salvador on August 5 and 6. SONY VGN-FZ21S battery The religious procession called El Descenso ("The Descent"), dedicated to the Divine Savior of the World and representing the resurrection of Jesus and his descent from the tomb, terminates there. Plaza Libertad Plaza Libertad contains the Monumento de los Héroes (Monument to the Heroes), a commemoration of the centenary of the "First Cry of Independence" in 1811. The monument is crowned by an "angel of freedom" at its pinnacle holding a laurel wreath in both hands SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery. Years later, as a consequence of increased commercial activity, the area around the plaza was enhanced with the construction of the ornate Portal la Dalia in 1915–1916 and Portal de Occidente in 1917. The Government of El Salvador, headed by Rafael Zaldivar, ordered the erection of a marble statue in honor of Francisco Morazán, president of the Federal Republic of Central America, to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of his death on March 15, 1882. The work was created by the artist Francisco Durini in Genoa, Italy SONY VGN-FZ29VN battery. The son of Morazan attended the inauguration as a representative of the Government of Honduras. El Salvador's government declared March 15 as a day of national civic celebration. This important residential building was built in the 1920s by coffee farmer Miguel Dueñas. The government confiscated the house in 1922 to cover debts of the owner. The house remained unoccupied for years SONY VGN-FZ31B battery. From 1930 to 1933, Mexico leased the house for use by its diplomatic delegation. From 1935 to 1957, the United States legation rented the house for the residence of its ambassadors. Six successive U.S. ambassadors resided there, and occasional guests such as former Presidents Richard Nixon and Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Robert Kennedy, and movie stars Clark Gable and Tony Curtis stayed there. After 1957 it was the temporary headquarters of an advertising agency SONY VGN-FZ31E battery. The building remained vacant after 1960, until 1973 when the Department of Vocational Training Ministry of Labor occupied it. In 1986 the structure was declared a Cultural Asset by an Executive Agreement of May 8, 1985. The ministry of Labor transferred the property to the authorities of the Ministry of Education, to explore the possibility of a restoration and rehabilitation. In 2001 the restoration work began, under the leadership of Dr. Alfredo Martínez Moreno SONY VGN-FZ31J battery, former director of the Salvadorean Language Academy and the Royal Spanish Academy. Zona Rosa is a nightclub neighborhood in District 3. It has many hotels, ranging from five star luxury hotels to small, comfortable guest houses. Zona Rosa also includes many high class restaurants and fast food restaurants. The area includes a small business center, and a 25 story high business tower is under construction SONY VGN-FZ31M battery. Zona Rosa also has many apartment projects which are changing the landscape and life of the area. It is easy to get to Zona Rosa from any part of the city: it is 45 minutes away from the International Airport, and from Escalon one can take 79 Avenue South. Hilton Princess – The Hilton Princess San Salvador hotel is conveniently located within the business district of San Salvador, 45 minutes away from the San Salvador International Airport; offering the plushest accommodations and the finest amenities among Hilton Princess SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery. The Hilton Princess San Salvador hotel includes 204 guestrooms and suites and 5,934 square feet (551.3 m2) of flexible function space. Sheraton Presidente – The Sheraton has a central location just a few steps from the city's most exclusive stores, bars and restaurants. Suites Las Palmas – Hotel Suites Las Palmas is located in Colonia San Benito,[12] one of the most exclusive and strategic neighborhoods in San Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR110 battery, within the Zona Rosa's lively environment, adjacent to many restaurants, bars, museums and near to International Center for Fairs and Conventions. The Hotel offers 47 suites. Two of the most important museums in San Salvador are located in Zona Rosa. They are Museo David J. Guzmán and Museo de Arte de El Salvador (MARTE). David J. Guzman National Museum of Anthropology contains a variety of Mayan and Pipil artifacts that date to Mayan classical period Sony VAIO VGN-CR115 battery. This museum consists of several co-located facilities. The Museum has its own theater, often used by schools to present lessons on subjects such as the theory of evolution, how dinosaurs disappeared, and the cultural heritage from the Mayan Civilization. Museo de Arte MARTE displays an extensive collection of Salvadoran and international art. [edit]Convention centers The Centro Internacional de Ferias y Convenciones (CIFCO) is a multipurpose convention center in the city of San Salvador. Its facilities are located in the Colonia San Benito-Zona Rosa (District 3) Sony VAIO VGN-CR115E battery, 5 miles (8.0 km) from the Historic Downtown of San Salvador (District 1), in a residential area with good transportation facilities and easy access to first class hotels. It is regarded as the largest and most modern convention center in Central America. It is affiliated with the Union of International Fairs (UFI) and the Association of International Fairs of America (AFIDA) Sony VAIO VGN-CR116 battery. The CIFCO amphitheater is one of the most important performance venues in San Salvador, hosting many concerts and international artists. It has a capacity of 15,000 persons. It also has a parking for over 800 vehicles. From 2003 until 2010, the CIFCO underwent renovation, adding five pavilions and restructuring of the drainage system. The renovation also included the construction of a three-level underground parking for 3,500 vehicles Sony VAIO VGN-CR116E battery, and hotels within the center. Goals of CIFCO include: Support the international exchange of technological, commercial and industrial ideas Plan and organize conventions for exhibitors from the realms of commerce, industry and tourism Provide a pleasing environment for guests and visitors Promoting the image of El Salvador both nationally and internationally Restaurants and nightlife Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B batteryThere are many restaurants in the Zona Rosa. Some of the most notable restaurants include 503, Paradise Lobster and Steak Dinner, A Lo Nuestro, La Pampa Argentina, Inka Grill, Sushi-Itto, Dynasty Chinese, Diva, and Tre-Fratelli. Zona Rosa has the most vibrant nightlife of San Salvador, featuring many bars, nightclubs, and pubs Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L battery. Shopping centers Metrocentro, on Boulevard Los Heroes, is the largest mall in Central America. It took one year to construct the first part of mall, which opened in 1970, and by 2008 the mall had grown to 1,000 stores. The mall receives about 1,700,000 shoppers every month. The mall is owned by Grupo Roble, a Salvadoran construction company, which has also built Metrocentro malls in other cities in El Salvador, such as Santa Ana Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P battery, San Miguel and Sonsonate. The company has opened Metrocentro Malls outside El Salvador, in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Panama. Centro Comercial el Paseo, on Paseo General Escalon, is a mall which is also owned by Roble. This mall is relatively small compared to Metrocentro, but the stores are more upscale, including a BMW Dealership, Super Selectos Super Market, and MAX Electronic Stores. Restaurants in this mall include La Panetiere (French), Tre Fratelli (Italian) Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W battery, Coffee Cup, Puerco Rico (Puerto Rican), TGI Friday's, and Buffalo Wings. Centro Comercial Galerias is an eight story mall (3 levels for parking). The mall was built in two phases: the first phase saw the construction of the 3 parking floors and three shopping floors. The second phase added two more stories for shopping. The mall was built around an old house, which was restored and used for shopping space. This mall includes banking facilities, a fast food court, and many European shops, like Givenchy, Bershka, Pull and Bear, and Zara Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R battery. The restaurant scene in San Salvador is influenced by many different cultures. Food options include Italian, Korean, Japanese, Thai, French, Chilean, American, Peruvian, Mexican, Spanish, Middle Eastern, German, Chinese, Argentine and others. Local food options include several "Pupuserias" where one can purchase the famous Salvadoran Pupusas Sony VAIO VGN-CR120 battery. San Salvador has many museums. The two largest and most popular are Museo Nacional de Antropologia de El Salvador (MUNA) and Museo de Arte de El Salvador. MUNA's mission is to help Salvadorans reflect on their cultural identity through exhibitions, research, publications and educational programs in the fields of archeology and anthropology Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E battery. The museum's exhibits are a testimony to the social processes of the various human groups who have inhabited El Salvador. MARTE's mission is to contribute to the development of the country's education and culture through the conservation and dissemination of the artistic heritage, and by strengthening historic knowledge, reaffirming cultural values that shape the Salvadoran identity Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/L battery, and promoting new artistic languages. MARTE, a private, nonprofit organization, opened on May 22, 2003. In the time that it has existed, the museum has become an essential element of the cultural life of Central America, with its representative view of art from the mid-nineteenth century to contemporary times. A different, but equally popular museum, is Tin Marín Museo de los Niños (Tin Marin Children's Museum), located between Gimnasio Nacional José Adolfo Pineda and Parque Cuscatlán. Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/P battery Tin Marín seeks to contribute to children becoming integral and creative citizens through significant learning, cultural stimulation and entertaining experimentation.[16] The museum has more than 25 exhibits, including The Airplane, The Grocery Store, and the Planetarium. [edit]Hotels San Salvador is home to over 90 hotels, covering a wide range of sizes and prices. The choices include small hotels, located in quiet neighborhoods Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/R battery, and five star hotels. In the Zona Rosa the Hilton Hotel, a five start hotel built in 1997 by Grupo Agrisal, is 55 meters in height(180 ft) and has 15 stories, plus two parking levels, 204 rooms, and eight suites. Zona Rosa also includes hotels such as Suite Las Palmas, Sheraton Presidente, and other small hotels. Connecting to the Torre Futura World Trade Center Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/W battery, in the Escalon neighborhood that lies on the foothills of Cerro El Picacho and the San Salvador Volcano, lies the Crowne Plaza Hotel. The Real InterContinental hotel connects to the Connecting to the Metrocentro mall. In Antiguo Cuscatlán there are many other hotels, for example the Holiday Inn which is connected by a pedestrian bridge to a small shopping plaza, with many restaurants and cafes and the first Starbucks in the country Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/B battery. Beverly Hills Hotel, a five star suite hotel, is located in northern Antiguo Cuscatlán next to the Avante Business Center. Gastronomic festivals All over the country, there are gastronomic festivals, where people sell food and enjoy art and music. At San Salvador, one is held at Las Fuentes de Bethoven Park every month. Magico Gonzalez Statium Estadio Cuscatlán, with a capacity of over 45,000, is the largest soccer venue not only in Central America, but the Caribbean, as well. It was announced on November 16, 2007 that Estadio Cuscatlán would become the first soccer stadium in Central America and Caribbean to have a large LED screen, where the supporters can view the action Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G battery. The screen is 40 meters in height and width and was completed in March 2008. Estadio Cuscatlán was built in the early 1980s right before the beginning of the civil war. This building, was supposed to kick-off an era of modernization of San Salvador in the 1980s, but the civil war took 12 years of development from the country. Another major stadium is Estadio Nacional de la Flor Blanca, with a capacity of 32,000. This stadium hosted the Central American and Caribbean Games in 2002, where El Salvador came in 6th place among 37 countries Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B battery. San Salvador is currently home of three major soccer teams in the Primera División (El Salvador): Alianza F.C., C.D. Atlético Marte and C.D. Universidad de El Salvador . Alianza F.C. currently plays their home games at Estadio Cuscatlán; Club Deportivo Marte currently plays their home games at Estadio Nacional "Flor Blanca", and C.D. Universidad de El Salvador plays their home games at Estadio Universitario UES Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L battery. Alianza is well known throughout El Salvador for its loyal supporters and for the atmosphere created during games. Alianza gained fame in Central America for winning the CONCACAF Championship and for beating the Brazilian team, Santos, when that side featured the football legend Pele. Marte was also once a prominent team, winning 8 national championships and the 1991 CONCACAF Cup Winners Cup Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P battery. C.D. Universidad de El Salvador is one of the soccer teams that recently acquired one place on the Primera División (El Salvador), at June 6, 2010, as defeating in an epic Final Game to C.D. Once Municipal from Ahuachapán. [edit]Organized Soccer Crowds in San Salvador City, San Salvador San Salvador has a large number of private high schools, including Protestant schools (such as Colegio Cristiano Josue, Colegio Bautista de San Salvador located in San Jacinto neighborhood) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R battery, Catholic high schools (such as Liceo Salvadoreño, Colegio Champagnat, Externado San José, Colegio Don Bosco, Colegio La Asunción, Colegio María Auxiliadora), and other secular (such as García Flamenco and Colegio Augusto Walte). San Salvador also has many private bilingual schools, such as: Colegio Cristiano Josue (English), Academia Británica Cuscatleca (British English), Colegio Internacional de San Salvador (English), Escuela Americana (English) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W battery, Escuela Panamericana (English), Liceo Francés (French) and Escuela Alemana (German). El Salvador employs a school classification system administered by the government teaching service (MINED), which scores both private and public schools. A score of A is among the highest, and a score of C means the school needs improvement. San Salvador is home to many higher education institutions. The only public university in the country is Universidad de El Salvador, which is one of the best universities in Central America Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L battery. Private universities, like Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas and Universidad Tecnológica, are also located in the capital city. Other universities that focus on particular professions include Escuela de Comunicacion Monica Herrera, ESEN (Escuela Superior de Economia y Negocios), Escuela Militar (Military School) and many others. San Salvador a major transportation hub, served by a comprehensive public transport network. Major routes of the national transportation network run through the city Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P battery. The country's primary airport is El Salvador International Airport (AIES), which handles all international flights for El Salvador. AIES replaced Ilopango as the country's main airport in 1980. AIES: Until 1980, San Salvador was served by Ilopango International Airport, but on January 31, 1980, Ilopango was replaced by the El Salvador International Airport (IATA: SAL, ICAO: MSLP) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R battery. Ilopango airport is located within the city limits and could not be expanded due to the lack of land and the surrounding population, so the new airport was built outside the city in the neighboring department of La Paz. AIES lies on flat terrain, and it is not surrounded by populated areas, so it can be expanded in the future. AIES is located in the municipality of San Luis Talpa located at 40 km (25miles) from San Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L battery. With 2,076,258 passengers in 2008, it was the third busiest airport by passenger traffic in Central America Ilopango International: Ilopango International Airport, is used for military and charter aviation. It recently underwent renovation, and re-opened in 2009. Ilopango is the host of an annual air show. Tamarindo Regional: There are plans to build a new airport on the Salvadoran coast of El Tamarindo, La Unión Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P battery. Construction began of the first Expressway/Freeway in Central America RN-21 (Boulevard Diego Holguin), due to the increasing amount of vehicular traffic in the west side of the San Salvador Metropolitan Area, which consist of three cities: Santa Tecla, Antiguo Cuscatlan, and San Salvador, in El Salvador Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R battery. RN-5 Los Proceres East/West San Salvador has excellent transportion connectivity, due to its extensive road network and its street maintenance system. Interamerican Development Bank has determined that San Salvador has one of the best road systems in Latin America.[citation needed] The road system of Metropolitan Area of San Salvador handles approximately 400,000 vehicles per day. In the morning rush hour, about 600,000 trips are made Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W battery. The main highway which passes thru San Salvador is the CA-1 (Pan-American highway), which at one point becomes Bulevar Arturo Castellanos. The RN-21 (also known as Bulevar Diego de Holguin) is a major east–west road which connects the cities, of Santa Tecla, Antiguo Cuscatlán and it finally merges in San Salvador with the RN-5 East/West (also known as Bulevar Los Proceres) that later turn into the North/South RN-5 heading towards the International Airport Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/W battery. Another major roadway is the RN-4 (Carretera Este Oeste) which goes from San Salvador through Apopa, and subsequently merges with the CA-1 Panamericana. Roads in the capital are named "street" if they travel east-west, and are called "avenue" if they travel north-south. Road numbering starts at the downtown intersection of Avenida Espana/Avenida Cuscatlán and Delgado Arce street. Avenues to the west of this intersection have odd-number names, and to the east of the intersection they have even-number names Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B battery. Streets have odd-number names if they are to the north of the intersection, and even-number names to the south. One particularly heavily travelled road is 49a Avenida Norte, which connects with the RN-5 highway to the airport. An important historical street is Calle Arce, which was shut down in order to create a pedestrian-only region which is part of the historic downtown of San Salvador. Some streets in the city are very narrow with little room for cars to pass Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L battery, yet there are also many streets that are wide. Within the city, the speed limits are 90kph on highways, 60 km/h on main roads, and 40 km/h on secondary streets and avenues. The San Salvador Metropolitan Area Integrated System of Transportation (SITRAMSS) is a proposed high-volume bus transportation system. The first route of the SITRAMSS will make a round trip from San Martin, through Ilopango Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P battery, Soyapango, through San Salvador, to Antiguo Cuscatlan, and terminate in Santa Tecla. It is estimated that between 40 and 60 busses capable of carrying 160 passengers per trip will start operating in the second half of 2013.[18] The departure interval will be approximately eight to ten minutes.[19] By the time the buses have reached the San Salvador historic downtown they would already transported 20,000 passengers Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W battery, SITRAMSS us a public-private partnership involving the current passenger transport operators, who must purchase the busses. To pay for the infrastructure development, a loan of $50 million has been provided by the Inter-American Development Bank (BID). The system will work with a prepaid card system which is expected to reduce the time required for passengers to enter the busses Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L battery. An estimated 200,000 passengers will be transported daily, or about 5,600,000 every month.[19] Approximately 200,000 people use the city's public bus system daily. Some of the bus transportation system is operated by the city government, but the majority is operated by the private sector. This mixture of ownership has contributed to safety and traffic problems. In 2013, when the SITRAMS commences operation Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P battery, it will resolve many of these problems.[20] Bus rides typically cost between $0.20 and $0.25, depending on the route. The city government operates a free bus system for use by handicapped, elderly, and pregnant persons. San Salvador is the only city in Central America with a bus system that is entirely free for those categories of persons Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W battery. A taxi system operates throughout the entire city. Taxi fares depend on the route. Taxi drivers charge based on the destination location, rather than on a timer. Taxis in San Salvador are yellow, and the fleet is primarily composed of Toyota Corollas. Railway service was absent during the 1990s, but beginning on October 1, 2007, the National Railways of El Salvador (FENADESAL) resumed service. Tickets cost $0.10. Trains depart from near the East Bus Station and travel to the town of Apopa Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N battery. There are plans to start operation of another route, connecting the northern side of San Salvador, Cuscatancingo, to Apopa and from Apopa, to the city of Nejapa. There is also a historic railroad consisting of railroad cars from the 1960s which were refurbished and put into operation by the ministry of tourism. Once a month, visitors can board the antique train and experience the way San Salvadorians transported themselves in the 1960s Sony PCG-5G2L battery. The Dueñas building collapses over its bases The city has suffered from many severe earthquakes, the most disastrous of which occurred in 1854. In 1917, the San Salvador volcano erupted, which resulted in three major earthquakes that damaged the city so extensively that the government was forced to temporarily move the capital to the city of Santa Tecla (known at that time as New San Salvador). The most recent earthquakes, in 2001 (one in January and one in February), resulted in considerable damage Sony PCG-5G3L battery, especially in Las Colinas suburb, where a landslide destroyed homes and killed many people. During the 1980s, conflicts in El Salvador erupted into a civil war, and many people fled to the city, since most of the fighting occurred outside of it (San Salvador itself was not directly affected by the war until the final offensive of 1989). Hurricanes, tsunamis, and landslides also pose a threat. On November 2009, Hurricane Ida hit the departments of San Salvador, San Vicente and Cuzcatlan Sony PCG-5J1L battery. In San Vicente, the municipalities of Verapaz and Guadalupe were totally destroyed by the rainfall that accompanied the hurricane, and the resultant landslide. Many thousands of people were left homeless. The Army and the Red Cross were able to rescue many people, and the government opened public schools to be used as temporary shelters for three months Sony PCG-5J2L battery. The Hurricane destroyed some bridges, and some towns lost communications. The people of El Salvador raised money for the homeless and international aid came from countries such as the United States, Mexico, Nicaragua and Guatemala, and the European Union. Tropical Storm Agatha See also: Tropical Storm Agatha (2010) Tropical Storm Agatha Tropical storm Agatha hit the Central American coast on Thursday, May 27, 2010. About 3 feet (0.91 m) of rainfall over a period of five days was recorded in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador, producing sinkholes, flash floods, and mudslides. Districts particularly hard hit included downtown, El Picacho, and Montebello Sony PCG-5K1L battery. Concerns about public safety in San Salvador increased in the late 1980s due to the Civil War. Although the Civil War was primarily fought in the countryside, during the latter years of the war, guerrillas started attacking the capital city. San Salvador recovered quickly from the Civil War, but gang ("mara") violence soon became a problem. The 18th Street gang that originated in Los Angeles, has proliferated in San Salvador. A rival gang is the Mara Salvatrucha Sony PCG-5K2L battery. In 2002 the crime rates in San Salvador skyrocketed and the municipal government was unable to combat the rise. Recent efforts by mayor Norman Quijano to restore public safety have been somewhat successful. Security measures in San Salvador's most troubled Districts (5 and 6, which border Soyapango, and are home to many gangs) included safety campaigns and recreational activities to keep youth from joining gangs Sony PCG-5L1L battery. The mayor also initiated a security camera program so the police can watch the most heavily trafficked areas of the city. The security camera project started in the historic downtown and will expand throughout the entire city.[21] Today, San Salvador is considered to be a land of opportunity for many immigrants from neighboring countries, such as Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. Immigrants also come from South American countries such as Peru and Bolivia, and it also is home to a Korean population and a European minority Sony PCG-6S2L battery. As of 2011 San Salvador had managed to reduce its crime rate, reducing its murder rate to a level lower than Haiti, Venezuela,[22] Mexico, Guatemala, or Honduras.[23] Also according to a UN Development report, San Salvador has a relatively low robbery rate of 90 per 100,000,[24] compared to San José, the capital of Costa Rica, which has 524 robberies per 100,000. Sony PCG-6S3L batteryDistricts 3 and 4[26] are the safest in the country, comparable to that of a European cities; Districts 1 and 2 have a slightly higher crime rate than 3 or 4; and District 5 bordering San Marcos, and District 6 bordering Soyapango the areas that have the highest crime rates.
El Salvador is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country as well as Central America. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean on the south Sony PCG-71313M battery, and the countries of Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the north and east. Its easternmost region lies on the coast of the Gulf of Fonseca, opposite Nicaragua. As of 2009, El Salvador had a population of approximately 5,744,113 people, composed predominantly of Mestizos.[3] The colón was the official currency of El Salvador from 1892 to 2001, when it adopted the U.S. Dollar Sony PCG-71212M battery. In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and in the top 3 in Central America (behind Costa Rica and Panama), due in part to ongoing rapid industrialization. In addition, tropical forests and overall forest cover has expanded by nearly 20% from the year 1992 to 2010, making it one of the few countries experiencing reforestation Sony PCG-71311M battery. Temazcal in Joya de Ceren Pre-Columbian El Salvador's origins of human civilization date back to the Pipil people of Cuzcatlán, which means The Place of Precious Diamonds and Jewels. The people of El Salvador are variably referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage Sony PCG-71213M battery. In pre-Columbian times the territory was inhabited by various Native American peoples, including the Pipil, a Nahuatl-speaking population that occupied the central and western regions of the territory, and the Lenca, who settled in the east of the country. The larger domain until the Spanish conquest of the kingdom was Cuzcatlán. The Mayan civilization which inhabited El Salvador has left ruins such as those at Tazumal, Joya De Ceren, Sony PCG-61211M battery San Andres, Casa Blanca, Cihuatan, and Chalchuapa. European Contact (1522) In 1520 the indigenous population of the territory had been reduced by 80% due to the smallpox epidemic that affected the Mesoamerican area. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño led an expedition to Central America and disembarked on Meanguera island, which he named Petronila, in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31, 1522 Sony VAIO VPCF24Q1E battery. Thereafter he discovered Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River. This was the first known visit by Spaniards to what is now Salvadoran territory. Conquest of Cuzcatlán Pedro de Alvarado Between 1524 and 1525, after participating in the conquest of Mexico, Spanish Conquistadors led by Pedro de Alvarado and his brother Gonzalo crossed the Rio Paz (Peace River) from the area comprising the present Republic of Guatemala into what is now the Republic of El Salvador. The Spaniards were disappointed to discover that the indigenous Pipil people had no gold or jewels like those they had found in Guatemala or Mexico Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/H battery, but recognized the richness of the verdant land's volcanic soil. Pedro de Alvarado led the first incursion by Spanish forces to extend their dominion to the nation of Cuzcatlán (El Salvador), in June 1524. On June 8, 1524, the conquerors arrived in the neighborhood of Acajutla at a village called Acaxual. There, according to records, a battle ensued between the opposing armies, with the Pipil wearing cotton armor Sony VAIO VPCF12Z1E/BI battery (of three fingers' thickness, according to Alvarado) and carrying long lances. This circumstance would be crucial in the progression of the battle. Alvarado approached the Pipil lines with his archers' showers of crossbow arrows, but the natives did not retreat. The conquistador noticed the proximity of a nearby hill and knew that it could be a convenient hiding place for his opponents Sony VAIO VPCF12S1E/B battery. Alvarado pretended that his army had given up the battle and retreated. The Pipil suddenly rushed the invaders, giving Alvarado an opportunity to inflict massive losses. The Pipil warriors who fell to the ground could not get back on their feet, hindered by the weight of their cotton armor, which enabled the Spanish to slaughter them Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E/BI battery. In the words of Alvarado: "...the destruction was so great that in just a short time there were none which were left alive...". However, Alvarado's army were not completely unscathed. In the battle Alvarado himself was struck by a sling shot to his thigh which fractured his femur bone. According to local tradition the stone that hit the conquistador was hurled by a Pipil "Tatoni" Sony VAIO VPCF13Z8E battery (a prince) called Atonal. The resultant infection lasted about eight months and left Alvarado partially crippled. In spite of this wound, he continued the conquest campaign with relish. Tazumal ruins in Santa Ana, El Salvador. The Spanish efforts were firmly resisted by the indigenous people, including the Pipil and their Mayan-speaking neighbors. Despite Alvarado's initial success in the Battle of Acajutla, the people of Cuzcatlán, who according to tradition were led by a warlord called Atlacatl, defeated the Spaniards and what was left of their Mexican Tlaxcala Indian allies Sony VAIO VPCF13M1E/B battery, forcing them to withdraw to Guatemala. There, Pedro de Alvarado was again wounded, this time on his left thigh, which left him handicapped for the rest of his life. He abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the task. It took two subsequent expeditions (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) to bring the Pipil under Spanish control Sony VAIO VPCF1318E/H battery. In 1525, the conquest of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established. The Spanish faced much resistance from the Pipil and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas. Finally, with reinforcements, in 1526 the Spanish established the garrison town of San Miguel, headed by another explorer and conquistador, Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, nephew of Pedro Alvarado Sony VAIO VPCF13J0E/H battery. A Maya-Lenca woman, crown Princess Antu Silan Ulap I, daughter of Asisilcan Nachan I and Lady Omomatku, Monarch of the Lencas, organized resistance to the domination of the gold- and profit-hungry Conquistadors. The Lenca kingdom was alarmed by de Moscoso's invasion, and Antu Silan dealt with it by going from village to village, uniting all the Lenca towns in present-day El Salvador and Honduras against the Spaniards Sony VAIO VPCF13E8E battery. Through surprise attacks and their overwhelming numbers, they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy the garrison. For ten years, the Lencas prevented the Spanish from building a permanent settlement. Then the Spanish returned with more soldiers, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Guatemala. Sony VAIO VPCF13E4E battery They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá. Antu Silan Ulap continued leading the united forces until, late in pregnancy, she slipped out of the conflicted area to a safe haven, Tihuilotal, where she gave birth to twins, a girl and a boy. Their father was Prince Salaiki Kanul from Sesori. The daughter became Atonim Silan I – she and her twin and another brother lived in the mountains near the lake Olomega and Maquigue Sony VAIO VPCF12M1E/H battery – in this way they escaped the Spanish and their allies who were hunting them. Tihuilotal is a little southwest of the present city of La Unión, near the source of the sacred Managuara River. Antu Silan Ulap eventually handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira). Lempira was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and using their weapons captured in battle Sony VAIO VPCF12F4E/H battery. Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in El Salvador and Honduras until he was killed in battle. The remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills. The Spanish were then able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537. Spanish rule (colonization) and independence Painting of the First Independence Movement celebration in San Salvador. At the center, José Matías Delgado Sony VAIO VPCF12E1E/H battery. Manuel José Arce joined the movement for independence from Spain, joining in the first Cry for Independence on November 5, 1811 in San Salvador. In the early sixteenth century, the Spanish conquistadors ventured into the natural harbors to extend their dominion to the area. They called the land "Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo" ("Province of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior of the World"), which was subsequently abbreviated to "El Salvador (The Savior)" Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI battery. During the colonial period, El Salvador was part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala (Spanish: Reino de Guatemala), created in 1609 as an administrative division of New Spain. The Salvadoran territory was administered by the Mayor of Sonsonate, with San Salvador being established as an intendancia in 1786 Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery. Towards the end of 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from the Spanish Crown. The most important internal factors were the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities, and the Creoles' long-standing aspiration for independence Sony VAIO VPCF23S1E battery. The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the eighteenth century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively Sony VAIO VPCF231S1E battery. On 5 November 1811, Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement. This insurrection was suppressed and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail. Another insurrection was launched in 1814, and again it was suppressed Sony VAIO VPCF23Q1E battery. Finally, on September 15, 1821, in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the Acta de Independencia (Deed of Independence) which released all of the Captaincy of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule and declared its independence Sony VAIO VPCF23M1E battery. In 1821, El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in a union named the Federal Republic of Central America. In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries Sony VAIO VPCF22S8E battery. A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with the fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote for joining Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces. (Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture.) Sony VAIO VPCF22S1E batteryWhen the Federal Republic of Central America dissolved in 1841, El Salvador maintained its own government until it joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form the Greater Republic of Central America, which later dissolved in 1898. After the mid-19th century, the economy was based on coffee growing and, as the world market for indigo withered away, prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the concentration of land in the hands of an oligarchy of just a few families.[9] Throughout the last half of the 19th century, a succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop Sony VAIO VPCF22L1E battery, the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labor for the coffee fincas (plantations), and the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force Sony VAIO VPCF22J1E battery. 20th century Gen. Tomás Regalado In 1898, Gen. Tomas Regalado gained power by force, deposing Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez and ruling as president until 1903. Once in office he revived the practice of designating presidential successors. After serving his term, he remained active in the Army of El Salvador, and was killed July 11, 1906, at El Jicaro during a war against Guatemala Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery. Until 1913 El Salvador was politically stable, but there were undercurrents of popular discontent. When President Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo was killed in 1913, there were many hypotheses advanced for the political motive of his murder. Dios, Union, Libertad (God, Unity, Liberty) El Salvador 1912 Flag. Araujo's administration was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927. Pio Romero Bosque Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery, ex-Minister of the Government and a trusted collaborator of the dynasty, succeeded President Jorge Melendez and in 1930 announced free elections, in which Arturo Araujo came to power on March 1, 1931. His government lasted only nine months, as his Labor Party lacked political and governmental experience and many party members used their government offices inefficiently. President Araujo faced general popular discontent Sony VAIO VPCF11D4E battery, as the people expected economic reforms and the redistribution of land. There were demonstrations in front of the National Palace from the first week of his administration. His vice president and Minister of War was Gen. Maximiliano Hernández Martínez and his National Police Director was Rochac—his brother-in-law Sony VAIO VPCF11C5E battery. In December 1931 a coup d'état was organized by junior officers and led by Gen. Martínez; the first strike started in the First Regiment of Infantry across from the National Palace in downtown San Salvador. Only the First Regiment of Cavalry and the National Police defended the President (the National Police had been on its payroll), but later that night, after hours of fighting, the badly outnumbered defenders surrendered to the rebel forces Sony VAIO VPCF11C4E/B battery. The Directorate, composed of officers, hid behind a shadowy figure,[10] a rich anti-Communist banker called Rodolfo Duke, and later installed the ardent fascist Gen. Martínez as president. The causes of the revolt were probably due to the army's discontent at not having been paid by President Araujo for some months. Araujo left the National Palace and later unsuccessfully tried to organize forces to defeat the revolt Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized the government of Martínez, who agreed to hold presidential elections later. He resigned in 1934, six months before the presidential elections, to run for the presidency, which he won—not a difficult achievement, seeing as he was the only candidate. He ruled from 1935 to 1939, then from 1939 to 1943 Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. He began a fourth term in 1944, but resigned in May after a general strike. Martínez had said he was going to respect the Constitution, which stipulated he could not be re-elected, but he refused to keep his promise. From December 1931, the year of the coup in which Martínez came to power, there was brutal suppression of the rural resistance Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. The most notable event was the February 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising, led by Farabundo Martí and Abel Cuenca, and university students Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata. Only Cuenca survived; the other insurgents were killed by the government. It was later referred to as La Matanza (The Massacre), because tens of thousands of peasants were slaughtered on the orders of President Martinez Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. In the unstable political climate of the previous few years, the social activist and revolutionary leader Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America, and led a Communist alternative to the Red Cross called International Red Aid, serving as one of its representatives. Their goal was to help poor and underprivileged Salvadorans through the use of Marxist-Leninist ideology (strongly rejecting Stalinism) Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. In December 1930, at the height of the country's economic and social depression, Martí was once again exiled due to his popularity among the nation's poor and rumors of his upcoming nomination for President the following year. Once Arturo Araujo was elected president in 1931, Martí returned to El Salvador, and along with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata began the movement that was later truncated by the military Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery. They helped start a guerrilla revolt of indigenous farmers. The government responded by killing over 30,000 people at what was to have been a "peaceful meeting" in 1932; this became known as La Matanza (The Slaughter). The peasant uprising against Martínez was crushed by the Salvadoran military ten days after it had begun. The Communist-led rebellion SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, fomented by collapsing coffee prices, enjoyed some initial success, but was soon drowned in a bloodbath. President Martínez, who had himself toppled an elected government only weeks earlier, ordered the defeated Martí shot after a perfunctory hearing. Historically, the high Salvadoran population density has contributed to tensions with neighboring Honduras, as land-poor Salvadorans emigrated to less densely populated Honduras and established themselves as squatters on unused or underused land SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. This phenomenon was a major cause of the 1969 Football War between the two countries.[11] As many as 130,000 Salvadorans had been forcibly expelled or had fled from Honduras.[12] The PDC and the PCN parties José Napoleón Duarte In 1960 two political parties were born and are still active in El Salvadoran politics: the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN). Both share common ideals, but one represents the middle class and the latter the interests of the Salvadoran military SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. Opposition leader José Napoleón Duarte from the PDC was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the regime of President Jose Adalberto Rivera (who allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly). Duarte later ran for president with a political grouping called the National Opposition Union (UNO) but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. He lost to the ex-Minister of Interior, Col. Arturo Armando Molina, in an election that was widely viewed as fraudulent; Molina was declared the winner even though Duarte was said to have received a majority of the votes. Duarte, at some army officers' request, supported a revolt to protest the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled. Duarte returned to the country in 1979 to enter politics after working on projects in Venezuela as an engineer SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. The October 1979 coup d'état In October 1979 a coup d'état brought the Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway in response to Duarte's stolen election. Nevertheless, the oligarchy opposed agrarian reform SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery, and a junta formed with young liberal elements from the army such as Gen. Majano and Gen. Gutierrez, as well as with progressives such as Ungo and Alvarez. Owing to pressure from the oligarchy, this junta was soon dissolved because of its inability to control the army in its repression of the people fighting for unionization rights, agrarian reform, better wages, accessible health care and freedom of expression SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery. In the meantime, the guerrilla movement was spreading to all sectors of Salvadoran society. Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); and workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block) Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second junta to change the political environment and stop the spread of a leftist insurrection. Napoleon Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new junta. However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the junta was seen by the general population as opportunistic SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection. Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero, Archbishop of San Salvador denounced injustices and massacres committed against the civilians by the government in turn. He was the voice of the voiceless. But, Monsignor Romero was executed by a death squad in January 1980 and this was the beginning of the Salvadoran Civil War in full which lasted from 1980 to 1992 SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. A reconstruction of Radio Venceremos, at the Museo de la Palabra y la Imagen, San Salvador On January 16, 1992, the government of El Salvador, represented by president Alfredo Cristiani, and the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (FMLN), represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups – Shafick Handal SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery, Joaquin Villalobos, Salvador Sánchez Ceren, Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho, all signed the peace agreements brokered by the United Nations which ended the 12-year civil war. This event, held at the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico, was attended by U.N. dignitaries and other representatives of the international community. After signing the armistice, the president stood up and shook hands with all the now ex-guerrilla commanders SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery, an action which was widely admired. The so-called Mexico Peace Agreements mandated reductions in the size of the army, and the dissolution of the National Police, the Treasury Police, the National Guard and the Civilian Defense, a paramilitary group. A new Civil Police was to be organized. Judicial immunity for crimes committed by the armed forces ended SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery; the government agreed to submit to the recommendations of a Commission on the Truth for El Salvador (Comisión de la Verdad Para El Salvador), which would "investigate serious acts of violence occurring since 1980, and the nature and effects of the violence, and...recommend methods of promoting national reconciliation SONY PCG-8113M battery." End of the 20th century From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favored the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) party, voting in ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca) until 2009, when Mauricio Funes was elected president from the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) party SONY PCG-8112M battery . Economic reforms since the early 1990s have brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of its export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level. However, crime remains a major problem for the investment climate. This all ended in 2001, and support for ARENA weakened. Internal turmoil in ARENA weakened the party, while the FMLN united and broadened its support. SONY PCG-7134M battery21st century The unsuccessful attempts of the left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate. On March 15, 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN party. He was inaugurated on June 1, 2009. One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government. SONY PCG-7131M batteryARENA formally expelled Saca from the party in December, 2009. With 12 loyalists in the National Assembly, Saca established his own party, GANA (Gran Alianza por la Unidad Nacional or Grand Alliance for National Unity), and entered into a tactical legislative alliance with the FMLN.[17] After three years in office, with Saca's GANA party providing the FMLN with a legislative majority, Funes had not taken action to investigate or to bring corrupt former officials to justice SONY PCG-7122M battery. Main article: Geography of El Salvador The topography of El Salvador. El Salvador lies in the isthmus of Central America between latitudes 13° and 15°N, and longitudes 87° and 91°W. It stretches 168 miles (270 km) from west-northwest to east-southeast and 88 miles (142 km) north to south, with a total area of 8,123 miles (13,073 km), about the size of Massachusetts or Wales. As the smallest country in continental America SONY PCG-7121M battery, El Salvador is affectionately called Pulgarcito de America (the "Tom Thumb of the Americas"). The highest point in the country is Cerro El Pital, at 8,957 feet (2,730 m), on the border with Honduras. El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors SONY PCG-7113M battery. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early nineteenth century to the mid 1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name "Lighthouse of the Pacific." Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone SONY PCG-7112M battery. El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river; it and its tributaries drain about half the country SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific. These include the Goascorán, Jiboa, Torola, Paz and the Río Grande de San Miguel. The Coatepeque Caldera. There are several lakes enclosed by volcanic craters in the country, the most important of which are Lake Ilopango (70 km²/27 sq mi) and Lake Coatepeque (26 km²/10 sq mi) SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. Lake Güija is El Salvador's largest natural lake (44 km²/17 sq mi). Several artificial lakes were created by the damming of the Lempa, the largest of which is Embalse Cerrón Grande (135 km²). There are a total 123.6 square miles (320 km2) of water within El Salvador's borders. El Salvador shares those borders with Guatemala and Honduras, the total national boundary length is 339 miles (546 km): SONY PCG-8Z1M battery 126 miles (203 km) with Guatemala and 213 miles (343 km) with Honduras. It is the only Central American country that has no Caribbean coastline; the coastline on the Pacific is 191 miles (307 km) long. Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau SONY PCG-8Y3M battery , covering 85% of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands. Main article: Climate of El Salvador Playa La Libertad, Liberty Beach. El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate. The rainy season extends from May to October; this time of year is referred to as invierno or winter SONY PCG-8Y2M battery . Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this period; yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 2,170 millimetres (85.4 in). The best time to visit El Salvador would be at the beginning or end of the dry season. Protected areas and the central plateau receive less, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure systems formed over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. Hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch, which formed in the Atlantic and crossed Central America. From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns; this time of year is referred to as verano, or summer. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of its precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras SONY PCG-6W2M battery. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy, and the country experiences hot weather, excluding the northern higher mountain ranges, where temperatures will be cool. In the extreme northeastern part of the country near Cerro El Pital, snow is known to fall during summer as well as during winter due to the high elevations (it is the coldest part of the country) SONY PCG-5J5M battery . Biodiversity and endangered species The Torogoz is El Salvador's national bird. There are eight species of sea turtles in the world; six of them nest on the coasts of Central America, and four make their home on the Salvadoran coast: the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Green Sea turtle (Chelonia agasizzii) and the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) SONY PCG-5K2M battery. Of these four species, the most common is the Olive Ridley turtle, followed by the brown (black) turtle. The other two species, Hawksbill and Leatherback, are much more difficult to find as they are critically endangered, while the Olive Ridley and brown (black) turtle are in danger of extinction SONY PCG-5K1M battery . Recent conservation efforts provide hope for the future of the country's biological diversity. In 1997, the government established the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources. A general environmental framework law was approved by the National Assembly in 1999. Specific legislation to protect wildlife is still pending SONY PCG-5J4M battery . The Ocelot is a native of El Salvador. In addition, a number of non-governmental organizations are doing important work to safeguard some of the country's most important forested areas. Foremost among these is SalvaNatura, which manages El Impossible, the country's largest national park under an agreement with El Salvador's environmental authorities SONY PCG-5J1M battery. Despite these efforts, much remains to be done. It is estimated that there are 500 species of birds, 1,000 species of butterflies, 400 species of orchids, 800 species of trees, and 800 species of marine fish in El Salvador. Natural disasters Cordillera de Apaneca volcanic mountain range in El Salvador. Usulutan volcano rises above the Pacific coastal plain in El Salvador.. The Izalco Volcano, partially covered by clouds, is a natural draw for tourists. The Santa Ana Volcano, as seen from a United States Air Force C-130 Hercules flying above El Salvador SONY PCG-5G2M battery. El Salvador lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, and is thus subject to significant tectonic activity, including frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. Recent examples include the earthquake on January 13, 2001 that measured 7.7 on the Richter scale and caused a landslide that killed more than 800 people;[18] and another earthquake only a month later, on February 13, 2001 Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery, that killed 255 people and damaged about 20% of the nation's housing. Luckily, many families were able to find safety from the landslides caused by the earthquake. The San Salvador area has been hit by earthquakes in 1576, 1659, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873, 1880, 1917, 1919, 1965, 1986, 2001 and 2005.[19] The 5.7 Mw-earthquake of 1986 resulted in 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless. El Salvador's most recent destructive volcanic eruption took place on October 1, 2005, when the Santa Ana Volcano spewed a cloud of ash Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, hot mud and rocks that fell on nearby villages and caused two deaths. The most severe volcanic eruption in this area occurred in the 5th century AD when the Ilopango volcano erupted with a VEI strength of 6, producing widespread pyroclastic flows and devastating Mayan cities.[22] El Salvador's position on the Pacific Ocean also makes it subject to severe weather conditions, including heavy rainstorms and severe droughts Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery, both of which may be made more extreme by the El Niño and La Niña effects. In the summer of 2001, a severe drought destroyed 80% of the country's crops, causing famine in the countryside.[23][24] On October 4, 2005, severe rains resulted in dangerous flooding and landslides, which caused a minimum of fifty deaths. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M batteryEl Salvador's location in Central America also makes it vulnerable to hurricanes coming off the Caribbean; however, this risk is much less than for other Central American countries. The Santa Ana Volcano in El Salvador is currently dormant; the last eruptions were in 1904 and 2005. Lago de Coatepeque (one of El Salvador's lakes) was created by water filling the caldera that formed after a massive eruption Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. The British Imperial College's El Salvador Project aims to build earthquake-proof buildings in remote areas of the country. Government and politics Main article: Politics of El Salvador Main article: Foreign relations of El Salvador The 1983 Constitution is the highest legal authority in the country. El Salvador has a democratic and representative government, whose three bodies are: The Executive Branch, headed by the President of the Republic, who is elected by direct vote and remains in office for five years. He can be elected to only one term. The president has a Cabinet of Ministers whom he appoints, and is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. The Legislative Branch, called El Salvador's Legislative Assembly (unicameral), consisting of 84 deputies. The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, which is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary. The Chapultepec Peace Accords (1992) created the new National Civil Police, the Attorney for the Defense of Human Rights and the Supreme Electoral Tribunal Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. The Peace Accords re-imagined the Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (FMLN) as a political party and redefined the role of the army to be for the defense of the sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Accords also removed some security forces who were in command of the army, such as the National Guard, Treasury Police and special battalions that were formed to fight against the insurgency of the 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. The political framework of El Salvador is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multiform, multi-party system. The President, currently Mauricio Funes, is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The country also has an independent Judiciary and Supreme Court Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. Main political parties Although El Salvador has six political parties, the ones which receive the most votes are the conservative right (ARENA) and the liberal left (FMLN). GANA, PDC, PCN, and CD have not received as many votes, leading some people to believe the country has a two-party system, although alternative parties still exist. Within Salvadoran political culture Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery, ARENA is considered right or conservative and the FMLN Party is considered left, split between the dominant Marxist-Leninist faction in the legislature, and the liberal wing led by President Funes. The departments of the Central region, especially the capital and the coastal regions, known as departamentos rojos, or red departments, are relatively liberal. The departamentos azules, or blue departments in the east Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, western and highland regions are relatively conservative. The winner of the 2009 presidential election, Mauricio Funes belongs to the FMLN party and currently controls the National Assembly. El Salvador Political Parties (alphabetical order) Human rights Main article: Human rights in El Salvador Amnesty International has drawn attention to several arrests of police officers for unlawful police killings. Other current issues to gain Amnesty International's attention in the past 10 years include missing children, failure of law enforcement to properly investigate and prosecute crimes against women, and rendering organized labor illegal. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M batteryDepartments See also: Ranked list of Salvadoran departments and Salvadoran Departments by HDI El Salvador is divided into 14 departments (departamentos), which in turn are subdivided into 262 municipalities (municipios). Department names and abbreviations for the 14 Salvadoran Departments: Main article: Economy of El Salvador The World Trade Center San Salvador. According to the IMF and CIA World Factbook, El Salvador has the third largest economy in the region, behind Costa Rica and Panama, when comparing nominal Gross Domestic Product and purchasing power GDP El Salvador's GDP per capita stands at US$4,365. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M batteryEl Salvador's economy has been hampered at times by natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, by government policies that mandate large economic subsidies, and by official corruption. Subsidies became such a problem that in April, 2012, the International Monetary Fund suspended a $750 million loan to the central government Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. President Funes' chief of cabinet, Alex Segovia, acknowledged that the economy was at the "point of collapse."[27] Antiguo Cuscatlán has the highest per capita income of all the cities in the country, and is a center of international investment. GDP in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $ 25.895 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 64.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 24.7% (2008 est.). Agriculture represents only 11.2% of GDP (2010 est.) Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M batteryThe GDP grew after 1996 at an annual rate that averaged 3.2% real growth. The government committed to free market initiatives, and the 2007 GDP's real growth rate was 4.7%.[28] In December 1999, net international reserves equaled US $1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning January 1, 2001 by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the Salvadoran colón, and all formal accounting was done in U.S. dollars. Thus, the government has formally limited the implementing of open market monetary policies to influence short-term variables in the economy. As of September 2007, net international reserves stood at $2.42 billion Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery. San Salvador, one of the fastest growing capitals in the world. It has long been a challenge in El Salvador to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. In the past, the country produced gold and silver,[30] but recent attempts to re-open the mining sector, which were expected to add hundreds of millions of dollars to the local economy, collapsed after President Saca shut down the operations of Pacific Rim Mining Corporation Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. The U.S.-Canadian company had spent $77 million to discover a gold deposit estimated at 1.4 million troy ounces. President Funes and the FMLN upheld the gold and silver mining ban. As with other former colonies, El Salvador was considered a mono-export economy (an economy that depended heavily on one type of export) for many years. During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. San Miguel is an important economic center of El Salvador and home to "Carnival of San Miguel", the biggest festival of entertainment and gastronomy in Central America. The government has sought to improve the collection of its current revenues, with a focus on indirect taxes. A 10% value-added tax (IVA in Spanish), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995 Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. Inflation has been steady and among the lowest in the region. Since 1997 inflation has averaged 3%, with recent years increasing to nearly 5%. As a result of the free trade agreements, from 2000 to 2006, total exports have grown 19% from $2.94 billion to $3.51 billion, and total imports have risen 54% from $4.95 billion to $7.63 billion. This has resulted in a 102% increase in the trade deficit, from $2.01 billion to $4.12 billion Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. El Chorreron, El Salvador; tourism is the fastest-growing sector of the Salvadoran economy. Despite being the smallest country in Central America, El Salvador has the third largest economy, with a per capita income that is roughly two-thirds that of Costa Rica and Panama, but more than double that of Nicaragua. Growth has been modest in recent years, and the economy contracted nearly 3% in 2009. Because of the recent growing and dollarized economy Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, El Salvador is seeing an increase of Central American, South American, and Caribbean immigrants from Guatemalans, Hondurans, Nicaraguans, Dominicans, Colombians, Venezuelan, Peruvians and Cubans searching for better living opportunities. El Salvador has promoted an open trade and investment environment, and has embarked on a wave of privatizations extending to telecom Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, electricity distribution, banking, and pension funds. In late 2006, the government and the Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a five-year, $461 million compact to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty in the country's northern region, the primary conflict zone during the civil war, through investments in education, public services, enterprise development, and transportation infrastructure Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. With the adoption of the US dollar as its currency in 2001, El Salvador lost control over monetary policy. Any counter-cyclical policy response to the downturn must be through fiscal policy, which is constrained by legislative requirements for a two-thirds majority to approve any international financing. Remittances from abroad El Salvador leads the region in remittances per capita, with inflows equivalent to nearly all export income; about a third of all households receive these financial inflows Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. Remittances from Salvadorans living and working in the United States, sent to family members in El Salvador, are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of $4.12 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade, and reached an all-time high of $3.32 billion in 2006 (an increase of 17% over the previous year).[32] approximately 16.2% of gross domestic product(GDP) Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. Remittances have had positive and negative effects on El Salvador. In 2005, the number of people living in extreme poverty in El Salvador was 20%,[33] according to a United Nations Development Program report. Without remittances, the number of Salvadorans living in extreme poverty would rise to 37%. While Salvadoran education levels have gone up, wage expectations have risen faster than either skills or productivity Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. For example, some Salvadorans are no longer willing to take jobs that pay them less than what they receive monthly from family members abroad. This has led to an influx of Hondurans and Nicaraguans who are willing to work for the prevailing wage. Also, the local propensity for consumption over investment has increased Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. Money from remittances has also increased prices for certain commodities such as real estate. With much higher wages, many Salvadorans abroad can afford higher prices for houses in El Salvador than local Salvadorans, and thus push up the prices that all Salvadorans must pay.[34] Free trade agreements Sony VAIO PCG-81114L batteryIn 2006, El Salvador was the first country to ratify the Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement. CAFTA has bolstered exports of processed foods, sugar, and ethanol, and supported investment in the apparel sector, which faced Asian competition with the expiration of the Multi-Fiber Agreement in 2005. In anticipation of the declines in the apparel sector's competitiveness, the previous administration sought to diversify the economy by promoting the country as a regional distribution and logistics hub Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery, and by promoting tourism investment through tax incentives. There are a total of 15 free trade zones in El Salvador. El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) — negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic — with the United States in 2004. CAFTA requires that the Salvadoran government adopt policies that foster free trade Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery. El Salvador has signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama and increased its trade with those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada. In October 2007, these four countries and Costa Rica began free trade agreement negotiations with the European Union. Negotiations started in 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery. Official corruption and anti-business practices In an analysis of ARENA's electoral defeat in 2009, the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador pointed to official corruption under the Saca administration as a significant reason for public rejection of continued ARENA government. According to a secret diplomatic cable made public by WikiLeaks, "While the Salvadoran public may be inured to self-serving behavior by politicians Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery, many in ARENA believe that the brazen manner in which Saca and his people are widely perceived to have used their positions for personal enrichment went beyond the pale. ARENA deputy (and son of controversial ARENA founder) Roberto d'Aubuisson told [a U.S. diplomat] that Saca 'deliberately ignored' his Public Works Minister’s government contract kickbacks scheme Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery, even after the case was revealed in the press. Furthermore, considerable evidence exists, including from U.S. business sources, that the Saca administration pushed laws and selectively enforced regulations with the specific intent to benefit Saca family business interests." [35] Subsequent policies under the Saca and Funes administrations made El Salvador less friendly to foreign investment, and the World Bank sharply lowered its once positive ratings of the country Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. By 2012, El Salvador slid to 112th place out of 183 countries in the World Bank's annual "Ease of Doing Business" index.[36] The World Economic Forum lowered El Salvador's economic competitiveness rating in 2012 from 43rd to 91st in the world.[37] El Salvador began 2012 with the lowest level of foreign investment in Central America, with San Salvador being rated 44th out of 48 Central American cities in terms of attractiveness to investors Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Foreign companies increasingly have resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals after Salvadoran government policies damaged their investments. In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment.[39] The U.S. Embassy warned in 2009 that the Salvadoran government's populist policies of mandating artificially low electricity prices were damaging private sector profitability Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery, including the interests of American investors in the energy sector.[40] The U.S. Embassy noted the corruption of El Salvador's judicial system and quietly urged American businesses to include “arbitration clauses, preferably with a foreign venue,” when doing business in the country. In May, 2012, a tribunal of the World Bank's International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes ruled against El Salvador after Pacific Rim Mining Corp. had filed for arbitration to claim $100 million in losses. Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L batteryMain article: Demographics of El Salvador Main article: List of Salvadorans Christy Turlington is an American model of Salvadoran ancestry, best known for representing Calvin Klein from 1987 to 2007. The population of El Salvador increased from 1.9 million inhabitants in 1950 to 4.7 million in 1984.[43] El Salvador has lacked authoritative demographic data for many years because no national census was taken between 1992 and 2007. Before the 2007 census Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery, patterns in population growth led many officials (including within the Salvadoran government) to estimate the country's population at between 7.1 and 7.2 million people.[44] However, on May 12, 2008, El Salvador's Ministry of Economy released statistics gathered in the census of the previous May. These data present a figure for the total population that corroborates the earlier estimates Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery: 7,185,218. Challenges to the 2007 census on a number of grounds are forthcoming. The country's population is composed of mestizos (those of mixed indigenous Native American and European ancestry), whites, and indigenous peoples. Eighty-six percent of Salvadorans are of mixed ancestry. In the mestizo population, Salvadorans of predominantly Mediterranean descent, Afro-Salvadoran, and Native Indigenous who are not connected to indigenous customs or language, all identify themselves as Mestizo culturally Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. Consuelo de Saint Exupéry was a Salvadoran writer and artist. Twelve percent of Salvadorans are mostly of Spanish descent. Small communities of French, German, Swiss, English, Irish, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Central European ethnicity also exist within the country. The majority of Central European immigrants arrived during World War II as refugees from Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery, and Switzerland, and their descendants are scattered in different communities across El Salvador. Russians arrived during the Salvadoran civil war, concurrent with the U.S./Soviet Union cold war, to help the communist guerrillas in their struggle to seize the government. Americans, Australians, and Canadians assisted the military junta in their fight against the communists Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery. Only 1% of the Salvadoran population is purely indigenous, mostly Mayan, Pipil, Lenca and Kakawira (Cacaopera). The current low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by mass murders during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising (or La Matanza). Up to 30,000 peasants were killed in what by modern standards would be considered genocide because of the Salvadoran army's efforts to exterminate a certain racial group Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. Other ethnic groups include Arabs, Jews, other Central Americans, South Americans, Caribbean and a small group of Asians. Afro-Salvadoran. El Salvador is the only Central American country that has no visible African population today, which is the result of racial intermixing during colonial times. Africans that were brought to El Salvador completely mixed into the Mestizo population Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery, creating Afro-Mestizo Salvadorans. Africans are also not visible because of El Salvador's isolation from the Atlantic Central American coastline, where the slave trade occurred for centuries. This scarcity of African population is also due to laws imposed by the Spanish and Criollos around the 17th century after a slave revolt in San Salvador, which were sustained by authorities even after independence was won from Spain in 1821 and slavery was abolished Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. Until the end of the 20th century, people of African descent weren't allowed to enter the country unless the oligarchy determined it was absolutely necessary. In addition, General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez instituted race laws in 1930 that prohibited four ethnic groups — blacks, Gypsies, Asians, from entering the country. It was not until the 1980s that this law was rescinded Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. Regardless of these racial laws, Afro-Salvadorans are present in some areas due to immigrants arriving from neighboring countries like Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua, who eventually mixed in with the local populations. Arabs, mostly Palestinian Christians, are today one of the most notable immigrant groups in El Salvador, despite their relatively small numbers. Sony VAIO PCG-51513L batteryDenying this, the book "Seeing Indians: A Study of Race, Nation, and Power in El Salvador", by Virginia Q. Tilley, states on page 210, "...no twentieth-century law or regulation ever prohibited the entry, settlement, or patriation of blacks, under the Martinez dictatorship or any other regime." There have been several publications presenting information about Africans in what is now El Salvador during the colonial period Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Salvadoran model Irma Dimas was crowned Miss El Salvador in 2005. She made headlines recently for her entry into Salvadoran politics. Among the immigrant groups in El Salvador, Palestinian Christians stand out.[50] Though few in number, their descendants have attained great economic and political power in the country, as evidenced by the election of ex-president Antonio Saca — whose opponent in the 2004 election Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, Schafik Handal, was likewise of Palestinian descent — and the flourishing commercial, industrial, and construction firms owned by this ethnic group. The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. Urbanization has expanded at a phenomenal rate in El Salvador since the 1960s, driving millions to the cities and creating growth problems for cities around the country Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery. In the first half of 2007, government statistics provided by La Policía Nacional Civil of El Salvador showed lower numbers in homicide and extortions as well as robbery and theft of vehicles. In 2007, homicides in El Salvador were reduced by 22%, extortions were reduced by 7%, and robbery and theft of vehicles had gone down 18% Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery, in comparison with the same period in 2006.[51] However, in 2009, there has been an increase in homicides and extortions of about 30% more than in 2008, according to some statistics.[52] As of 2004, there were approximately 3.2 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, with the United States traditionally being the destination of choice for Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. By 2009, there were about 1.6 million Salvadoran immigrants and Americans of Salvadoran descent in the U.S.,[53] making them the sixth largest immigrant group in the country.[54] Salvadorans also live in nearby Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.[55] The majority of expatriates emigrated during the civil war of the 1980s for political reasons and later because of adverse economic and social conditions Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (including the Cayman Islands), Sweden, Brazil, Italy, Colombia, and Australia. There is also a large community of Nicaraguans, 100,000 according to some figures, in the United States and Costa Rica,[56] many of them seasonal immigrants Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. Language Central American Spanish is the official language and is spoken by virtually all inhabitants. Some indigenous people still speak their native tongues (such as Nahuatl and Maya), but indigenous Salvadoreans who do not identify as mestizo constitute only 1% of the country's population. However all of them can speak Spanish. Q'eqchi' is spoken by immigrants of Guatemalan and Belizean indigenous people living in El Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. There have also been recent large migrations of Hondurans and Nicaraguans.[58] German, Dutch and French are taught as a secondary language in private international schools, such as the Liceo Frances (France), Escuela Alemana (Germany), Academia Britanica Cuscatleca (United Kingdom) and the Escuela Americana (United States). English has been taught by Americans and the British in El Salvador for several decades Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery, at least 50 years. However, most formal education is given in private schools, out of reach for most of the population, who have to attend public schools where they receive education in a very elementary level of English. There has been a small Japanese community in El Salvador since World War II.[citation needed], as well as a considerable Taiwanese community Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. The local Spanish vernacular is called Caliche. Salvadoreans use voseo, which is also used in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Uruguay and Argentina. This refers to the use of "vos" as the second person pronoun, instead of "tú". However "caliche" is considered informal and a small number of people choose not to use it. Nahuatl is an indigenous language that has survived, though it is only used by small communities of some elderly Salvadorans in western El Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery. Religion Main article: Religion in El Salvador There is diversity of religious and ethnic groups in El Salvador. The majority of the population are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics (52.5%); while Protestantism represents 27.6% of the population.[59] Mormonism and Pentecostalism are two of the notable non–Catholic faiths in El Salvador. According to a survey in 2008, 52.6% of El Salvador's residents are Catholic and Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery27.9% are Protestant.[60] Pentecostals and Latter-Day Saints (Mormons). A LDS temple was dedicated August 21 2011 in San Salvador. Other religions (1.4%) are present as well – Islam, Judaism and Jehovah's Witnesses. Eleven percent of the population is not affiliated with any religious group, this includes people who believe in a god, but practice no religion, also atheists and agnostics Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery. For the period 2005–2010, El Salvador had the third lowest birth rate in Central America, with 22.8 births per 1,000. However, during the same period, it has the highest death rate in Central America, 5.9 deaths per 1,000. According to the most recent United Nations survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. Healthy life expectancy was 57 for males and 62 for females in 2003 Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. Main article: Crime in El Salvador In the past few years, El Salvador has experienced high crime rates, including gang-related crimes and juvenile delinquency.[62] Some say that this was a result of the deportation of thousands of Salvadorans from the U.S, the majority of whom were members of MS-13 (Mara Salvatrucha, or La Mara), in the mid-90s. The gangs in which Salvadorans had been involved in the United States began to show up in El Salvador. Sony VAIO PCG-384L batteryToday El Salvador experiences some of the highest murder rates in the world;[64] it is also considered an epicenter of the gang crisis, along with Guatemala and Honduras.[65] In response to this, the government has set up countless programs to try to guide the youth away from gang membership; so far its efforts have not produced any quick results Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. One of the government programs was a gang-reform called "Super Mano Dura" (Super Firm Hand). Super Mano Dura had little success and was highly criticized by the UN. It saw temporary success in 2004 but then saw a rise in crime after 2005. In 2004, the rate of intentional homicides per 100,000 citizens was 41, with 60% of the homicides committed being gang-related. Sony VAIO PCG-382L batteryThe Salvadoran government reported that the Super Mano Dura gang legislation led to a 14% drop in murders in 2004. However, El Salvador had 66 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012, more than triple the rate in Mexico that year. There are an estimated 25,000 gang members at large in El Salvador with another 9,000 in prison. Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery The most well-known gangs, called "maras" in colloquial Spanish, are Mara Salvatrucha and their rivals Calle 18; maras are, or at least were, hunted by death squads including Sombra Negra. New rivals also include the rising mara, The Rebels 13.[69] As of March 2012, El Salvador has seen a 40% drop in crime due to what the Salvadoran government called a gang truce. In early 2012, there were on average of 16 killings per day but in late March that number dropped to fewer than 5 per day and on April 14, 2012 for the first time in over 3 years there were no killings in the country. Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery Overall, there were 411 killings in January 2012, but in March the number was 188, more than a 40% reduction,[71] while crime in neighboring Honduras has risen to an all time high.[72] The iconic statue of Christ on the globe sphere of planet earth is part of the Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo (Monument to the Divine Savior of the world) on Plaza El Salvador del Mundo (The Savior of the World Plaza), a landmark located in the country's capital San Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. It is a symbol that identifies and represents both El Salvador and Salvadorans throughout the world. Mestizo culture dominates the country, heavy in both Native American Indigenous and European Spanish influences. A new composite population was formed as a result of intermarrying between the native Mesoamerican population of Cuzcatlán with the European settlers. The Catholic Church plays an important role in the Salvadoran culture Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery. Archbishop Óscar Romero is a national hero for his role in resisting human rights violations that were occurring in the lead-up to the Salvadoran Civil War.[73] Significant foreign personalities in El Salvador were the Jesuit priests and professors Ignacio Ellacuria, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes, who were murdered in 1989 by the Salvadoran Army during the height of the civil war Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Painting, ceramics and textiles are the principal manual artistic mediums. Writers Francisco Gavidia (1863–1955), Salarrué (Salvador Salazar Arrué) (1899–1975), Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino, Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Manlio Argueta, José Roberto Cea, and poet Roque Dalton are among the most important writers from El Salvador. Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, female film director Patricia Chica, artist Fernando Llort, and caricaturist Toño Salazar. Amongst the more renowned representatives of the graphic arts are the painters Augusto Crespin, Noe Canjura, Carlos Cañas, Julia Díaz, Mauricio Mejia, Maria Elena Palomo de Mejia, Camilo Minero, Ricardo Carbonell, Roberto Huezo, Miguel Angel Cerna, (the painter and writer better known as MACLo), Esael Araujo, and many others. For more information on prominent citizens of El Salvador, check the List of Salvadorans Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. The only airport serving international flights in the country is Comalapa International Airport. This airport is located about 40 km (25 mi) southeast of San Salvador.[74] The airport is commonly known as Comalapa International or El Salvador International. El Salvador's tourism industry has grown dynamically over recent years as the Salvadoran government focuses on developing this sector. In 2006, tourism accounted for 4.6% of GDP; in 1996, it accounted for 0.4%. In this same year Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery, tourism grew 4.5% worldwide. Comparatively, El Salvador saw an increase of 8.97%, from 1.15 million to 1.27 million tourists. This has led to revenue from tourism growing 35.9%, from $634 million to $862 million. In 1996, tourism revenue was only $44.2 million. Also, there has been an even greater increase in the number of excursions (visits that do not include an overnight stay). More than 222,000 excursionists visited El Salvador in 2006, a 24% increase over the previous year. Sony VAIO PCG-7172L batteryEl Salvador has surf tourism, due to large waves from the Pacific Ocean. Most North American and European tourists seek out El Salvador's beaches and nightlife. Besides these two attractions, El Salvador's tourism landscape is slightly different from those of other Central American countries. Because of its geographic size and urbanization, there are not many nature-themed tourist destinations such as ecotours, or archaeological sites Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery, open to the public. Surfing, however, is a natural tourism sector that has gained popularity in recent years as Salvadoran beaches have become increasingly popular. Surfers visit many beaches on the coast of La Libertad and the east end of the country, finding surfing spots that are not yet overcrowded. Also, the use of the United States dollar as Salvadoran currency, Sony VAIO PCG-7162L batteryand direct flights of 4–6 hours from most cities in the United States, are factors for American tourists. Urbanization and Americanization of Salvadoran culture has also led to the abundance of American-style malls, stores, and restaurants in the three main urban areas, especially greater San Salvador Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. Currently, tourists to El Salvador can be classified into four groups: Central Americans; North Americans; Salvadorans living abroad, primarily in the United States; and Europeans and South Americans. The first three represent the vast majority of tourists. Recently, El Salvador has attempted to broaden its tourist base by increasing the number of visitors from Europe and South America. Early indicators show that the government's efforts are working Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery. When comparing January–March 2007 to the same period in 2006, tourism has grown overall 10%, and specifically from North America 38%, Europe 31%, and South America 36%.[76] In the fall, Livingston Airlines will initiate the only direct flight between Europe (departing from Milan) and El Salvador. The Decameron Salinitas, a recently inaugurated resort, has contributed to the growth of tourism by South American visitors because of the resort chain's name recognition, and it is looking to do the same with Europeans Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. Mural in Perquín, former "guerrilla capital" and now a tourist destination. A whole new segment of tourism has grown up around El Salvador's recent turbulent past. Artillery fragments, battle photographs, combat plans, and mountain hideouts have become tourist attractions in themselves. Since 1992, residents in some economically depressed areas have set up local enterprises to profit from these Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The mountain town of Perquín was considered the "guerrilla capital", and today it is home to the "Museum of the Revolution", featuring cannons, uniforms, pieces of Soviet weaponry, and other weapons of war once used by the FMLN's (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) headquarters Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. According to the El Salvadoran newspaper El Diario De Hoy, the top 10 attractions are: the coastal beaches, La Libertad, Ruta Las Flores, Suchitoto, Playa Las Flores in San Miguel, La Palma, Santa Ana (location of the country's highest volcano), Nahuizalco, Apaneca, Juayua, and San Ignacio.[77] Among the numerous volcanic crater lakes in the mountains, Lake Coatepeque and Lake Ilopango are two of the most beautiful Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. Pupusas, the national and most famous dish of El Salvador. One of El Salvador's notable dishes is the pupusa. Pupusas are handmade corn tortillas (made of masa de maíz or masa de arroz, a maize or rice flour dough used in Latin American cuisine) stuffed with one or more of the following: cheese (usually a soft Salvadoran cheese such as quesillo, similar to mozzarella), chicharrón, or refried beans Sony VPCW21M2E/WI battery. Sometimes the filling is queso con loroco (cheese combined with loroco, a vine flower bud native to Central America). Pupusas revueltas are pupusas filled with beans, cheese and pork. There are also vegetarian options. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. The name pupusa comes from the Pipil-Nahuatl word, pupushahua. The precise origins of the pupusa are debated Sony VPCW21C7E battery, although its presence in El Salvador is known to predate the arrival of the Spaniards.[78] Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes con pollo. Yuca frita is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Pan con pollo/pavo (bread with chicken/turkey) are warm turkey or chicken-filled submarine sandwiches Sony VPCW12S1E/WZ battery. The bird is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with tomato and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. One of El Salvador's typical breakfasts is fried plantain, usually served with cream. It is common in Salvadoran restaurants and homes, including those of immigrants to the United States. Alguashte, a condiment made from dried, ground pepitas, is commonly incorporated into savoury and sweet Salvadoran dishes Sony VPCW12S1E/W battery. "Maria Luisa" is a dessert commonly found in El Salvador. It is a layered cake that is soaked in orange marmalade and sprinkled with powdered sugar. A popular drink that Salvadorans enjoy is Horchata, a drink native to the Valencian Community in Spain. Horchata is most commonly made of the morro seed ground into a powder and added to milk or water, and sugar. Horchata is drunk year round, and can be drunk anytime of day. It mostly is accompanied by a plate of pupusas or fried yuca Sony VPCW12S1E/T battery. Horchata from El Salvador has a very distinct taste and is not to be confused with Mexican horchata, which is rice-based. Coffee is also a common morning beverage.[79] Other popular drinks in El Salvador include Ensalada, a drink made of chopped fruit swimming in fruit juice, and Kolachampan, a sugar cane-flavored carbonated beverage. One of the most popular desserts is the cake Pastel de tres leches (Cake of three milks), consisting of three types of milk; evaporated milk, condensed milk, and cream Sony VPCW12S1E/P battery. The public education system in El Salvador is severely lacking in resources. Class sizes in public schools can reach 50 children, so Salvadorans who can afford the cost often choose to send their children to private schools, which are reasonably higher in every level. Most private schools follow American, European or other advanced systems. Lower-income families are forced to rely on public education Sony VPCW11S1E/W battery. Education in El Salvador is free through high school. After nine years of basic education (elementary–middle school), students have the option of a two-year high school or a three-year high school. A two-year high school prepares the student for transfer to a university. A three-year high school allows the student to graduate and enter the workforce in a vocational career, or to transfer to a university to further their education in their chosen field Sony VPCW11S1E/T battery. Post-secondary education varies widely in price. There is one public university: Universidad de El Salvador, UES The University of El Salvador has one main campus in San Salvador and three more campuses in Santa Ana, San Miguel and San Vicente. Havana (/həˈvænə/; Spanish: La Habana, [la aˈβana] ( listen)) is the capital city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba.[2] The city proper has a population of 2.1 million inhabitants,[1][2] and it spans a total of 728.26 km2 (281.18 sq mi) Sony VPCW11S1E/P battery — making it the largest city by area, the most populous city, and the third largest metropolitan area in the Caribbean region.[1][3] The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbours: Marimelena, Guanabacoa and Atarés. The sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. Sony VPCYA1S1E/B batteryHavana was founded by the Spanish in the 16th century and due to its strategic location it served as a springboard for the Spanish conquest of the continent becoming a stopping point for the treasure laden Spanish Galleons on the crossing between the New World and the Old World. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592. Sony VPCYA1V9E/B battery Walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city.[6] The sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana's harbor in 1898 was the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War.[7] Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one: Old Havana, Vedado, and the newer suburban districts Sony VPCY21S1E/SI battery. The city is the center of the Cuban Government, and home to various ministries, headquarters of businesses and over 90 diplomatic offices.[8] The current mayor is Marta Hernández from the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC).[9] In 2009, the city/province had the 3rd highest income in the country.[10] The city attracts over a million tourists annually,[11] the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists, Sony VPCY21S1E/L battery a +20.0% increase from 2005. The historic centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.[12] Moreover, the city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and monuments.[13] The name Habana could be based upon the name of a local Taíno chief Habaguanex. An alternate theory is that Habana is derived from the Middle Dutch word havene, referring to a harbour. Sony VPCY21S1E/G battery17th century depiction of Havana Conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded Havana on August 25, 1515 or 1514, on the southern coast of the island, near the present town of Surgidero de Batabanó, or more likely on the banks of the Mayabeque River close to Playa Mayabeque. All attempts to found a city on Cuba's south coast failed, however an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of this river Sony VPCY11S1E/S battery. Between 1514 and 1519, the city had at least two different establishments on the north coast, one of them in La Chorrera, today in the neighborhood of Puentes Grandes, next to the Almendares River. The final city's location was adjacent to what was then called Puerto de Carenas (literally, "Careening Bay"), in 1519. The quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havana's harbor, warranted this change of location Sony VPCY11S1E battery. Havana was the sixth town founded by the Spanish on the island, called San Cristóbal de la Habana by Pánfilo de Narváez: the name combines San Cristóbal, patron saint of Havana, and Habana, of obscure origin, possibly derived from Habaguanex, a native American chief who controlled that area, as mentioned by Diego Velásquez in his report to the king of Spain Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery. Shortly after the founding of Cuba's first cities, the island served as little more than a base for the Conquista of other lands. Hernán Cortés organized his expedition to Mexico from the island. Havana was originally a trading port, and suffered regular attacks by buccaneers, pirates, and French corsairs. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsair Jacques de Sores in 1555 Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B battery. Such attacks convinced the Spanish Crown to fund the construction of the first fortresses in the main cities — not only to counteract the pirates and corsairs, but also to exert more control over commerce with the West Indies, and to limit the extensive contrabando (black market) that had arisen due to the trade restrictions imposed by the Casa de Contratación of Seville (the crown-controlled trading house that held a monopoly on New World trade) Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery. Ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the city's bay also fueled Havana's agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water, and other products needed to traverse the ocean Sony VPCZ12X9E/X battery. On December 20, 1592, King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City. Later on, the city would be officially designated as "Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies" by the Spanish crown. In the meantime, efforts to build or improve the defensive infrastructures of the city continued Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery. Havana expanded greatly in the 17th century. New buildings were constructed from the most abundant materials of the island, mainly wood, combining various Iberian architectural styles, as well as borrowing profusely from Canarian characteristics. In 1649 a very fatal epidemic brought from Cartagena in Colombia, affected a third of the population of Havana Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery. By the middle of the 18th century Havana had more than seventy thousand inhabitants, and was the third-largest city in the Americas, ranking behind Lima and Mexico City but ahead of Boston and New York.[17] The city was captured by the British during the Seven Years' War. The episode began on June 6, 1762, when at dawn, a British fleet, comprising more than 50 ships and a combined force of over 11,000 men of the Royal Navy and Army Sony VPCZ13M9E/X battery, sailed into Cuban waters and made an amphibious landing east of Havana.[18] The British immediately opened up trade with their North American and Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society. Less than a year after Havana was seized, the Peace of Paris was signed by the three warring powers thus ending the Seven Years' War. The treaty gave Britain Florida in exchange for the city of Havana on the recommendation of the French, Sony VPCZ13V9E battery who advised that declining the offer could result in Spain losing Mexico and much of the South American mainland to the British.[19] After regaining the city, the Spanish transformed Havana into the most heavily fortified city in the Americas. Construction began on what was to become the Fortress of San Carlos de la Cabaña, the third biggest Spanish fortification in the New World after Fort San Cristobal ( The biggest ) and Fort San Felipe del Morro both in San Juan, Puerto Rico. On January 15, 1796 Sony VPCZ13X5003B battery, the remains of Christopher Columbus were transported to the island from Santo Domingo. They rested here until 1898, when they were transferred to Seville's Cathedral, after Spain's loss of Cuba. As trade between Caribbean and North American states increased in the early 19th century, Havana became a flourishing and fashionable city. Havana's theaters featured the most distinguished actors of the age Sony VPCZ13V9E/X battery, and prosperity amongst the burgeoning middle-class led to expensive new classical mansions being erected. During this period Havana became known as the Paris of the Antilles. In 1837, the first railroad was constructed, a 51 km stretch between Havana and Bejucal, which was used for transporting sugar from the valley of Guinness to the harbor. With this, Cuba became the fifth country in the world to have a railroad Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery, and the first Spanish-speaking country. Throughout the century, Havana was enriched by the construction of additional cultural facilities, such as the Tacon Teatre, one of the most luxurious in the world. The fact that slavery was legal in Cuba until 1886 led to Southern American interest, including a plan by the Knights of the Golden Circle to create a 'Golden Circle' with a 1200 mile-radius centered on Havana Sony VPCZ21M9E battery. After the Confederate States of America were defeated in the American Civil War in 1865, many former slaveholders continued to run plantations by moving to Havana. In 1863, the city walls were knocked down so that the metropolis could be enlarged. At the end of the 19th century, Havana witnessed the final moments of Spanish colonialism in the Americas. Republican period and Post-revolution Sony VPCZ21Q9E batteryMS St. Louis with Jewish refugees entering Havana in 1939 The 20th century began with Havana, and therefore Cuba, the city of chickens es]].[20] The US occupation officially ended when Tomás Estrada Palma, first president of Cuba, took office on 20 May 1902. During the chicken Period, from 1902 to 1959, the city saw a new era of development. Cuba recovered from the devastation of war to become a well-off country, with the third largest middle class in the hemisphere Sony VPCZ21V9E battery. Apartment buildings to accommodate the new middle class, as well as mansions for the Cuban tycoons, were built at a fast pace. Numerous luxury hotels, casinos and nightclubs were constructed during the 1930s to serve Havana's burgeoning tourist industry. In the 1930s, organized crime characters were not unaware of Havana's nightclub and casino life, and they made their inroads in the city Sony VPCEH3T9E battery. Santo Trafficante, Jr. took the roulette wheel at the Sans Souci Casino, Meyer Lansky directed the Hotel Habana Riviera, with Lucky Luciano at the Hotel Nacional Casino. At the time, Havana became an exotic capital of appeal and numerous activities ranging from marinas, grand prix car racing, musical shows and parks Sony VPCEH3N6E battery. Havana achieved the title of being the Latin American city with the biggest middle class population per-capita, simultaneously accompanied by gambling and corruption where gangsters and stars were known to mix socially. During this era, Havana was generally producing more revenue than Las Vegas, Nevada. In 1958, about 300,000 American tourists visited the city Sony VPCEH3N1E battery. After the revolution of 1959, the new regime promised to improve social services, public housing, and official buildings; nevertheless, shortages that affected Cuba after Castro's abrupt expropriation of all private property and industry under a strong communist model backed by the Soviet Union followed by the U.S. embargo, hit Havana especially hard Sony VPCEH3D0E battery. By 1966-68, the Cuban government had nationalized all privately owned business entities in Cuba, down to "certain kinds of small retail forms of commerce" (law No. 1076[21]). There was a severe economic downturn after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. With it, subsidies ended, losing billions of dollars which the Soviet Union gave the Cuban government, with many believing Havana's Soviet-backed regime would soon vanish Sony VPCEH3B1E battery, as happened to the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe. However, contrary to the Soviet satellite states of Eastern Europe, Havana's communist regime prevailed during the 1990s. After many years of prohibition, the communist government increasingly turned to tourism for new financial revenue, and has allowed foreign investors to build new hotels and develop hospitality industry. Sony VPCEH2Z1E battery In Old Havana, effort has also gone into rebuilding for tourist purposes, and a number of streets and squares have been rehabilitated.[22] But Old Havana is a large city, and the restoration efforts concentrate in all but less than 10% of its area. Havana lies on the northern coast of Cuba, south of the Florida Keys, where the Gulf of Mexico joins the Caribbean Sony VPCEH2S9E battery. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbours: Marimelena, Guanabacoa, and Atarés. The sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. The low hills on which the city lies rise gently from the deep blue waters of the straits. A noteworthy elevation is the 200-foot-high (60-metre) Sony VPCEH2Q1E battery limestone ridge that slopes up from the east and culminates in the heights of La Cabaña and El Morro, the sites of colonial fortifications overlooking the eastern bay. Another notable rise is the hill to the west that is occupied by the University of Havana and the Prince's Castle. Outside the city, higher hills rise on the west and east. Havana, like much of Cuba, enjoys a year-round tropical climate that is tempered by the island's position in the belt of the trade winds and by the warm offshore currents. Under the Köppen climate classification, Havana has a tropical savanna climate Sony VPCEH2P0E battery. Average temperatures range from 72 °F (22 °C) in January and February to 82 °F (28 °C) in August. The temperature seldom drops below 50 °F (10 °C). The lowest temperature was 33 °F (1 °C) in Santiago de Las Vegas, Boyeros. The lowest recorded temperature in Cuba was 32 °F (0 °C) in Bainoa, Havana province. Rainfall is heaviest in June and October and lightest from December through April, averaging 46 inches (1,200 mm) annually. Hurricanes occasionally strike the island Sony VPCEH2N1E battery, but they ordinarily hit the south coast, and damage in Havana has been less than elsewhere in the country. Centro Habana is the most densely populated borough Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one: Old Havana, Vedado, and the newer suburban districts. Old Havana, with its narrow streets and overhanging balconies, is the traditional centre of part of Havana's commerce, industry, and entertainment, as well as being a residential area Sony VPCEH2M9E battery. To the north and west a newer section, centred on the uptown area known as Vedado, has become the rival of Old Havana for commercial activity and nightlife. Centro Habana, sometimes described as part of Vedado, is mainly a shopping district that lies between Vedado and Old Havana. The Capitolio Nacional building marks the beginning of Centro Habana, a working-class neighborhood. Sony VPCEH2M1E battery Chinatown and the Real Fabrica de Tabacos Partagás, one of Cuba's oldest cigar factories is located in the area.[26] A third Havana is that of the more affluent residential and industrial districts that spread out mostly to the west. Among these is Marianao, one of the newer parts of the city, dating mainly from the 1920s. Some of the suburban exclusivity was lost after the revolution Sony VPCEH2L9E battery, many of the suburban homes having been nationalized by the Cuban government to serve as schools, hospitals, and government offices. Several private country clubs were converted to public recreational centres. Miramar, located west of Vedado along the coast, remains Havana's exclusive area; mansions, foreign embassies, diplomatic residences, upscale shops, and facilities for wealthy foreigners are common in the area.[27] The International School of Havana is located in the Miramar neighborhood Sony VPCEH2J1E battery. In the 1980s many parts of Old Havana, including the Plaza de Armas, became part of a projected 35-year multimillion-dollar restoration project, for Cubans to appreciate their past and boost tourism. In the past ten years, with the assistance of foreign aid and under the support of local city historian Eusebio Leal Spengler, large parts of Habana Vieja have been renovated. Sony VPCEH2H1E battery The city is moving forward with their renovations, with most of the major plazas (Plaza Vieja, Plaza de la Catedral, Plaza de San Francisco and Plaza de Armas) and major tourist streets (Obispo and Mercaderes) near completion. [edit]Districts The city is divided into 15 municipalities[28] – or boroughs, which are further subdivided into 105 wards[29] (consejos populares). (Numbers refer to map) Sony VPCEH2F1E battery. Playa: Santa Fé, Siboney, Cubanacán, Ampliación Almendares, Miramar, Sierra, Ceiba, Buena Vista. Plaza de la Revolución : El Carmelo, Vedado-Malecón, Rampa, Príncipe, Plaza, Nuevo Vedado-Puentes Grandes, Colón-Nuevo Vedado, Vedado. Centro Habana: Cayo Hueso, Pueblo Nuevo, Los Sitios, Dragones, Colon. La Habana Vieja : Prado, Catedral, Plaza Vieja, Belén, San Isidro, Jesús Maria, Tallapiedra. Regla : Guacanimar, Loma Modelo, Casablanca. La Habana del Este : Camilo Cienfuegos, Cojimar, Guiteras, Alturas de Alamar, Alamar-Este, Guanabo, Campo Florido, Alamar-Playa. Sony VPCEH2E0E batteryGuanabacoa : Mañana-Habana Nueva, Villa I, Villa II, Chivas-Roble, Debeche-Nalon, Hata-Naranjo, Peñalver-Bacuranao, Minas-Barreras. San Miguel del Padrón: Rocafort, Luyanó Moderno, Diezmero, San Francisco de Paula, Dolores-Veracruz, Jacomino. Diez de Octubre : Luyanó, Jesús del Monte, Lawton, Vista Alegre, Acosta, Sevillano, Vibora, Santos Suárez, Tamarindo Sony VPCEH2D0E battery. Cerro: Latinoamericano, Pilar-Atares, Cerro, Las Cañas, El Canal, Palatino, Armada. Marianao : CAI-Los Ángeles, Pocito-Palmas, Zamora-Cocosolo, Libertad, Pogoloti-Belén-Finlay, Sta Felicia. La Lisa : Alturas de La Lisa, Balcón Arimao, Cano-Bello26-Valle Grande, Punta Brava, Arroyo Arenas, San Agustín, Versalles Coronela. Boyeros: Santiago de Las Vegas, Nuevo Santiago, Boyeros, Wajay, Calabazar, Altahabana-Capdevila, Armada-Aldabo Sony VPCEH2C0E battery. Arroyo Naranjo: Los Pinos, Poey, Víbora Park, Mantilla, Párraga, Calvario-Fraternidad, Guinera, Eléctrico, Managua, Callejas. El Cotorro: San Pedro-Centro Cotorro, Santa Maria del Rosario, Lotería, Cuatro Caminos, Magdalena-Torriente, Alberro. The Focsa residential skyscraper Due to Havana's almost five hundred year existence, the city boasts some of the most diverse styles of architecture in the world, from castles built in the late 16th century to modernist present-day high-rises Sony VPCEH1M1E battery. Neoclassical Neoclassism was introduced into the city in the 1840s, at the time including Gas public lighting in 1848 and the railroad in 1837. In the second half of the 18th century, sugar and coffee production increased rapidly, which became essential in the development of Havana's most prominent architectural style. Many wealthy Habaneros took their inspiration from the French Sony VPCEH1L9E battery; this can be seen within the interiors of upper class houses such as the Aldama Palace built in 1844. This is considered the most important neoclassical residential building in Cuba and typifies the design of many houses of this period with portales of neoclassical columns facing open spaces or courtyards. In 1925 Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, the head of urban planning in Paris moved to Havana for five years to collaborate with architects and landscape designers Sony VPCEH1L8E battery. In the master planning of the city his aim was to create a harmonic balance between the classical built form and the tropical landscape. He embraced and connected the city's road networks while accentuating prominent landmarks. His influence has left a huge mark on Havana although many of his ideas were cut short by the great depression in 1929 Sony VPCEH1L0E battery. During the first decades of the 20th century Havana expanded more rapidly than at any time during its history. Great wealth prompted architectural styles to be influenced from abroad. The peak of Neoclassicism came with the construction of the Vedado district (begun in 1859). This whole neighbourhood is littered with set back well-proportioned buildings Sony VPCEH1J8E battery. Colonial and Baroque Riches were brought from the colonialists into and through Havana as it was a key transshipment point between the new world and old world. As a result Havana was the most heavily fortified city in the Americas. Most examples of early architecture can be seen in military fortifications such as La Fortaleza de San Carlos de la Cabana (1558–1577) designed by Battista Antonelli and the Castillo del Morro (1589–1630) Sony VPCEH1J1E battery. This sits at the entrance of Havana Bay and provides an insight into the supremacy and wealth at that time. Old Havana was also protected by a defensive wall begun in 1674 but had already overgrown its boundaries when it was completed in 1767, becoming the new neighbourhood of Centro Habana. The influence from different styles and cultures can be seen in Havana's colonial architecture, with a diverse range of Moorish architecture, Spanish Sony VPCEH1E1E battery, Italian, Greek and Roman. The San Carlos and San Ambrosio Seminary (18th century) is a good example of early Spanish influenced architecture. The Havana cathedral (1748–1777) dominating the Plaza de la Catedral (1749) is the best example of Cuban Baroque. Surrounding it are the former palaces of the Count de Casa-Bayona (1720–1746) Marquis de Arcos (1746) and the Marquis de Aguas Claras (1751–1775) Sony VPCEH1AJ battery. Art Deco and Eclectic The first echoes of the Art Deco movement in Havana started in 1927, in the residential area of Miramar.[30] The Edificio Bacardi (1930) is thought to be the best example of Art-deco architecture in the city and first tall Art Deco building as well,[30] followed by the Hotel Nacional de Cuba (1930) and The Lopez Serrano building built in 1932 by Ricardo Mira inspired by the Rockefeller Center in New York Sony VPCCA2S1E battery. The year 1928 marked the beginning of the reaction against the Spanish Renaissance style architecture, Art Deco started in the lush and wealthy suburbs of Miramar, Marianao, and Vedado.[30] The city's eclectic architectural sights begins in Centro Habana.[31] The Central Railway Terminal (1912), and the Museum of the Revolution (1920) are example of Eclectic architecture Sony VPCCA2S0E battery. Modernism Many high-rise office buildings, and apartment complexes, along with some hotels built in the 1950s dramatically altered the skyline. Modernism, therefore, transformed much of the city and should be noted for its individual buildings of high quality rather than its larger key buildings. Examples of the latter are Habana Libre (1958), which before the revolution was the Havana Hilton Hotel and La Rampa movie theater (1955) Sony VPCCA2AJ battery. Famous architects such as Walter Gropius, Richard Neutra and Oscar Niemeyer all passed through the city,[32] while strong influences can be seen in Havana at this time from Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[33] The Edificio Focsa (1956) represents Havana's economic dominance at the time. This 35-story complex was conceived and based on Corbusian ideas Sony VPCCA1S1E/W battery of a self-contained city within a city. It contained 400 apartments, garages, a school, a supermarket, and restaurant on the top floor. This was the tallest concrete structure in the world at the time (using no steel frame) and the ultimate symbol of luxury and excess. The Havana Riviera Hotel (1957) designed by Irving Feldman, a twenty-one-story edifice, when it opened, the Riviera was the largest purpose-built casino-hotel in Cuba or anywhere in the world, outside Las Vegas (the Havana Hilton (1958) surpassed its size a year later) Sony VPCCA1S1E/P battery. Landmarks and historical centres Habana Vieja: contains the core of the original city of Havana. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Piazza (or main square) in central Havana in 1762 The Lighthouse and the Castle of Tres Reyes del Morro, has become a symbols of Havana. Plaza Vieja: a plaza in Old Havana, it was the site of executions, processions, bullfights, and fiestas Sony VPCCA1S1E/G battery. Fortress San Carlos de la Cabaña, a fortress located on the east side of the Havana bay, La Cabaña is the most impressive fortress from colonial times, particularly its walls constructed at the end of the 18th century. El Capitolio Nacional: built in 1929 as the Senate and House of Representatives, the colossal building is recognizable by its dome which dominates the city's skyline. Inside stands the third largest indoor statue in the world, La Estatua de la República Sony VPCCA1S1E/D battery. Nowadays, the Cuban Academy of Sciences headquarters and the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (the National Museum of Natural History) has its venue within the building and contains the largest natural history collection in the country. El Morro Castle: is a fortress guarding the entrance to Havana bay; Morro Castle was built because of the threat to the harbor from pirates Sony VPCCA1S1E/B battery. Fortress San Salvador de la Punta: a small fortress built in the 16th century, at the western entry point to the Havana harbour, it played a crucial role in the defence of Havana during the initial centuries of colonisation. It houses some twenty old guns and military antiques. Christ of Havana: Havana's 20-meter (66 ft) marble statue of Christ (1958) blesses the city from the east hillside of the bay, much like the famous Cristo Redentor in Rio de Janeiro Sony VPCCA1S1E battery. The Great Theatre of Havana: is an opera house famous particularly for the National Ballet of Cuba, it sometimes hosts performances by the National Opera. The theater is also known as concert hall, García Lorca, the biggest in Cuba. The Malecon/Sea wall: is the avenue that runs along the north coast of the city, beside the seawall. The Malecón is the most popular avenue of Havana, it is known for its sunsets Sony VPCCA1C5E battery. Hotel Nacional de Cuba: an Art Deco National Hotel famous in the 1950s as a gambling and entertainment complex. Museo de la Revolución: located in the former Presidential Palace, with the yacht Granma on display behind the museum. Necrópolis Cristóbal Colón: a cemetery and open air museum,[34] it is one of the most famous cemeteries in Latin America Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery, known for its beauty and magnificence. The cemetery was built in 1876 and has nearly one million tombs. Some gravestones are decorated with sculpture by Ramos Blancos, among others. Havana, by far the leading cultural centre of the country, offers a wide variety of features that range from museums, palaces, public squares, avenues, churches Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery, fortresses (including the largest fortified complex in the Americas dating from the 16th through 18th centuries), ballet and from art and musical festivals to exhibitions of technology. The restoration of Old Havana offered a number of new attractions, including a museum to house relics of the Cuban revolution. The government placed special emphasis on cultural activities, many of which are free or involve only a minimal charge Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. Old Havana, (La Habana Vieja in Spanish), contains the core of the original city of Havana, with more than 2,000 hectares it exhibits almost all the Western architectural styles seen in the New World. La Habana Vieja was founded by the Spanish in 1519 in the natural harbor of the Bay of Havana. It became a stopping point for the treasure laden Spanish Galleons on the crossing between the New World and the Old World Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. In the 17th century it was one of the main shipbuilding centers. The city was built in baroque and neoclassic style. Many buildings have fallen in ruin but a number are being restored. The narrow streets of old Havana contain many buildings, accounting for perhaps as many as one-third of the approximately 3,000 buildings found in Old Havana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C batteryOld Havana is the ancient city formed from the port, the official center and the Plaza de Armas. Alejo Carpentier called Old Havana the place "de las columnas" (of the columns). The Cuban government is taking many steps to preserve and to restore Old Havana, through the Office of the city historian, directed by Eusebio Leal.[36] Old Havana and its fortifications were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Further information: Chinese Cuban The city's Chinatown (Barrio Chino), once Latin America's largest and most vibrant Chinatown incorporated into the city by the early part of the 20th century when hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers were brought in by Spanish settlers from Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong, and Macau via Manila, Philippines[41] starting in the mid-19th century and the following decades to replace and / or work alongside African slaves. Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery After completing 8-year contracts, many Chinese immigrants settled permanently in Havana. The first 206 Chinese-born arrived in Havana on June 3, 1847.[43] The Chinatown neighborhood was booming with Chinese restaurants, laundries, banks, pharmacies, theaters and several Chinese-language newspapers, the neighborhood comprised 44 square blocks during its prime. The heart of Havana's Chinatown is on el Cuchillo de Zanja (or The Zanja Canal) Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The strip is a pedestrian-only street adorned with many red lanterns, dancing red paper dragons and other Chinese cultural designs, there is a great number of restaurants that serve a full spectrum of Chinese dishes – unfortunately that 'spectrum' is said by many not to be related to real Chinese cuisine. The Chinatown district has two paifang, a large one located on Calle Dragones, the People's Republic of China donated the materials in the late 1990s, Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery it has a well defined written welcoming sign in Chinese and Spanish. The smaller arch is located on Zanja strip. The Cuban's Chinese boom ended when Fidel Castro's 1959 revolution seized private businesses, sending tens of thousands of business-minded Chinese fleeing, mainly to the United States. Descendants are now making efforts to preserve and revive the culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. The National Museum of Fine Arts (Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes) is a Fine Arts museum that exhibits Cuban and International art collections. The museum houses one of the largest collections of paintings and sculpture from Latin America and is the largest in the Caribbean region.[45] Under the Cuban Ministry of Culture Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery, it occupies two locations in the vicinity of Havana's Paseo del Prado, these are the Palace of Fine Arts, devoted to Cuban art and the Palace of the Asturian Center, dedicated to universal art.[46] Its artistic heritage is made up of over 45,000 pieces.[47] The Museum of the Revolution (Museo de la Revolución), designed in Havana by Cuban architect Carlos Maruri, and the Belgian Paul Belau, who came up with an eclectic design Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery, harmoniously combines Spanish, French and German architectural elements. The museum was the Presidential Palace in the capital; today, its displays and documents outline Cuba's history from the beginning of the neo-colonial period. The neo-classical mansion of the Countess of Revilla de Camargo, today it is the Museum of Decorative Arts (Museo de Artes Decorativas), known as the "small French Palace of Havana" built between 1924 and 1927 Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery, it was designed in Paris inspired in French Renaissance.[48] The museum has been exhibiting more than 33,000 works dating from the reigns of Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Napoleon III; as well as 16th to 20th century Oriental pieces, among many other treasures.[49] The Museum has ten permanent exhibit halls. Among them are prominent porcelain articles from the factories in Sèvres and Chantilly, France; Meissen, Germany; and Wedgwood, England Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery, as well as Chinese from the Qianlong Emperor period and Japanese from the Imari. The furniture comes from Stéphane Boudin, Jean Henri Riesener and several others. Several museums in Old Havana houses furniture, silverware, pottery, glass and other items from the colonial period. One of these is the Palacio de los Capitanes Generales, where Spanish governors once lived. The Casa de Africa presents another aspect of Cuba's history, it houses a large collection of Afro-Cuban religious artifacts Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Other museums in the city include Casa de los Árabes (House of Arabs) and the Casa de Asia (House of Asia) with Middle and Far Eastern collections. Havana's Museo del Automobil has an impressive collection of vehicles dating back to a 1905 Cadillac. While most museums of Havana are situated in Old Havana, few of them can also be found in Vedado. In total, Havana has around 50 museums, including the National Museum of Music Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery; the Museum of Dance and Rum; the Cigar Museum; the Napoleonic, Colonial and Oricha Museums; the Museum of Anthropology; the Ernest Hemingway Museum; the José Martí Monument; the Aircraft Museum (Museo del Aire). There are also museums of Natural Sciences, the City, Archeology, Gold-and-Silverwork, Perfume, Pharmaceuticals, Sports, Numismatics, and Weapons Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. Facing Havana's Central Park is the baroque Great Theatre of Havana, a prominent theatre built in 1837.[50] It is now home of the National Ballet of Cuba and the International Ballet Festival of Havana, one of the oldest in the New World. The façade of the building is adorned with a stone and marble statue. There are also sculptural pieces by Giuseppe Moretti, (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery) representing allegories depicting benevolence, education, music and theatre. The principal theatre is the García Lorca Auditorium, with seats for 1,500 and balconies. Glories of its rich history; the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso sang, the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova danced, and the French Sarah Bernhardt acted. Other important theatres in the city includes the National Theater of Cuba, housed in a huge modern building located in Plaza de la Revolucion (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery), decorated with works by Cuban artists. The National Theater includes two main theatre stages, the Avellaneda Auditorium and the Covarrubias Auditorium, as well as a smaller theatre workshop space on the ninth floor. The Karl Marx Theater with its large auditorium have a seating capacity of 5,500 spectators, is generally used for concerts and other events, it is also one of the venues for the annual Havana Film Festival (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery).
Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles. It is 34 kilometres (21 mi) in length and up to 23 kilometres (14 mi) in width, covering an area of 431 square kilometres (166 sq mi). It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic and 100 kilometres (62 mi) east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; ( Dell D6400 battery)therein, it is about 168 kilometres (104 mi) east of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) north-east of Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Barbados was initially visited by the Spanish around the late 1400s to early 1500s and first appears on a Spanish map from 1511.[6] The Spanish explorers may have plundered the island of whatever native peoples resided therein to become slaves. ( Dell HF674 battery) The Portuguese visited in 1536, but they too left it unclaimed, with their only remnants being an introduction of wild hogs for a good supply of meat whenever the island was visited. The first English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1624. They took possession of it in the name of the British king James I. Two years later in 1627 the first permanent settlers arrived from England and it became an English and later British colony. ( Dell N3010 battery) Barbados has an estimated population of 284,000 people,[8] with around 80,000 living in or around Bridgetown, the largest city and the country's capital.[9] In 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State.[10] Barbados is one of the Caribbean's leading tourist destinations and is one of the most developed islands in the region, with an HDI number of 0.788( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery). In 2011 Barbados ranked 2nd in The Americas (16th globally) on Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index[11] Etymology According to accounts by descendants of the indigenous Arawakan-speaking tribes in other regional areas, the original name for Barbados was Ichirouganaim, with possible translations including "Red Land with White Teeth",[12] "Redstone island with teeth outside (reefs)",[13] or simply "Teeth"( Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery). The reason for the later name Barbados is controversial. According to some sources the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, while others say it was the Spanish which gave the Spanish name "Los Barbudos". The word Barbados means "bearded ones", but it is a matter of conjecture whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the bearded fig-tree (Ficus citrifolia), indigenous to the island( Dell Inspiron 1200 battery); to allegedly bearded Caribs once inhabiting the island; or, more fancifully, to the foam spraying over the outlying reefs giving the impression of a beard. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position. Furthermore, an island in the Leewards which is very close in name to Barbados is Barbuda and was once named Las Barbuadas by the Spanish( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery). Other names or nicknames associated with Barbados include "Bim" and "Bimshire". The origin is uncertain but several theories exist. The National Cultural Foundation of Barbados says that "Bim" was a word commonly used by slaves and that it derives from the phrase "bi mu" or either ("bem", "Ndi bem", "Nwanyi ibem" or "Nwoke ibem")( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery) from an Igbo phrase meaning "my people". In colloquial or literary contexts, "Bim" can also take a more deific tone, referring to the "goddess" Barbados. The word Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary and Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionaries. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, The Rev. N. Greenidge ( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery) (father of one of the island's most famous scholars, Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire".[19] Lastly in the Daily Argosy (of Demerara, i.e. Guyana) of 1652 it referred to Bim as a possible corruption of the word "Byam", who was a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims and became a word for all Barbadians. ( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery) Main articles: History of Barbados and Timeline of Barbadian history The Barbadoes mulatto girl, c. 1764 Amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th century AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid.[20] In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America.[21] The Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries, and may have seized the Arawaks on Barbados and used them as slave labour. ( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery) Other Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands. Apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese left little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from Guyana in the 1800s and continue to live in Barbados. From the arrival of the first English settlers in 1627–1628 until independence in 1966, Barbados was under uninterrupted British governance ( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery) (and was the only Caribbean island that did not change hands during the colonial period). In the very early years, the majority of the population was white and male, with African slaves providing little of the workforce. Cultivation of tobacco, cotton, ginger and indigo was handled primarily by European indentured labour until the start of the sugar cane industry in the 1640s( Dell inspiron 1525 battery). As Barbados' economy grew, Barbados developed a large measure of local autonomy through its founding as a proprietary colony. Its House of Assembly began meeting in 1639. Among the initial important figures was Anglo-Dutchman Sir William Courten. The 1780 hurricane killed over 4,000 people. In addition, a cholera epidemic killed over 20,000 people in 1854. ( Dell inspiron 1526 battery) At emancipation in the late 1830s, the size of the slave population was approximately 83,000. Between 1946 and 1980, Barbados' rate of population growth was diminished by one-third because of emigration to Britain.[25] Government and politics Main articles: Government of Barbados and Politics of Barbados Barbados has been an independent country since 30 November 1966. It functions as a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery), modelled on the British Westminster system, with Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, as head of state, represented locally by the Governor-General, Elliott Belgrave, and the Prime Minister as the head of the government. The number of representatives within the House of Assembly has gradually increased from 24 at independence to its present composition of 30 seats( Dell Inspiron 2000 battery). During the 1990s, at the suggestion of Trinidad and Tobago's Patrick Manning, Barbados attempted a political union with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The project stalled after the then Prime Minister of Barbados Lloyd Erskine Sandiford became ill and his party (the Democratic Labour Party) lost the next general election. ( Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery) Barbados continues to share close ties with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, claiming the highest number of Guyanese immigrants after the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. Barbados functions as a two-party system, the two dominant parties being the ruling Democratic Labour Party and the opposition, Barbados Labour Party. Until 2003, each party had served two terms in office alternately. ( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery) The election of 2003 gave the BLP a third term victory, at which time the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) achieved being in government for 14 years, (1994 until the 2008 elections). Under that administration, the former Prime Minister, The Right Honourable Owen S. Arthur acted as the Regional Leader of the CSM (Caribbean Single Market). The Honourable David Thompson, who was elected Prime Minister of Barbados in 2008, died of pancreatic cancer on 23 October 2010. He was succeeded by Deputy Prime Minister Freundel Stuart, who was sworn in the same day. ( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery) Barbados has had several third parties over a period of time since independence: The People's Pressure Movement formed in the early 1970s and contested the 1976 elections; The National Democratic Party, which contested the 1994 elections; and the People's Democratic Congress, which contested the 2008 elections. Apart from these there were several independents who contested the elections, but independents are yet to win a seat in Parliament( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery). The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the nation.[31] The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary. Historically, Barbadian law was based entirely on English common law with a few local adaptations. At the time of independence, the British Parliament ceased having the ability to change local legislation at its own discretion. British law and various legal statutes within British law at this time( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery), and other prior measures adopted by the Barbadian Parliament, became the basis of the modern-day law system. More recently, however, local Barbadian legislation may be shaped or influenced by such organisations as the United Nations, the Organization of American States, or other international fora to which Barbados has obligatory commitments by treaty( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery). Additionally, through international cooperation, other institutions may supply the Barbados Parliament with key sample legislation to be adapted to meet local circumstances before crafting it as local law. Laws are passed by the Barbadian Parliament, whereby upon their passage, are given official royal assent by the Governor-General to become law. In Barbados, camouflage clothing is reserved for military use and forbidden for civilians to wear, including children( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery). Barbados is outlined as one of the nations where the International Press Instutute would like to see the removal of libel from the criminal court.[32] Main article: Judiciary of Barbados The local court system of Barbados is made-up of: Magistrates' Courts: Covering Criminal, Civil, Domestic, Domestic Violence, and Juvenile matters. But can also take up matters dealing with Coroner's Inquests, Liquor Licences, and civil marriages. Further, the Magistrates' Courts deal with Contract and Tort law where claims do not exceed $10,000.00( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery). The Supreme Court: is made up of High Court and Court of Appeals. High Court: Consisting of Civil, Criminal, and Family law divisions. Court of Appeal: Handles appeals from the High Court and Magistrates' Court. It hears appeals in both the civil, and criminal law jurisdictions. It may consist of a single Justice of Appeal sitting in Chambers; or may sit as a Full Court of three Justices of Appeals. The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), (based in Port Of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago), is the court of last resort (final jurisdiction) over Barbadian law( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery). It replaced the London-based Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC). The CCJ may resolve other disputed matters dealing with the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy (CSME). Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Barbados Barbados is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) ( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery), and the Association of Caribbean States (ACS).[34] Organization of American States (OAS), Commonwealth of Nations, and the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which currently pertains only to Barbados, Belize and Guyana. In 2001 the Caribbean Community heads of government voted on a measure declaring that the region should work towards replacing the UK's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery). Barbados is an original Member (1995) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and participates actively in its work. It grants at least MFN treatment to all its trading partners. As of December 2007, Barbados is linked by an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Commission. The pact involves the Caribbean Forum (CARIFORUM) subgroup of the Group of African( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery), Caribbean, and Pacific states (ACP). CARIFORUM presently the only part of the wider ACP-bloc that has concluded the full regional trade-pact with the European Union. Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognising that most domestic needs are best met by imports. The Barbados Defence Force has roughly 600 members; within it, 12-to-18-year-old youngsters make up the Barbados Cadet Corps. The defence preparations of the island nation are closely tied to defence treaties with the United Kingdom, the United States, and the People's Republic of China. ( Dell Inspiron 710m battery) Beach near Bridgetown Barbados is the easternmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It is flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west, the Windward Islands. The island rises gently to the central highland region, with the highpoint of the nation being Mount Hillaby, in the geological Scotland District, 340 metres (1,120 ft) above sea level. The island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies Islands( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). In the parish of Saint Michael lies Barbados' capital and main city, Bridgetown. Other major towns scattered across the island include Holetown, in the parish of Saint James; Oistins, in the parish of Christ Church; and Speightstown, in the parish of Saint Peter. Barbados lies on the boundary of the South American and the Caribbean Plates.[36] The shift of the South American plate beneath the Caribbean plate scrapes sediment from the South American plate and deposits it above the subduction zone forming an accretionary prism( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery). The rate of this depositing of material allows Barbados to rise at a rate of about 25 millimetres (0.98 in) per 1,000 years.[37] This subduction means geologically the island is composed of coral roughly (90 m/300 ft thick), where reefs formed above the sediment. The land slopes in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. A large proportion of the island is circled by coral reefs( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery). The erosion of limestone rock in the North East of the island, in the Scotland District, has resulted in the formation of various caves and gullys, some of which have become popular tourist attractions such as Harrison's Cave and Welchman Hall Gully. On the Atlantic East coast of the island coastal landforms, including stacks, have been created due to the limestone composition of the area( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery). Bathsheba on the east coast of the island The country generally experiences two seasons, one of which includes noticeably higher rainfall. Known as the "wet season", this period runs from June to November. By contrast, the "dry season" runs from December to May. The annual precipitation ranges between 40 inches (1,000 mm) and 90 inches (2,300 mm). From December to May the average temperatures range from 21 to 31 °C (70 to 88 °F), while between June and November, they range from 23 to 31 °C (73 to 88 °F). ( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery) On the Köppen climate classification scale, much of Barbados is regarded as a Tropical monsoon climate (Am). However, gentle breezes of 12–16 kilometres per hour (8–10 mph) abound throughout the year and give Barbados a warm climate which is moderately tropical. Infrequent natural hazards include earthquakes, landslips, and hurricanes. Barbados is often spared the worst effects of the region's tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery). The far eastern location in the Atlantic Ocean puts the country just outside the principal hurricane strike zone. On average, a major hurricane strikes about once every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955, and more recently in 2010 the island was struck by Hurricane Tomas, but this only caused minor damage across the country( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery). Environmental issues The island is susceptible to environmental pressures. As one of the world's most densely populated isles, the government worked during the 1990s[40] to aggressively integrate the growing south coast of the island into the Bridgetown Sewage Treatment Plant to reduce contamination of offshore coral reefs.[41][42] As of the 2000s, a second treatment plant has been proposed along the islands' west coast( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery). With such a dense populace, Barbados has placed large efforts on protecting its underground aquifers. As a coral-limestone island, Barbados is highly permeable to seepage of surface water into the earth. As such, a major emphasis by the government has been placed on protecting the catchment areas (in specific surface areas known as buffer zones) that lead directly into the huge network of underground aquifers and streams. ( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery)On occasion illegal squatters have breached these areas, and the government has removed squatters in order to preserve the cleanliness of the underground springs for islands drinking water.[44] The government has placed a huge emphasis on keeping Barbados clean with the aim of protecting the environment and preserving offshore coral reefs which surround the island( Dell Latitude D400 battery). Many initiatives to mitigate human pressures on the coastal regions of Barbados and seas is the Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU).[45] Barbados has nearly 90 km of coral reefs just offshore and two protected marine parks have been established off the west coast.[46] Overfishing is another threat which faces Barbados( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery). Barbados is host to four species of nesting turtles (green turtles, loggerheads, and leatherbacks) and has the second largest hawksbill turtle breeding population in the Caribbean.[48] The driving of vehicles on beaches can crush nests buried in the sand and such activity should be avoided in nesting areas( Dell Vostro 1400 battery). Though on the opposite side of the Atlantic, and some 3000 miles west of Africa, Barbados is one of many places in the American continent which experiences heightened levels of mineral dust from the Sahara Desert.[50] Some particularly intense dust episodes have been blamed partly for the impacts on the health of coral reefs surrounding Barbados or asthmatic episodes,[52] but evidence has not wholly supported the former such claim( Dell Vostro 1500 battery). Administrative divisions Graphical depiction of the national product exports in 28 color coded categories. Barbados is the 51st richest country in the world in terms of GDP (Gross domestic product) per capita,[2] has a well-developed mixed economy, and a moderately high standard of living. According to the World Bank, Barbados is classified as being in its 66 top High income economies of the world. ( Dell XPS M1210 battery) A 2012 self-study in conjunction with the Caribbean Development Bank revealed 20% of Barbadians live in poverty, and nearly 10% cannot meet their basic daily food needs.[55] Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but in the late 1970s and early 1980s it has diversified into the manufacturing and tourism sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners( Dell XPS M1330 battery), and there is a healthy light manufacturing sector. Since the 1990s the Barbados Government has been seen as business-friendly and economically sound.[citation needed] The island has seen a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes. Recent government administrations have continued efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage foreign direct investment, and privatise remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment has been reduced to 10.7 in 2003( Dell XPS 1340 battery). The economy contracted in 2001 and 2002 due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the 11 September 2001 attacks, but rebounded in 2003 and has shown growth since 2004.[1] Traditional trading partners include Canada, the Caribbean Community (especially Trinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom and the United States( Dell XPS M1530 battery). Business links and investment flows have become substantial: as of 2003 the island saw from Canada CA$ 25 billion in investment holdings, placing it as one of Canada's top five destinations for Canadian foreign direct investment (FDI). Businessman Eugene Melnyk of Toronto, Canada, is said to be Barbados' richest permanent resident. ( Dell XPS M170 battery) It has been reported that the year 2006 would have been one of the busiest years for building construction ever in Barbados, as the building-boom on the island entered the final stages for several multi-million dollar commercial projects.[56] The European Union is presently assisting Barbados with a €10 million programme of modernisation of the country's International Business and Financial Services Sector. ( Dell XPS M1710 battery) Barbados maintains the third largest stock exchange in the Caribbean region. At present, officials at the stock exchange are investigating the possibility of augmenting the local exchange with an International Securities Market (ISM) venture.[58] Main articles: Demographics of Barbados and Barbadian people Barbados has a population of about 281,968 and a population growth rate of 0.33% (Mid-2005 estimates). It currently ranks as: the 4th most densely populated country in the Americas (18th globally), and the 10th most populated island country in the region, (101st globally) ( Dell XPS M1730 battery). Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as "Bajan") are of African descent ("Afro-Bajans") and mixed-descent. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans") mainly from the United Kingdom and Ireland, along with Asians, mostly Chinese and Indians (both Hindu and Muslim). Other groups in Barbados include people from the United Kingdom( Dell XPS M2010 battery), United States and Canada. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the U.S. and children born in America to Bajan parents are called "Bajan Yankees", a term considered derogatory by some.[59] Generally, Bajans recognise and accept all "children of the island" as Bajans, and refer to each other as such( Dell Latitude E5400 battery). The biggest communities outside the Afro-Caribbean community are: The Indo-Guyanese, an important part of the economy due to the increase of immigrants from partner country Guyana. There are reports of a growing Indo-Bajan diaspora originating from Guyana and India. They introduced roti and other Indian dishes to Barbados' culture. Mostly from southern India and Hindu states, they are growing in size but smaller than the equivalent communities in Trinidad & Guyana( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). Euro-Bajans (4% of the population)[1] have settled in Barbados since the 16th century, originating from England, Ireland and Scotland. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados (86% of the population).[60] More commonly they are known as "White Bajans". Euro-Bajans introduced folk music, such as Irish music and Highland music, and certain place names( Dell Latitude E6400 battery), such as "Scotland", a mountainous region. Among White Barbadians there exists an underclass known as Redlegs; the descendants of indentured servants, and prisoners imported to the island.[61] Many additionally moved on to become the earliest settlers of modern-day North and South Carolina in the United States. Chinese-Barbadians (or, as they are known on the island, "Bajan-Chineys") are a small portion of Barbados' Asian demographics( Dell Latitude E6500 battery), smaller than the equivalent communities of Jamaica and Trinidad. Most if not all first arrived in the 1940s during the Second World War, originating mainly from the then British territory of Hong Kong. Many Chinese-Bajans have the surnames Chin, Chynn or Lee, although other surnames prevail in certain areas of the island. Chinese food and culture is becoming part of everyday Bajan culture( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery). Lebanese and Syrians form the Arab community on the island, and the Muslim minority among them make up a small percentage of the Muslim population. The majority of the Lebanese and Syrians arrived in Barbados through trade opportunities. However, the numbers are dwindling due to emigration and immigration to other countries( Dell XPS M140 battery). Jewish people arrived in Barbados just after the first settlers in 1627. Bridgetown is the home of Nidhe Israel Synagogue, the oldest Jewish synagogue in the Americas, dating from 1654, though the current structure was erected in 1833 replacing one ruined by the hurricane of 1831. Tombstones in the neighbouring cemetery date from the 1630s. Now under the care of the Barbados National Trust, the site was deserted in 1929 but was subsequently saved and restored by the Jewish community beginning in 1986( Dell XPS 13 battery). The Muslim-Indian Barbadian community is largely of Gujarati ancestry. Many small businesses in Barbados are run and operated by Muslim-Indian Bajans. The average life expectancy is 72 years for males and 77 years for females.[1] Barbados and Japan have the highest per capita occurrences of centenarians in the world. English is the root official language of Barbados, and is used for communications, administration, and public services all over the island( Dell XPS 16 battery). In its capacity as the official language of the country, the standard of English tends to conform to the vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions akin to, but not exactly the same as, those of British English. A regional variant of English, referred to locally as Bajan, is spoken by most Barbadians in everyday life, especially in informal settings. In its fully-fledged form, Bajan sounds markedly different from the Standard English heard on the island( Dell XPS 1640 battery). The degree of intelligibility between Bajan and general English changes depending on the speakers' origins and the "rawness" of accent. In rare instances, a Bajan speaker may be completely unintelligible to an outside English speaker if sufficient slang terminology is present in a sentence. Bajan is somewhat differentiated from, but highly influenced by other Caribbean English dialects( Dell XPS 1645 battery); it is a fusion of British English and elements borrowed from the languages of West Africa. Hindi and Bhojpuri are also spoken on the island by a small Indo-Bajan minority. Spanish is considered the most popular second language on the island, followed by French. Main article: Religion in Barbados Most Barbadians of African and European descent are Christians (95%), chiefly Anglicans (40%). Other Christian denominations with significant followings in Barbados are the Catholic Church, Pentecostals (Evangelicals) Jehovah's Witnesses( Dell XPS 1647 battery), Seventh-Day Adventist and Spiritual Baptists. The Church of England was the official state religion until its legal disenfranchisement by the Parliament of Barbados following independence.[63] Religious minorities include Hindus, Muslims, the Baha'i Faith,[64] Jews and Wiccans. International pop star Rihanna, a native of Barbados Main article: Culture of Barbados See also: Music of Barbados, Rihanna, and Cover Drive The influence of the English on Barbados is more noticeable than on other islands in the West Indies. A good example of this is the island's national sport: cricket( Dell Latitude 131L battery). Barbados has brought forth several great cricketers, including Sir Garfield Sobers and Sir Frank Worrell. Citizens are officially called Barbadians. The term "Bajan" (pronounced "beijan) may have come from a localised pronunciation of the word Barbadian which at times can sound more like "Bar-bajan"( Dell Latitude C400 battery). The largest carnival-like cultural event which takes place on the island is the Crop Over festival. As in many other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Crop Over is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to the island to participate in the annual events. The festival includes musical competitions and other traditional activities( Dell Latitude C500 battery), and features the majority of the island's homegrown calypso and soca music for the year. The male and female Barbadian who harvested the most sugarcane are also crowned as the King and Queen of the crop.[65] It gets under way from the beginning of July, and ends with the costumed parade on Kadooment Day, held on the first Monday of August( Dell Latitude C510 battery). In the music business, Rihanna (born Robyn Fenty) is currently one of Barbados' best-known Grammy winning artists. As of 2009 she was appointed as an official Honorary Ambassador of youth and culture for Barbados by the late Prime Minister, David Thompson. The band Cover Drive also originates from Barbados( Dell Latitude C540 battery). Grandmaster Flash (born Joseph Saddler) is a hugely influential musician of Barbadian origin, pioneering hip-hop DJing, cutting, and mixing in 1970s New York. He began experimenting with DJ equipment as a teenager, eventually developing and mastering a number of key innovations that are still considered standard DJing techniques today( Dell Latitude C600 battery). In the film and television business the iconic actress Stacey Dash is of Barbadian origin as well. Similar to other nations within the Commonwealth of Nations all Barbadian citizens are covered by national healthcare. Barbados has over twenty polyclinics throughout the country in addition to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital (General Hospital) located in Bridgetown( Dell Latitude C610 battery). In 2011 the Government of Barbados signed a Memorandum of Understanding to lease its 22-acre Saint Joseph Hospital to Denver, Colorado based America World Clinics. Under the deal the group will use Barbados as one of its main destinations for medical tourism at that facility. The government also announced it would begin constructing a new $800 million dollar state-of-the-art hospital to replace the QEH( Dell Latitude C640 battery). Education and literacy Main article: Education in Barbados Barbados' literacy rate is ranked close to 100%, with both UNESCO and the Minister of Education stating that Barbados was in the top 5 countries worldwide for literacy rate.[66] thus placing the country alongside many of the industrialised nations of the world. The mainstream public education system of Barbados is fashioned after the British model( Dell Latitude C800 battery). The government of Barbados spends 6.7% of the GDP on education (2008).[1] All young people in the country must attend school until age 16. Barbados has over 70 primary schools, and over 20 secondary schools throughout the island. There are also a number of private schools catering to various teaching models including Montessori and International Baccalaureate. Degree level education in the country is provided by the Barbados Community College( Dell Latitude C810 battery), the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic, and a local Cave Hill campus of the University of the West Indies The Kensington Oval, in Bridgetown hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup final.Cricket is one of the most followed games in the nation and the Kensignton Oval is often referred to as the "Mecca in Cricket" due to its significance and contributions to the sport( Dell Latitude C840 battery). As in other Caribbean countries of British colonial heritage, cricket is very popular on the island. Barbadians play on the West Indies cricket team. In addition to several warm-up matches and six "Super Eight" matches, and the country hosted the final of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. They have had many great cricketers such as Sir Garfield Sobers, Sir Frank Worrell, Sir Clyde Walcott, Sir Everton Weekes, Gordon Greenidge, Joel Garner and Malcolm Marshall( Dell Latitude D410 battery). Horse racing takes place at the Historic Garrison Savannah close to Bridgetown. Spectators can pay for admission to the stands, or else can watch races from the public "rail", which encompasses the track. Obadele Thompson is a world-class sprinter from Barbados; he won a bronze medal at Olympic Games over 100m in 2000. Ryan Brathwaite, a hurdler, reached the 2008 Olympic semi-finals in Beijing( Dell Latitude D420 battery). Brathwaite also earned Barbados its first ever medal at the world championships in Berlin, Germany on 20 August 2009, when he won the men's 110 meter hurdles title. The 21-year-old timed a national record of 13.14 seconds to win the Gold Medal. Polo is very popular amongst the rich elite on the island and the "High-Goal" Apes Hill team is based in the St James's Club.[67] It is also played at the private Holders Festival ground( Dell Latitude D430 battery). In golf, the Barbados Open is an annual stop on the European Seniors Tour. In December 2006 the WGC-World Cup took place at the country's Sandy Lane resort on the Country Club course, an 18-hole course designed by Tom Fazio. The Barbados Golf Club is the other main course on the island. Sanctioned by the PGA European Tour to host a PGA Seniors Tournament in 2003 and it has also hosted the Barbados Open on several occasions( Dell Latitude D500 battery). Basketball is a popular sport, played at school or college, and is increasing in popularity, as is volleyball, though volleyball is mainly played indoors. Motorsports also play a role, with Rally Barbados occurring each summer and currently being listed on the FIA NACAM calendar. The presence of the trade winds along with favourable swells make the southern tip of the island an ideal location for wave sailing (an extreme form of the sport of windsurfing). Netball is also popular with women in Barbados( Dell Latitude D505 battery). Barbadian team The Flyin' Fish, are the 2009 Segway Polo World Champions.[68] Typical ZR-van with markings indicating that it serves the number 11 route. In addition to being one of the world's most densely populated countries, Barbados also has one of the most dense road networks in the world. Although Barbados is only about 34 kilometres (21 mi) at its widest point, a car journey from Six Cross Roads in St. Philip (south-east) to North Point in St. Lucy (north-central) can take one and a half hours or longer, thanks to the country's narrow, winding and rough roads( Dell Latitude D510 battery). Barbados has half as many registered cars as citizens in the country. The first letter of a vehicle's licence plate designates its usage or owner's registered parish of residence. "Z" and "ZR" are for taxis; "H" for rental cars; "B" for buses and minibuses; "CD" for diplomatic cars; and "3D" or "7D" for defence force vehicles, while "ML" or "MP" with green plates usually designate military( Dell Latitude D520 battery), police or government vehicles. As regards residence, "X" is for Christ Church; "A" for St. Andrew; "G" for St. George; "S" for St. James; "J" for St. John; "O" for St. Joseph; "L" for St. Lucy; "M" for St. Michael; "E" for St. Peter; "P" for St. Philip; and "T" for St. Thomas. Public transport on the island is relatively convenient, with 'route taxis', called "ZRs" (pronounced "Zed-Rs"), travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, as passengers are generally never turned down( Dell Latitude D600 battery), regardless of the number. However, they will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. They generally depart from the capital Bridgetown or from Speightstown in the northern part of the island. Old Barbados Transport Board bus in Bridgetown. Including the ZRs there are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays). There's ZRs, the yellow minibuses and the blue Transport Board buses. A ride on any of them costs BBD$2.00. The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems( Dell Latitude D610 battery) ("ZRs" and "minibuses") can give change; the larger blue buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot, but do give receipts. Children in school uniform ride for free on the government buses and for $1.50 on the minibuses and ZRs. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. Some drivers within the competitive privately owned systems are reluctant to advise persons to use competing services, even if those would be more suitable( Dell Latitude D620 battery). A Mini Moke at Speightstown beach Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island from outside the hotel lobby. There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados but there are no multi-national companies. The island's lone airport is the Grantley Adams International Airport. It receives daily flights by several major airlines from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters( Dell Latitude D630 battery). The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the eastern Caribbean. In the first decade of 21st century it underwent a US$100 million upgrade and expansion. There is also a helicopter shuttle service, which offers air taxi services to a number of sites around the island, mainly on the West Coast tourist belt. Air and maritime traffic is regulated by the Barbados Port Authority( Dell Latitude D800 battery). Guatemala (US i/ˌɡwɑːtəˈmɑːlə/ gwah-tə-mah-lə, UK /ˌɡwætɪˈmɑːlə/ gwa-ti-mah-lə), officially the Republic of Guatemala (Spanish: República de Guatemala [reˈpuβlika ðe ɣwateˈmala]), is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. Its area is 108,890 km2 (42,043 mi2) with an estimated population of 13,276,517( Dell Latitude D810 battery). A representative democracy, its capital is Guatemala de la Asunción, also known as Guatemala City. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot.[4] The former Mayan civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization, which continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish( Dell Latitude D820 battery). The Mayas live in Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, the southern part of Mexico and northern parts of El Salvador. Guatemala became independent from Spain in 1821. After it became an independent country in its own right, it was ruled by a series of dictators, assisted by the United Fruit Company. The late 20th century saw Guatemala embroiled in a 36-year-long civil war. Following the war, Guatemala has witnessed both economic growth and successful democratic elections( Dell Latitude D830 battery). In the most recent election, held in 2011, Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party won the presidency. Etymology The name "Guatemala" comes from Nahuatl Cuauhtēmallān, "place of many trees", a translation of K'iche' Mayan K'iche' , "many trees".[5][6] This was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory( Dell Latitude 2100 battery). Main article: History of Guatemala Pre-Columbian The first evidence of human settlers in Guatemala demonstrates a presence at least as early as 12,000 BC. Some evidence suggests a presence as early as 18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various parts of the country.[7] There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC. ( Dell Latitude 2110 battery) Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast. Archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the pre-Classic period (2000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD), and the Calistic from 900 to 1500 AD.[9] Until recently the Pre-Classic was regarded as a formative period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts, and few permanent buildings( Dell Latitude E4300 battery). However, this notion has been challenged by recent discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, from 1000 BC; ceremonial sites at Miraflores and El Naranjo from 801 BC; the earliest monumental masks; and the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, El Tintal, Wakná and El Mirador( Dell Vostro 1310 battery). El Mirador was by far the most populated city in pre-Columbian America.[citation needed] Both the El Tigre and Monos pyramids encompass a volume greater than 250,000 cubic meters.[10] Mirador was the first politically organized state in America, named the Kan Kingdom in ancient texts. There were 26 cities, all connected by Sacbeob (highways), which were several kilometers long, up to 40 meters wide, and two to four meters above the ground( Dell Vostro 1320 battery), paved with stucco, that are clearly distinguishable from the air in the most extensive virgin tropical rain forest in Mesoamerica. The Tikal Mayan Ruins The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization, and is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala, although the largest concentration is in Petén. This period is characterized by heavy city-building, the development of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures( Dell Vostro 1510 battery). This lasted until around 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed.[11] The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine.[12] Scientists debate the cause of the Classic Maya Collapse, but gaining currency is the Drought Theory discovered by physical scientists studying lakebeds, ancient pollen( Dell Vostro 1520 battery), and other tangible evidence.[13] A series of prolonged droughts, among other reasons (such as overpopulation), in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya, who were primarily reliant upon regular rainfall.[14] The Post-Classic period is represented by regional kingdoms, such as the Itzá and Ko'woj in the lakes area in Petén, and the Mam( Dell Vostro 2510 battery), Ki'ch'es, Kack'chiquel, Tz'utuh'il, Pokom'chí, Kek'chi and Chortí in the Highlands. These cities preserved many aspects of Mayan culture, but would never equal the size or power of the Classic cities. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya( Dell Vostro 1014 battery); however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected from Honduras, Guatemala, Northern El Salvador and to as far as central Mexico, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from the Maya area. Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to result from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). Colonial (1519-1821) See also: Spanish conquest of Guatemala Calle del Arco in the city of Antigua Guatemala. After arriving in what was named the New World, the Spanish started several expeditions to Guatemala, beginning in 1519. Before long, Spanish contact resulted in an epidemic that devastated native populations. Hernán Cortés, who had led the Spanish conquest of Mexico, granted a permit to Captains Gonzalo de Alvarado and his brother, Pedro de Alvarado, to conquer this land( Dell Vostro 1015 battery). Alvarado at first allied himself with the Kaqchikel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' (Quiché) nation. Alvarado later turned against the Kaqchikel, and eventually held the entire region under Spanish domination.[15] Several families of Spanish descent subsequently rose to prominence in colonial Guatemala, including the surnames de Arrivillaga, Arroyave, Alvarez de las Asturias, González de Batres, Coronado, Gálvez Corral, Mencos, Delgado de Nájera, de la Tovilla, and Varón de Berrieza( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery). During the colonial period, Guatemala was an Audiencia and a Captaincy General (Capitanía General de Guatemala) of Spain, and a part of New Spain (Mexico).[17] The first capital was named Tecpan Guatemala, founded on July 25, 1524 with the name of Villa de Santiago de Guatemala and was located near Iximché, the Kaqchikel capital city( Dell Vostro A840 battery). It was moved to Ciudad Vieja on November 22, 1527, when the Kaqchikel attacked the city. On September 11, 1541 the city was flooded when the lagoon in the crater of the Agua Volcano collapsed due to heavy rains and earthquakes, and was moved 4 miles (6 km) to Antigua Guatemala, on the Panchoy Valley, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This city was destroyed by several earthquakes in 1773–1774( Dell Vostro A860 battery), and the King of Spain granted the authorization to move the capital to the Ermita Valley, named after a Catholic church to the Virgen de El Carmen, in its current location, founded on January 2, 1776. Independence and 19th century Zunil, a regional city. On September 15, 1821, the Captaincy-general of Guatemala (formed by Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras) officially proclaimed its independence from Spain which was dissolved two years later. ( Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery)This region had been formally subject to New Spain throughout the colonial period, but as a practical matter was administered separately. It was not until 1825 that Guatemala created its own flag.[19] The Guatemalan provinces formed the United Provinces of Central America, also called the Central American Federation (Federacion de Estados Centroamericanos). That federation dissolved in civil war from 1838 to 1840( SONY PCG-5G2L battery). Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union.[20] During this period a region of the Highlands, Los Altos, declared independence from Guatemala, but was annexed by Carrera, who dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala.[22] Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador( SONY PCG-F305 battery). From 1898 to 1920, Guatemala was ruled by the dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera, whose access to the presidency was helped by the United Fruit Company. It was during his long presidency that the United Fruit Company became a major force in Guatemala.[23] 1944 to the end of the civil war A view of Antigua Guatemala from Cerro de la Cruz (Hill of the Cross), 2009. On July 4, 1944, dictator Jorge Ubico Castañeda was forced to resign his office in response to a wave of protests and a general strike( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). His replacement, General Juan Federico Ponce Vaides, was later also forced out of office on October 20, 1944 by a coup d'état led by Major Francisco Javier Arana and Captain Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán. About 100 people were killed in the coup. The country was led by a military junta made up of Arana, Arbenz, and Jorge Toriello Garrido( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). The Junta called Guatemala's first free election, which was won with a majority of 85% by the prominent writer and teacher Juan José Arévalo Bermejo, who had lived in exile in Argentina for 14 years. Arévalo was the first democratically elected president of Guatemala to fully complete the term for which he was elected. His "Christian Socialist" policies, inspired by the U.S. New Deal, were criticized by landowners and the upper class as "communist." ( SONY PCG-5K2L battery) This period was also the beginning of the Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR, which was to have a considerable influence on Guatemalan history. From the 1950s through the 1990s, the U.S. government directly supported Guatemala's army with training, weapons, and money. Guatemala City at night. In 1954, Arévalo's democratically elected successor, Jacobo Árbenz, was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). He considered himself a socialist. After his land reform, the CIA intervened because it feared that a socialist government would become a Soviet beachhead in the Western Hemisphere.[24] Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas was installed as president in 1954 and ruled until he was assassinated by a member of his personal guard in 1957. Substantial evidence points to the role of the American United Fruit Company (which changed its name in 1970 to Chiquita Brands International Inc) ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery) as instrumental in this coup, as the land reforms of Jacobo Arbenz were threatening the company's interests in Guatemala and it had several direct ties to the White House and the CIA. (See United Fruit Company – History in Central America). In the election that followed, General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes assumed power. He is most celebrated for challenging the Mexican president to a gentleman's duel on the bridge on the south border to end a feud on the subject of illegal fishing by Mexican boats ( SONY PCG-6S3L battery)on Guatemala's Pacific coast, two of which were sunk by the Guatemalan Air Force. Ydigoras authorized the training of 5,000 anti-Castro Cubans in Guatemala. He also provided airstrips in the region of Petén for what later became the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961. Ydigoras' government was ousted in 1963 when the Guatemalan Air Force attacked several military bases. The coup was led by his Defense Minister, Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia( SONY PCG-6V1L battery). Calle Santander tourist street in Panajachel, 2009. In 1966, Julio César Méndez Montenegro was elected president of Guatemala under the banner "Democratic Opening". Mendez Montenegro was the candidate of the Revolutionary Party, a center-left party which had its origins in the post-Ubico era. It was during this time that rightist paramilitary organizations, such as the "White Hand" (Mano Blanca), and the Anticommunist Secret Army, (Ejército Secreto Anticomunista), were formed( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). Those organizations were the forerunners of the infamous "Death Squads". Military advisers from the United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets) were sent to Guatemala to train troops and help transform its army into a modern counter-insurgency force, which eventually made it the most sophisticated in Central America( SONY PCG-7111L battery). In 1970, Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio was elected president. A new guerrilla movement entered the country from Mexico, into the Western Highlands in 1972. In the disputed election of 1974, General Kjell Laugerud García defeated General Efraín Ríos Montt, a candidate of the Christian Democratic Party, who claimed that he had been cheated out of a victory through fraud( SONY PCG-71511M battery). On February 4, 1976, a major earthquake destroyed several cities and caused more than 25,000 deaths. In 1978, in a fraudulent election, General Romeo Lucas García assumed power. The 1970s saw the birth of two new guerrilla organizations, The Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP) and the Organization of the People in Arms (ORPA), who began and intensified by the end of the seventies, guerrilla attacks that included urban and rural guerrilla warfare, mainly against the military and some of the civilian supporters of the army( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). In 1979, the U.S. president, Jimmy Carter, ordered a ban on all military aid to the Guatemalan Army because of the widespread and systematic abuse of human rights. In 1980, a group of indigenous K'iche' took over the Spanish Embassy to protest army massacres in the countryside. The Guatemalan government launched an assault that killed almost everyone inside as a result of a fire that consumed the building( SONY PCG-7113L battery). The Guatemalan government claimed that the activists set the fire and immolated themselves.[25] However, the Spanish ambassador, who survived the fire, disputed this claim, claiming that the Guatemalan police intentionally killed almost everyone inside and set the fire to erase traces of their acts. As a result of this incident, the government of Spain broke diplomatic relations with Guatemala( SONY PCG-7133L battery). This government was overthrown in 1982. General Ríos Montt was named President of the military junta, continuing the bloody campaign of torture, forced disappearances, and "scorched earth" warfare. The country became a pariah state internationally. Ríos Montt was overthrown by General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who called for an election of a national constitutional assembly to write a new constitution( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery), leading to a free election in 1986, which was won by Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party. In 1982, the four guerrilla groups, EGP, ORPA, FAR and PGT, merged and formed the URNG, influenced by the Salvadoran guerrilla FMLN, the Nicaraguan FSLN and Cuba's government, in order to become stronger. As a result of the Army's "scorched earth" tactics in the countryside( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) , more than 45,000 Guatemalans fled across the border to Mexico. The Mexican government placed the refugees in camps in Chiapas and Tabasco. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberta Menchú for her efforts to bring international attention to the government-sponsored genocide against the indigenous population( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). Outdoor market in Chichicastenango, 2009 The Guatemalan Civil War ended in 1996 with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government, negotiated by the United Nations through intense brokerage by nations such as Norway and Spain. Both sides made major concessions. The guerrilla fighters disarmed and received land to work. According to the U.N.-sponsored truth commission the( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery) ("Commission for Historical Clarification"), government forces and state-sponsored paramilitaries were responsible for over 93 percent of the human rights violations during the war.[26] Over the last few years, millions of documents related to crimes committed during the civil war were found abandoned by the former Guatemalan police. Among millions of documents found, there was evidence that the former police chief of Guatemala( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery), Hector Bol de la Cruz had been involved in the kidnapping and murder of 27-year-old student Fernando Garcia in 1984. The evidence was used to prosecute the former police chief. The families of over 45,000 Guatemalan activists are now reviewing the documents (which have been digitized) and this could lead to further legal actions. Paradoxically( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery), the current democratically elected president, Otto Pérez Molina, could be a barrier to further legal action as he, a retired general, was the head of intelligence in Guatemala during the civil war.[27] During the first ten years, the victims of the state-sponsored terror were primarily students, workers, professionals, and opposition figures, but in the last years they were thousands of mostly rural Mayan farmers and non-combatants( SONY PCG-7112L battery). More than 450 Mayan villages were destroyed and over 1 million people became displaced within Guatemala or refugees. Over 200,000 people, mostly Mayan, lost their lives during the civil war. In certain areas, such as Baja Verapaz, the Truth Commission considered that the Guatemalan state engaged in an intentional policy of genocide against particular ethnic groups in the Civil War. ( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) In 1999, U.S. president Bill Clinton stated that the United States was wrong to have provided support to Guatemalan military forces that took part in the brutal civilian killings.[30] Since the peace accords, Guatemala has witnessed both economic growth and successive democratic elections, most recently in 2011. In the 2011 elections, Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party, won the presidency. He assumed office on January 14, 2012. He named Roxana Baldetti as his vice president( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). On January 12, 2012, Efrain Rios Montt, former President of Guatemala during the military dictatorship, appeared in a Guatemalan court on genocide charges. During the hearing, the government presented evidence of over 100 incidents involving at least 1,771 deaths, 1,445 rapes, and the displacement of nearly 30,000 Guatemalans during his 17-month rule from 1982-1983( SONY VGP-BPS8 battery), according to the Washington Post, BBC, Siglo XXI (in Spanish), and the LA Times. The prosecution wanted him incarcerated because of his potential for flight but the judge ruled that he can remain out on bail. He has now been placed under house arrest and will be watched by the Guatemalan National Civil Police (PNC). The trial, now under way, is expected to last at least a year( SONY VGP-BPS8A battery). The estimated median age in Guatemala is 20 years old, 19.4 for males and 20.7 years for females.[32] This is the lowest median age of any country in the Western Hemisphere and comparable to most of central Africa and Iraq. Main article: Politics of Guatemala Guatemala is a constitutional democratic republic whereby the President of Guatemala is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government( SONY VGP-BPL8 battery). Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Otto Perez Molina is the current President of Guatemala. Guatemala is heavily centralized. Transportation, communications, business, politics, and the most relevant urban activity takes place in Guatemala City. Guatemala City has about 2 million inhabitants within the city limits and more than 5 million within the urban area( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery). This is a significant percentage of the population (14 million).[32] The highlands of Quetzaltenango Guatemala lies between latitudes 13° and 18°N, and longitudes 88° and 93°W. The country is mountainous with small desert and sand dune patches, hilly valleys, except for the south coastal area and the vast northern lowlands of Petén department. Two mountain chains enter Guatemala from west to east, dividing the country into three major regions: the highlands( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery), where the mountains are located; the Pacific coast, south of the mountains; and the Petén region, north of the mountains. All major cities are located in the highlands and Pacific coast regions; by comparison, Petén is sparsely populated. These three regions vary in climate, elevation, and landscape, providing dramatic contrasts between hot, humid tropical lowlands and colder, drier highland peaks. Volcán Tajumulco, at 4,220 m, is the highest point in the Central American states( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). The rivers are short and shallow in the Pacific drainage basin, larger and deeper in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico drainage basins, which include the Polochic and Dulce Rivers, which drain into Lake Izabal, the Motagua River, the Sarstún that forms the boundary with Belize, and the Usumacinta River, which forms the boundary between Petén and Chiapas, Mexico( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery). Guatemala has long claimed all or part of the territory of neighbouring Belize, formerly part of the Spanish colony, and currently an independent Commonwealth Realm which recognises Queen Elizabeth II as its Head of State. Due to this territorial dispute, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence until 1990, but the dispute is not resolved. Negotiations are currently underway under the auspices of the Organization of American States and the Commonwealth of Nations to conclude it. ( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery) [edit]Natural disasters Guatemala's location between the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean makes it a target for hurricanes, such as Hurricane Mitch in 1998 and Hurricane Stan in October 2005, which killed more than 1,500 people. The damage was not wind related, but rather due to significant flooding and resulting mudslides. The most recent was Tropical Storm Agatha in late May 2010 that killed more than 200( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery). A town along the Pan-American Highway and in close proximity to a volcanic crater Guatemala's highlands lie along the Motagua Fault, part of the boundary between the Caribbean and North American tectonic plates. This fault has been responsible for several major earthquakes in historic times, including a 7.5 magnitude tremor on February 4, 1976, which killed more than 25,000 people. In addition, the Middle America Trench( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery), a major subduction zone lies off the Pacific coast. Here, the Cocos Plate is sinking beneath the Caribbean Plate, producing volcanic activity inland of the coast. Guatemala has 37 volcanoes, four of them are active: Pacaya, Santiaguito, Fuego and Tacaná. Fuego and Pacaya erupted in 2010( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery). Natural disasters have a long history in this geologically active part of the world. For example, two of the three moves of the capital of Guatemala have been due to volcanic mudflows in 1541 and earthquakes in 1773. Volcano Pacaya On Thursday May 27, 2010, the Pacaya volcano started erupting lava and rocks, blanketing Guatemala City with black sand (and forcing the closure of the international airport). It was declared a "state of calamity." ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) The Pacaya volcano left about 8 cm (3 in) of ash and sand through all of Guatemala City. Cleaning works are done. The country has 14 ecoregions ranging from mangrove forests to both ocean littorals with 5 different ecosystems. Guatemala has 252 listed wetlands, including 5 lakes, 61 lagoons, 100 rivers, and 4 swamps.[35] Tikal National Park was the first mixed UNESCO World Heritage Site( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). Guatemala is a country of distinct fauna. It has some 1246 known species. Of these, 6.7% are endemic and 8.1% are threatened. Guatemala is home to at least 8681 species of vascular plants, of which 13.5% are endemic. 5.4% of Guatemala is protected under IUCN categories I-V. In the department of Petén lies the Maya Biosphere Reserve of 2,112,940 ha,[36] making it the second largest forest in Central America after Bosawas( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery). Further information: Guatemala Biodiversity Demographics Main article: Demographics of Guatemala Tz'utujil men in Santiago Atitlán. Guatemalan women in Antigua Guatemala. According to the CIA World Fact Book, Guatemala has a population of 13,824,463 (2011 est). About 59% of the population is Ladino, also called Mestizo and European (mixed Amerindian and Spanish). Amerindian populations include the K'iche' 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9% and Q'eqchi 6.3%. 8.6% of the population is "other Mayan," 0.4% is indigenous non-Mayan, making the indigenous community in Guatemala about 40.5% of the population( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery). There are smaller communities present. The Garífuna, who are descended primarily from Black Africans who lived with and intermarried with indigenous peoples from St. Vincent, live mainly in Livingston and Puerto Barrios. Those communities have other blacks and mulattos descended from banana workers. There are also Asians, mostly of Chinese descent( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Other Asian groups include Arabs of Lebanese and Syrian descent. There is also a growing Korean community in Guatemala City and in nearby Mixco, currently numbering about 10,000.[37] Guatemala's German population is credited with bringing the tradition of a Christmas tree to the country.[38] In 1900, Guatemala had a population of 885,000.[39] Over the course of the twentieth century the population of the country grew, the fastest growth in the Western Hemisphere( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). The ever-increasing pattern of emigration to the U.S. has led to the growth of Guatemalan communities in California, Florida, Illinois, New York, Texas, Rhode Island and elsewhere since the 1970s. The Civil War forced many Guatemalans to start lives outside of their country. The majority of the Guatemalan diaspora is located in the United States, with estimates ranging from 480,665 to 1,489,426. ( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery) The difficulty in getting accurate counts for Guatemalans abroad is because many of them are refugee claimants awaiting determination of their status.[43] Below are estimates for certain countries: Main article: Economy of Guatemala An indoor market in the regional city of Zunil. According to the CIA World Factbook, Guatemala's GDP (PPP) per capita is US$5,200; however, this developing country still faces many social problems and is one of the poorest countries in Latin America( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery). The distribution of income remains highly unequal with more than half of the population below the national poverty line and just over 400,000 (3.2%) unemployed. The CIA World Fact Book considers 56.2% of the population of Guatemala to be living in poverty. Remittances from Guatemalans who fled to the United States during the civil war now constitute the largest single source of foreign income (two thirds of exports and one tenth of GDP). ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) In recent years the exporter sector of nontraditional products has grown dynamically representing more than 53% of global exports. Some of the main products for export are fruits, vegetables, flowers, handicrafts, cloths and others. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2010 was estimated at $70.15 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 63%, followed by the industry sector at 23.8% and the agriculture sector at 13.2% (2010 est.) ( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). Mines produce gold, silver, zinc, cobalt and nickel.[47] The agricultural sector accounts for about two-fifths of exports, and half of the labor force. Organic coffee, sugar, textiles, fresh vegetables, and bananas are the country's main exports. Inflation was 3.9% in 2010. The 1996 peace accords that ended the decades-long civil war removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. Tourism has become an increasing source of revenue for Guatemala( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery). In March 2006 Guatemala's congress ratified the Dominican Republic – Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) between several Central American nations and the United States.[48] Guatemala also has free trade agreements with Taiwan and Colombia. Main article: Culture of Guatemala Guatemalan girls in their traditional clothing in Chichicastenango. Guatemala City is home to many of the nation's libraries and museums, including the National Archives, the National Library( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery), and the Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, which has an extensive collection of Maya artifacts. There are private museums, such as the Ixchel, which focuses on textiles, and the Popol Vuh, which focuses on Maya archaeology. Both museums are housed inside the Universidad Francisco Marroquín campus. Almost each of the 329 municipalities in the country has a small museum( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery). Guatemala has produced many indigenous artists who follow centuries-old Pre-Columbian traditions. However, reflecting Guatemala's colonial and post-colonial history, encounters with multiple global art movements also have produced a wealth of artists who have combined the traditional so-called "primitivism" or "naive" aesthetic with European, North American, and other traditions( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery). The Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas "Rafael Rodríguez Padilla" is the country's leading art school, and several leading indigenous artists, also graduates of that school, are in the permanent collection of the Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno in the capital city. Contemporary Guatemalan artists who have gained reputations outside of Guatemala include Dagoberto Vásquez, Luis Rolando Ixquiac Xicara, Carlos Mérida,[49] Aníbal López, Roberto González Goyri, and Elmar René Rojas. ( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) The Iglesia de Santo Tomás, a church built around 1545. The Guatemala National Prize in Literature is a one-time only award that recognizes an individual writer's body of work. It has been given annually since 1988 by the Ministry of Culture and Sports. Miguel Ángel Asturias won the literature Nobel Prize in 1967. Among his famous books is El Señor Presidente, a novel based on the government of Manuel Estrada Cabrera( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). Rigoberta Menchu, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for fighting oppression of indigenous people in Guatemala, is famous for her books I, Rigoberta Menchu and Crossing Borders. The music of Guatemala comprises a number of styles and expressions. Guatemalan social change has been empowered by music scenes such as Nueva cancion, which blend together histories, present day issues( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery), and political values and struggles of common people. The Maya had an intense musical practice, as is documented by iconography. Guatemala was also one of the first regions in the New World to be introduced to European music, from 1524 on. Many composers from the Renaissance, baroque, classical, romantic, and contemporary music styles have contributed works of all genres( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery). The marimba is the national instrument that has developed a large repertoire of very attractive pieces that have been popular for more than a century. The Historia General de Guatemala has published a series of CDs of historical music of Guatemala, in which every style is represented, from the Maya, colonial period, independent and republican eras to current times. There are many contemporary music groups in Guatemala from Caribbean music, salsa, punta (Garifuna influenced), Latin pop, Mexican regional, and mariachi( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery). There is also a vibrant scene for what is known in the Hispanic world as rock en Español (Rock in Spanish). Main article: Guatemalan cuisine Many traditional foods in Guatemalan cuisine are based on Maya cuisine and prominently feature corn, chilis and beans as key ingredients. There are also foods that are commonly eaten on certain days of the week. For example, it is a popular custom to eat paches (a kind of tamale made from potatoes) on Thursday( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). Certain dishes are also associated with special occasions, such as fiambre for All Saints Day on November 1 and tamales, which are common around Christmas. See also: Central American Spanish and Guatemalan Spanish A language map of Guatemala, according to the Comisión de Oficialización de los Dialectos Indígenas de Guatemala. The "Castilian" areas represent Spanish. Although Spanish is the official language, it is not universally spoken among the indigenous population( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery), nor is it often spoken as a second language by the elderly indigenous. Twenty-one Mayan languages are spoken, especially in rural areas, as well as two non-Mayan Amerindian dialects, Xinca, an indigenous dialect, and Garifuna, an Arawakan dialect spoken on the Caribbean coast. According to Decreto Número 19-2003, twenty-three dialects are unrecognized as National Languages.[51][not in citation given (See discussion.) ( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery)] As a first and second language, Spanish is spoken by 93% of the population. The peace accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords) and mandate the provision of interpreters in legal cases for non-Spanish speakers( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery). The accord also sanctioned bilingual education in Spanish and indigenous languages. It is common for indigenous Guatemalans to learn or speak between two to five of the nation's other languages, and Spanish. Main article: Religion in Guatemala Catedral Metropolitana in Guatemala City, In Guatemala 50–60% of the population is Catholic, 40% Protestant, 3% Eastern Orthodox and 1% follow the indigenous Mayan faith( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery). Catholicism was the official religion during the colonial era.[when?] However, Protestantism has increased markedly in recent decades. More than one third of Guatemalans are Protestant, chiefly Evangelicals and Pentecostals. It is common for relevant Mayan practices to be incorporated into Catholic ceremonies and worship when they are sympathetic to the meaning of Catholic belief a phenomenon known as inculturation. ( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery) The practice of traditional Mayan religion is increasing as a result of the cultural protections established under the peace accords. The government has instituted a policy of providing altars at every Mayan ruin found in the country so that traditional ceremonies may be performed there. Antigua Guatemala Processions There are also small communities of Jews estimated between 1200 and 2000,[55] Muslims (1200), Buddhists at around 9000 to 12000,[56] and members of other faiths and those who do not profess any faith( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints currently has over 215,000 members in Guatemala, accounting for approximately 1.65% of the country's estimated population in 2008.[57] The first member of the LDS Church in Guatemala was baptized in 1948. Membership grew to 10,000 by 1966, and 18 years later, when the Guatemala City Temple was dedicated in 1984, membership had risen to 40,000( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery). By 1998 membership had quadrupled again to 164,000. The LDS Church continues to grow in Guatemala; it has announced and begun the construction of the Quetzaltenango Guatemala Temple,[60] the LDS Church's second temple in the country.[61] Recently, it was announced that 520,000 members of the Orthodox Catholic Church of Guatemala (OCCG) were received into communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The OCCG has an approximate membership of 527,000 faithful and catechumens( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery), overwhelmingly indigenous, with 334 churches in Guatemala and southern Mexico, with 12 (formerly OCCG) clergymen and 14 seminarians, who are assisted in their pastoral ministry by 250 lay ministers and 380 catechists. The administrative offices of the OCCG are located on 280 acres (113 ha) of land, with a community college and 2 schools with 12 professors/teachers( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery). Additionally, the OCCG has an established monastery located on 480 acres (194 ha) of land. Fourteen students from Guatemala, with full scholarship, are now enrolled in the St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Theological Institute Licentiate degree program. The seminary is fully accredited by the Holy Metropolis’ Department of Education( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Church in San Andrés Xecul Funeral traditions When people pass away in Guatemala, they are usually buried as soon as possible, so as to provide a quick passage to heaven. Funerals generally include candles and rum, and despite the local superstition that loud mourning and crying will slow down the deceased's journey to the next world; mourners usually cry very loudly, except at funerals for children. Deceased are buried with their treasured items to dissuade them from returning to haunt the people( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). Main article: Education in Guatemala The government runs a number of public elementary and secondary-level schools. These schools are free, though the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and transportation makes them less accessible to the poorer segments of society and significant numbers of poor children do not attend school. Many middle and upper-class children go to private schools( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery). The country also has one public university (USAC or Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala), and nine private ones (see List of universities in Guatemala). USAC was one of the first universities in America. It was officially declared a university on January 31, 1676 by royal command of King Charles II of Spain. Only 74.5% of the population aged 15 and over are literate, the lowest literacy rate in Central America( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery). Although it has the lowest literacy rate, Guatemala is expected to change this within the next 20 years.[62] Organizations such as Child Aid, which trains teachers in villages throughout the Central Highlands region, are working to improve educational outcomes for children. Lack of training for rural teachers is one of the key contributors to the country's low literacy rates( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery). Medical anthropology and pluralism In the 1950s, medical anthropologists such as Richard N. Adams, Benjamin D. Paul, and Lois Paul wrote monographs dedicated to the Maya medical beliefs and practices. Richard N. Adams, albeit secondary to his work, described the chasm between Maya medical beliefs and practices and Western science, and showed why Mayans rejected projects applied by the Institute of Nutrition for Central America and Panama (INCAP) ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery). His work is seen as setting the stage for four decades for medical anthropology in Guatemala by diagnosing the communication breakdown caused by “ignorance of local beliefs and practices.” Many of those once affiliated with INCAP have since published works on various topics of interest to medical anthropology in Guatemala( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). In the 20th century, several things came to undermine the indigenous way of practicing medicine. First, the religious persecution first administered by Catholic Action, then Protestant evangelical religions, and finally by Catholic Charismatics resulted in the prohibition of their members from consulting traditional healers. Secondly, certain elements of Guatemalan society systematically killed the upper rank of the Maya priests( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440N battery). Third, starting in the 1980s, the Guatemalan national health care system, based heavily on Western medicine, began to suppress traditional healers by banning them from practicing. While the health care system made efforts to train local midwives, some persons accused those programs of not giving culturally appropriate, high-quality services( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ440E battery). The disparity between Western biomedicine and traditional care has created tensions, i.e., NGO programs primarily focus today on those with higher education levels—those who speak Spanish—and rivalries hamper communication between Western-trained health care providers and traditional practitioners. Additionally, the medical professionals of Western biomedicine neglect the social experience of the patients( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ430E battery), as well as the social construction of disease. Studies conducted in Mexico, Guatemala, and other rural areas support the position that many Western biomedical practitioners shun remote areas either because they cannot earn enough money there or because they discriminate against ethnic minorities( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E battery). Today, patients must choose between the two systems based on the complex conditions surrounding the ailment and decide which medical system most likely will provide a cure for their ailment.[63] Rigoberta Menchú won the Nobel Peace prize in 1992 for her very important work in favor of the Mayan people, and the Mayan refugees in Mexico and the US. Miguel Ángel Asturias won the Nobel prize in Literature in 1967 for his entire body of work( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 battery), including the novel El Señor Presidente, which was controversial during Guatemala's civil war, since it portrayed the horrors of life under authoritarian rule. Cayala City, Zone 16 There are seven national newspapers in TV are Noti7, Telecentro Trece and Noticiero Guatevision. The Guatemala Times is a digital English news magazine.
Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east Sony PCG-71313M battery. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands; wet, cooler central highlands; and the Caribbean lowlands. On the Pacific side of the country are the two largest fresh water lakes in Central America—Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. The Island of Ometepe Island is located inside Lake Nicaragua Sony PCG-71212M battery, and is well known for its popularity among tourists. Surrounding these lakes and extending to their northwest along the rift valley of the Gulf of Fonseca are fertile lowland plains, with soil highly enriched by ash from nearby volcanoes of the central highlands. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. Nicaragua is one of the richest countries in Central America Sony PCG-71311M battery. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua achieved its independence from Spain in 1821. Since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a representative democratic republic Sony PCG-71213M battery, and has experienced economic growth and political stability in recent years. In 1990, Nicaragua elected Violeta Chamorro as its president, making it the first country in Central American history and the second in the Western Hemisphere to democratically elect a female head of state. The population of Nicaragua, approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Roughly a quarter of the population lives in the capital city, Managua; it is the third-largest city in Central America. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast Sony PCG-61211M battery, Europeans, Africans, Asians, and people of Middle Eastern origin. The main language is Spanish, although native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama, as well as English Creole. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art and literature, particularly the latter given the various literary contributions of Nicaraguan writers, including Rubén Darío, Ernesto Cardenal, and Gioconda Belli. Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery The biological diversity, warm tropical climate, and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The origin of the name "Nicaragua" is somewhat unclear; in one theory it is a portmanteau coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, chief of the most populous indigenous tribe and agua, the Spanish word for water. Main article: History of Nicaragua See also: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Political history of Nicaragua 2,100-year-old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near Lake Managua Sony VAIO PCG-31113M batteryIn pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area, between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions, and within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, such as the ones found on the island of Zapatera in Lake Nicaragua and petroglyphs found on Ometepe island. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC Sony VAIO PCG-31111M batteryBy the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture to the Mesoamerican civilizations of the Aztec and Maya, and by language to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and nearby areas. They lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering.[13] Joined by waters, the people of eastern Nicaragua traded with Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery, and were influenced by, other native peoples of the Caribbean. Round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were commonly crafted and used in eastern Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua. The wealthy ruler lived in Nicaraocali, site of the present-day city of Rivas SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. Without women in their parties, the Spanish conquerors took Niquirano and Chorotega wives and partners, beginning the multi-ethnic mix of native and European stock now known as mestizo, which constitutes the great majority of population in western Nicaragua.[11] Within three decades after European contact SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery, what had been an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted. Scientists and historians estimate approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new infectious diseases carried by the Spaniards, such as smallpox and measles, to which the Indians had no immunity. The indigenous people of the Caribbean coast escaped the epidemics due to the remoteness of their area. Their societies continued more culturally intact as a result SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery. The Spanish conquest Main article: Conquista Farthest extent of Spanish colonization in America. Red: Farthest extent of Spanish colonies under the House of Bourbon in the 1790s. Pink: Disputed claims of Spanish colonial administration. Purple: Portuguese colonies under dual Spanish colonial administration- conquest, settlement and political rule over much of the Western Hemisphere Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery. In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama. On his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Misquito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520 SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. González claimed to have converted some 31,000 indigenous peoples to Christianity and discovered a possible trans-isthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys, González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by the chief Diriangén. SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery González later returned to Panama, where Governor Pedro Arias Dávila tried to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. González escaped to Santo Domingo. It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded.[15] Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua's principal towns in 1524: Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and attacked against incursions by the other conquistadors. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered during 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo. Sony VAIO PCG-81112M batteryThe clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains.[18] By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadors came out winners, while they executed or murdered others. Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner—although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony.[17] The land was parceled out to the conquistadors, who were most interested in the western portion. They enslaved many indigenous people as labor to develop and maintain estates there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, some were killed in warfare. The great majority were sold as slaves SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery, and shipped to other Spanish colonies in the New World, at a significant profit to the newly landed aristocracy. Many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence.[15] Colonization to independence Corn Island off the Atlantic Coast was a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua SONY VAIO PCG-7195M batteryThe Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring Granada from pirate attacks. Today, it is one of the country's main tourist attractions. Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua 1901 In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León. During the American Revolutionary War, Central America was subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua. Horatio Nelson led expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and the San Juan in 1780, which had temporary success before being abandoned due to disease SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery. In turn, the Spanish colonial leaders could not completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast. The Captaincy General of Guatemala was dissolved in September 1821 with the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and Nicaragua became part of the First Mexican Empire. After the monarchy of the First Mexican Empire was overthrown in 1823 SONY PCG-8113M battery, Nicaragua joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America, which was later renamed as the Federal Republic of Central America. Nicaragua finally became an independent republic in 1838. Rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada characterized the early years of independence and often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s SONY PCG-8112M battery . Invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer and filibuster named William Walker set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election in 1856. Costa Rica, Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out of Nicaragua in 1857, after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued SONY PCG-7134M battery. Great Britain, which had claimed the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate since 1655, delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. The Mosquito Coast remained an autonomous area until 1894. José Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893–1909, negotiated the annexation of the Mosquito Coast to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honor, the region was named Zelaya Department SONY PCG-7131M battery. In the 19th century, Nicaragua attracted many immigrants, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium emigrated to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses, such as coffee and sugar-cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks SONY PCG-7122M battery . Throughout the late 19th century, the United States (and several European powers) considered a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua, linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.[23] A bill was put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, which failed to pass; construction of the Panama Canal was begun instead SONY PCG-7121M battery. United States intervention (1909–33) See also: United States occupation of Nicaragua and Nicaragua Canal Augusto César Sandino In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) SONY PCG-7113M batterywere executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that SONY PCG-7112M battery... In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic. U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses. Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years. SONY PCG-8Z1M battery When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard),[29] a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan Bautista Sacasa SONY PCG-8Y3M battery. After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year.[30] But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza SONY PCG-8Y2M battery to order the assassination of Sandino. Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by soldiers of the National Guard. Hundreds of men, women, and children from Sandino's agricultural colony were executed later.[33] Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Luis Somoza Debayle (left) and Anastasio Somoza Debayle (right) SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest being the hereditary dictatorship of the Somoza family, who ruled for 43 years during 20th century.[34] The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional, or the National Guard, to replace the US marines that had long reigned in the country. SONY PCG-6W2M battery Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election.[29] Somoza was 35 at the time. Nicaragua declared war on Germany on December 8, 1941, during World War II.[36] Although war was formally declared, no soldiers were sent to the war, but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans SONY PCG-5J5M battery, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately owned luxury resort and casino.[37] In 1945 Nicaragua was among the first countries to ratify the United Nations Charter.[38] Throughout his years as dictator, "Tacho" Somoza 'ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm'.[33] He had three main sources for his power SONY PCG-5K2M battery: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the US. When Somoza used the National Guard to take power in 1937, he destroyed any potential armed resistance.[39] Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power SONY PCG-5K1M battery. On September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency. He died eight days later. After his father's death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country.[29] He is remembered by some for being moderate SONY PCG-5J4M battery, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick Gutiérrez whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas".[40] Somoza's brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick SONY PCG-5J1M battery . In the 1950s, Nicaragua experienced some agricultural diversification. With the help of foreign advice, production figures increased: bananas, sugarcane, livestock and cotton. By the mid-1950s, cotton had become the nation's second largest source of income, after coffee. Import-substitution industrialization provided for some additional economic growth in the 1960s which was halted when regional integration failed in 1969 SONY PCG-5G2M battery. The economy continued to grow through the 1970s, yet rather as a reflection of fluctuation in demand. The biggest rise in the GDP of 13% in 1974 was largely due to the jump in construction after the 1972 earthquake in Managua, which destroyed much of Nicaragua's industrial infrastructure. This boom mainly benefited construction, in great parts owned by the Somoza family. The public expenses were covered by foreign loans and in the late 1970s, Nicaragua had the highest level of foreign indebtedness in the region Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. The Somoza family was among a few families or groups of influential firms which reaped most of the benefits of the country's growth from the 1950s to the 1970s. Most notably the Somozas with wide holdings in almost every segment of society controlled most of Nicaragua's production. The other major players were the Banamérica Group, owned by the conservative elite of Granada with strong interests in sugar, rum, cattle, coffee Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery, and retailing and the Banic Group with its roots in the liberal families of León tied to the Nicaraguan Bank of Industry and Commerce (Banco Nicaragüense de Industria y Comercio—Banic) and the cotton, coffee, beer, lumber, construction, and fishing industries. The Somoza's finances were handled by the Central Bank of Nicaragua (Banco Central de Nicaragua) as if it were a commercial bank Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery. It frequently made personal loans to the Somozas, often never repaid. The Somozas managed to guard their financial interests by controlling the government and its institutions. The family owned approx. 10 to 20% of the country's arable land, was heavily involved in Nicaragua's food processing and in control of import-export licenses. It also controlled the nation's transportation industry Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, either through ownership, or at least through controlling interest in the country's main seaports, the national airline and the maritime fleet. A large part of the profits was reinvested in real estate holdings in the U. S. and Latin America. It has been estimated that by the mid-1970s, the Somozas owned or controlled 60% of the nation's economic activity. When Anastasio Somoza Debayle was deposed by the Sandinistas in 1979, the family's worth was estimated to be between US$ 500 million and US$ 1.5 billion Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery. The 1972 earthquake destroyed nearly 90% of Managua, creating major losses, and leveling a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see this earthquake as the final 'nail in the coffin' for Somoza. Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident.[43] Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,[44] and did not allow the businessmen to compete with the profits that would result Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. In 1973, the year of reconstruction, many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth. Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN) Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty. Nicaraguan Revolution Main articles: Nicaraguan Revolution, FSLN, and Junta of National Reconstruction In 1961 Carlos Fonseca turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with two others (one of which was believed to be Casimiro Sotelo who was later assassinated) founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery Fonseca turned to the KGB and Cuba's DGI for arms and assistance. The FSLN was a small party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza's apparent hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza's apparent corruption, alleged mishandling of relief aid, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose.[39] These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the main hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. In December 1974, a group of FSLN, in an attempt to kidnap U.S. Ambassador Tuner Shelton, held some Managuan partygoers hostage (after killing the host, former Agriculture Minister Jose Maria Castillo), until the Somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to Cuba. Somoza granted this, then subsequently sent his National Guard out into the countryside to look for the perpetrators of the kidnapping Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, described by opponents of the kidnapping as 'terrorists'. While searching, the National Guard allegedly pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. This led to the Roman Catholic Church withdrawing support of the Somoza regime. Around this time, Chilean president Salvador Allende was removed from power in a military coup that prompted Allende to take his own life as the presidential palace came under fire Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. With right-wing Augusto Pinochet in power in Chile, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua.[45] On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated.[46] This allegedly led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery. It is alleged that the planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator's son, "El Chiguin" ("The Kid"), the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a Cuban expatriate and close ally, who commercialized blood plasma Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Nicaraguan refugees, 1979 The Sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional governments (including Panama, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Venezuela), took power in July 1979. The Carter administration, refusing to act unilaterally, decided to work with the new government, while attaching a provision for aid forfeiture if it was found to be assisting insurgencies in neighboring countries. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery A group of prominent citizens known as Los Doce, "the Twelve", denounced the Somoza regime and said that "there can be no dialogue with Somoza ... because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding ... through the long dark history of Somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it", Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980 Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party. To begin the task of establishing a new government, the Sandinistas created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction of five members: Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). Sandinista supporters thus comprised three of the five members of the junta Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. The non-Sandinistas Robelo and Chamorro later resigned because they had little actual power in the junta. Sandinista mass organizations were also powerful: including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos) Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. On the Atlantic Coast a small uprising occurred in support of the Sandinistas. A group of Creoles led by a native of Bluefields, Dexter Hooker (known as Commander Abel), raided a Somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join Sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of El Rama Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. The 'Black Sandinistas' returned to Bluefields on July 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. The Black Sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo Sandinista fighters. The ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the Black Sandinistas occupying the National Guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the Town Hall (Palacio), gave the revolution on the Atlantic Coast a racial dimension absent from events in other parts of the country Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. The Black Sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the Palacio group by the arrival of the Simón Bolívar International Brigade from Costa Rica. One of the brigade's members, an Afro-Costa-Rican called Marvin Wright (known as Kalalu) became known for his rousing speeches, which included elements of Black Power ideology, in his attempts to unite all black militias that had formed in Bluefields. The introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the Sandinista National Directorate Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, which expelled Kalalu and the rest of the brigade from Nicaragua and sent them to Panama.[49] Sandinistas and the Contras Main articles: FSLN, Contras, Iran-Contra scandal, and Nicaragua v. United States ARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987 Robert Pastor, President Carter's National Security Advisor on Latin America explained why the administration had to back Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza until he could no longer be sustained to then move to bar the FSLN from power through the "preservation of existing institutions, especially the National Guard" Sony VAIO PCG-8152L batteryeven though it had been massacring the population "with a brutality a nation usually reserves for its enemy.": "The United States did not want to control Nicaragua or the other nations in the region, but it also did not want to allow developments to get out of control. It wanted Nicaraguans to act independently, except when doing so would affect U.S. interests adversely." Shortly after Somoza fled to Miami, National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski declared that "we have to demonstrate that we are still the decisive force in determining the political outcomes in Central America." Sony VAIO PCG-8141L batteryAs the Sandinista forces entered the capital, the Carter administration "began setting the stage for a counter revolution," Peter Kornbluh observes. On July 19, a U.S. plane disguised with Red Cross markings evacuated the remnants of the National Guard to Miami. The old Guardia was then built into the counter revolutionary force known as the 'Contras' by the CIA and Argentine trainers Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery. On assuming office in 1981, US President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. Reagan said he was also concerned about the growing Soviet and Cuban presence in Nicaragua, and the Soviet hope to turn Nicaragua into a "second Cuba" Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. In contrast to the administration's warnings of a 'Soviet beachhead' in Nicaragua, the June 1984 Bureau of Intelligence and Research report, "Soviet Attitudes Towards, Aid to, and Contacts with Central American Revolutionaries," reported that "Soviet military aid to Nicaragua is unobtrusive and sometimes ephemeral." The author of the report, Dr. Carl Jacobsen found that "the limited amounts of truly modern equipment acquired by the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. .. came from Western Europe not the Eastern bloc." The report concluded that "all too many US claims proved open to question" and that "the scope and nature of the Kremlin's intrusion are far short of justifying the President's exaggerated alarms."[54] Furthermore, the International Court of Justice determined that "the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that, since the early months of 1981 Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery, assistance has continued to reach the Salvadorian armed opposition from the territory of Nicaragua on any significant scale, or that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow of arms at either period."[55] Under the Reagan Doctrine, his administration authorized the CIA to have paramilitary officers from their elite Special Activities Division begin financing, arming Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery, training and advising rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista paramilitaries that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish).[56] This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. Edén Pastora and many of the indigenous paramilitary forces unassociated with the "Somozistas" also resisted the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's Port of Corinto,[57] an action condemned by the International Court of Justice as illegal. Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery The US also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo. US support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Economic Community, religious groups sent to monitor the election, and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery The Reagan administration disputed these results, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time. The administration criticized the elections as a "sham" based on the charge that Arturo Cruz, the candidate nominated by the Coordinadora Democrática Nicaragüense, comprising three rightwing political parties, did not participate in the elections Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. However, the administration privately argued against Cruz's participation for fear his involvement would legitimize the elections. U.S. officials admitted to the New York Times that "The Administration never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race because then the Sandinistas could justifiably claim that the elections were legitimate, making it much harder for the United States to oppose the Nicaraguan Government Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery." Other criticisms of the election, according to a detailed study by Martin Kriele, included that the election was “no more subject to approval by vote than the Central Committee of the Communist Party is in countries of the East Bloc,” since the 1984 election was for posts subordinate to the Sandinista Directorate. Also by evading the secret ballot, “the authorities had had the opportunity to check on how individuals had voted.” Sony VAIO PCG-61112L batteryAlso, “the finally announced results of the election were determined through administrative manipulation – that is, they were rigged,” according to Martin Kriele. After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran–Contra affair). When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems."[67] According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force. He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the Contras Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 led to the same conclusions; major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery. The International Court of Justice, in regard to the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, found; "the United States of America was under an obligation to make reparation to the Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused to Nicaragua by certain breaches of obligations under customary international law and treaty-law committed by the United States of America" Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. United States however rejected and did not comply with the judgement under the 'Connally Amendment' (part of the conditional participation of USA in the International court of Justice, which excludes from ICJ's jurisdiction "disputes with regard to matters that are essentially within the jurisdiction of the United States of America, as determined by the United States of America") Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. 1990s and the post-Sandinista era (movement towards Socialism) Violeta Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas. The Nicaraguan general election, 1990 saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery, as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory, and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people.[75] The unexpected result was subject to extensive analysis and comment. Commentators such as Noam Chomsky and Brian Willson attributed the outcome to the U.S./Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power, the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. The C.I.A. manual, "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare" under the subheading, "Implicit and Explicit Terror" instructs the Contras that "If the government police cannot put an end to the guerrilla activities, the population will lose confidence in the government, which has the inherent mission of guaranteeing the safety of citizens." Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery "The United States wanted the contras kept intact in their Honduran bases to ensure Nicaraguan compliance with commitments to democratic and electoral change," the Washington Post reported. Boston Globe editor Randolph Ryan observed, Washington is sending "an implicit message..to the Nicaraguan electorate: If you want a secure peace, vote for the opposition." Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L batteryThe Canadian Observer Mission's four-week investigation of the electoral process in Nicaragua reported that the U.S. "is doing everything it can to disrupt the elections set for next year": "American intervention is the main obstacle to the attainment of free and fair elections in Nicaragua," the report stated. It added further that the Contras are "waging a campaign of intimidation with the clear message Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery,`if you support the (Sandinista government), we will be back to kill you'." The observer mission estimates that the contras killed 42 people in "election violence" in October.[80] In its review of 1989, Human Rights Watch condemned the Bush administration for trying to sabotage the elections by sustaining the death squads with aid and encouraging attacks on the electoral process Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. On November 8, 1989, the White House announced that the embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. The Bush administration also financed Chamorro's campaign with a $9 million election aid package through the National Endowment for Democracy. Edgar Chamorro, a former Contra leader who later became a critic of the CIA-Contra war Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery, said 'For Nicaraguans, the choice was simple: continued war, poverty and inflation or opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro'.."They were not electing a president, they were electing a way out." President elect Chamorro surmised that ensuing problems such as 16,000% inflation "eroded the credibility of the government" and led people to realize that "if the Sandinistas won, the pain would continue." Sony VAIO PCG-51513L batteryTime Magazine acknowledges that U.S. policy was to: "wreck the economy and prosecute a long and deadly proxy war until the exhausted natives overthrow the unwanted government themselves. Since 1985 Washington has strangled Nicaraguan trade with an embargo. It has cut off Nicaragua's credit at the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The contra war cost Managua tens of millions and left the country with wrecked bridges Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery, sabotaged power stations and ruined farms. The impoverishment of the people of Nicaragua was a harrowing way to give the National Opposition Union (U.N.O.) a winning issue. Nicaragua had been devastated by a 40% drop in G.N.P., an inflation rate running at 1,700% a year and constant shortages of food and basic necessities. At least 30,000 people had been killed in the war, and 500,000 more had fled Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery." Thomas Walker, a specialist on Central America, writes: "The voters chose a candidate of Washington's choice with a 'gun held to their heads', as was clear to many impartial observers." P. J. O'Rourke countered the US-centered criticism in his book Give War a Chance, saying "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies Sony VAIO PCG-51411L battery, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury ..." Sony VAIO PCG-51312L batteryExit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro's victory over Ortega was achieved with 55% majority.[87] Violeta Chamorro was the first female President of Nicaragua, and also the first woman to be popularly elected for this position in any American nation. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. Ortega vowed that he would govern desde abajo (from below);[88] in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president. President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, in 2008 Chamorro came to office with an economy in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery, and a huge government debt had ascended to US$12 billion, primarily due to the financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government.[89] Much to the surprise of the U.S. and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista Popular Army, although the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army. Chamorro's main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery. This provided the stability which the country had lacked for over ten years. In the next election, the Nicaraguan general election, 1996, Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC). 11 years after toppling the Sandinistas, Nicaragua remained the second poorest country in the Western Hemisphere next to Haiti, its 5 million residents beset by hunger, crime, and unemployment Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery. For much of the campaign, Ortega had been leading in the polls, and many observers expected him to regain the presidency. In "The Lost Revolution", Mother Jones reports: "Ortega's political resurrection alarmed the Bush administration, which dispatched diplomat Lino Gutierrez to Managua in June to rail against the front-runner. "If the CIA had any brains," says one political analyst in Managua Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery, "they'd have figured out by now that the Sandinistas not only don't represent a Marxist threat, but that long ago the party was taken over by opportunistic yuppies." Beneath the cynicism, few in Nicaragua see any way out of the current plight. Many prominent Sandinistas have left the party, saying a victory by Ortega holds no promise of meaningful change." Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L batteryIn the 2001 elections, the Bush administration attempted to link the Sandinistas with the "War on Terror" as a means of intimidating the population into voting for the U.S. backed candidate. A State Department press release stated that "we have grave reservations about the FSLN's history Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery." John F. Keane, Director of the Office of Central American Affairs at the State Department warned: "It would be dishonest of me not to acknowledge that the possibility of the election of a Sandinista government is disconcerting to the US government. We cannot forget that Nicaragua became a refuge for violent political extremists from the Middle East, from Europe and from Latin America Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. We are reminded of it daily by the continuing presence of some members of the FSLN leadership, including some very close to candidate Ortega, such as Tomás Borge, Lenín Cerna and Álvaro Baltodano, who perpetrated many of these abominations. Given their past record, why should we believe their statements that they have changed if they have done nothing concrete to demonstrate it…? We are confident that the Nicaraguan people will reflect on the nature and history of the candidates and choose wisely Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery." In response, Daniel Ortega maintained, "We have already expressed our readiness to support the fight against international terrorism. But any action must be based on the consensus of the international community, respect for international law, and not run counter to the system of the United Nations Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery." In the 2001 elections, the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. The Washington Post explained the victory. The U. S. supported candidate "focused much of his campaign on reminding people of the economic and military difficulties of the Ortega era Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery." President Bolaños subsequently brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán. The ex-president was convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption.[94] Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery, stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment. The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN. This "slow motion coup d'état" was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents, who vowed not to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery; the U.S., the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the "slow motion coup d'état".[96] The proposed constitutional changes, to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration, were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. One day before they were due to be enforced, the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008 Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery. Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent). President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, and signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006.[97] As a result, Nicaragua is one of five countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with Chile, Malta, El Salvador,[98] and the Vatican City Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery. In the 2006 elections, Paul Trivelli, the US ambassador to Nicaragua issued a vigorous warning to the electorate against supporting Daniel Ortega. The ambassador said that an Ortega administration talked of a mixed economy and renegotiating CAFTA, the trade agreement between the U.S. and Central America – would force Washington to "re-evaluate" relations Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. "He has made it pretty clear what kind of model he would put in place. And I think that under those conditions. .. [bilateral relations] would definitely be re-examined – and not only by the executive or the State Department or the White House but by the US Congress," he said. The Financial Times emphasized: "It is no secret that the US is determined to prevent the spread of populist politics along the lines practised by Mr Chávez Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery." Roger Noriega, the Bush administration’s envoy to Latin America, in the Managua newspaper La Prensa warned the population that Nicaragua will "sink like a stone and reach depths such as those of Cuba" if the Sandinistas returned to office – Referring to the 50 year old United States embargo against Cuba. Otto Reich, former Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs declared: "If he [Ortega] wins, there will be no foreign investment and no US aid Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery." Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote. This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory) Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. Nicaragua's 2011 general election resulted in re-election of Daniel Ortega. Main article: Politics of Nicaragua Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. Between 2007–2009, Nicaragua's major political parties discussed the possibility of going from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. Their reason: there would be a clear differentiation between the head of government (Prime Minister) and the head of state (President). Nevertheless, it was later argued that the true reason behind this proposal was to find a legal way for current President Ortega to stay in power after January 2012 Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery (this is when his second and last government period ends). C-47 is used in Nicaragua and Air Force equipment. The armed forces of Nicaragua consists of various military contingencies. Nicaragua has an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are roughly 14,000 active duty personnel, which is much less compared to the numbers seen during the Nicaraguan Revolution. Although the army has had a rough military history, a portion of its forces Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery, which were known as the National Guard became integrated with what is now the National Police of Nicaragua. In essence, the police became a gendarmerie. The National Police of Nicaragua are rarely, if ever, labeled as a gendarmerie. The other elements and manpower that were not devoted to the National Police were sent over to cultivate the new Army of Nicaragua Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. The age to serve in the armed forces is 17 and conscription is not imminent. As of 2006, the military budget was roughly 0.7% of Nicaragua's expenditures. Departments and municipalities Main articles: Departments of Nicaragua and Municipalities of Nicaragua Departments of Nicaragua Nicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities). Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery The two autonomous regions are 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' and 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively; until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya. Nicaragua occupies a landmass of 130,967 km2 (50,567 sq mi), comparable to that of Greece or the state of Alabama Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. It lies between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 82° and 88°W. Nearly one fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves, and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Geophysically, Nicaragua is surrounded by the Caribbean Plate, an oceanic tectonic plate underlying Central America and the Cocos Plate. Since Central America is a major subduction zone Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery, Nicaragua hosts most of the Central American Volcanic Arc. Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific lowlands, fertile valleys which the Spanish colonists settled, the Amerrisque Mountains (North-central highlands), and the Mosquito Coast (Atlantic lowlands). The low plains of the Atlantic Coast are 60 miles wide in areas. They have long been exploited for their natural resources. Nicaragua is known as the land of lakes and volcanoes; pictured is Concepción volcano, as seen from Maderas volcano Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery. In the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Cordillera Los Maribios mountain range, including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León. The lowland area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua's Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. Lake Nicaragua is the largest freshwater lake in Central America (20th largest in the world), Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery and is home to some of the world's only freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark).[107] The Pacific lowlands region is the most populous, with over half of the nation's population. The capital city of Managua is the most populous and is the only city with over 1.5 million inhabitants. Scarlet Tanager passing through Nicaragua around April, and again around October. The eruptions of western Nicaragua's 40 volcanoes, many of which are still active, have sometimes devastated settlements but also have enriched the land with layers of fertile ash Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. The geologic activity that produces vulcanism also breeds powerful earthquakes. Tremors occur regularly throughout the Pacific zone, and earthquakes have nearly destroyed the capital city, Managua, more than once. Most of the Pacific zone is tierra caliente, the "hot land" of tropical Spanish America at elevations under 2,000 feet (610 m). Temperatures remain virtually constant throughout the year, with highs ranging between 85 and 90 °F (29.4 and 32.2 °C) Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. After a dry season lasting from November to April, rains begin in May and continue to October, giving the Pacific lowlands 40 to 60 inches (1,016 to 1,524 mm) of precipitation. Good soils and a favorable climate combine to make western Nicaragua the country's economic and demographic center. The southwestern shore of Lake Nicaragua lies within 15 miles (24 km) of the Pacific Ocean Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 battery. Thus the lake and the San Juan River were often proposed in the 19th century as the longest part of a canal route across the Central American isthmus. Canal proposals were periodically revived in the 20th and 21st centuries. Roughly a century after the opening of the Panama Canal, the prospect of a Nicaraguan ecocanal remains a topic of interest. In addition to its beach and resort communities, the Pacific lowlands contains most of Nicaragua's Spanish colonial architecture and artifacts Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. Cities such as León and Granada abound in colonial architecture; founded in 1524, Granada is the oldest colonial city in the Americas.[114] [edit]North-central highlands The central highlands are a significantly less populated and economically developed area in the north, between Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Forming the country's tierra templada, or "temperate land", at elevations between 2,000 and 5,000 feet (610 and 1,524 m), the highlands enjoy mild temperatures with daily highs of Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery75 to 80 °F (23.9 to 26.7 °C). This region has a longer, wetter rainy season than the Pacific lowlands, making erosion a problem on its steep slopes. Rugged terrain, poor soils, and low population density characterize the area as a whole, but the northwestern valleys are fertile and well settled Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery. The area has a cooler climate than the Pacific lowlands. About a quarter of the country's agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. Oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the cloud forests of the region. Bird life in the forests of the central region includes Resplendent Quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays and toucanets Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery. Caribbean lowlands This large rainforest region is irrigated by several large rivers and is sparsely populated. The area has 57% of the territory of the nation and most of its mineral resources. It has been heavily exploited, but much natural diversity remains. The Rio Coco is the largest river in Central America; it forms the border with Honduras. The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart; lagoons and deltas make it very irregular Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery. Nicaragua's Bosawás Biosphere Reserve is in the Atlantic lowlands; it protects 1,800,000 acres (728,434 ha) of La Mosquitia forest – almost 7% of the country's area – making it the largest rainforest north of the Amazon in Brazil.[115] Nicaragua's tropical east coast is very different from the rest of the country. The climate is predominantly tropical, with high temperature and high humidity. Around the area's principal city of Bluefields, English is widely spoken along with the official Spanish Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. The population more closely resembles that found in many typical Caribbean ports than the rest of Nicaragua. A great variety of birds can be observed including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. Animal life in the area includes different species of monkeys, anteaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs. Graphical depiction of Nicaragua's product exports in 28 color coded categories. The seaport in Corinto, Nicaragua is the country's only deep-water port capable of handling container ships and tankers Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W batteryTrains were once the main mode of transport for goods. tracks were sold for scrap. The remaining train engines in Nicaragua now serve as tourist attractions, as seen here in Granada, Nicaragua. Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately US $2.0 billion.[116] In addition, Nicaragua's Flor de Caña rum is renowned as among the best in Latin America Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded. Nicaragua's agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as coffee, beef and tobacco. Light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. On the Pacific side, coffee and cotton are by far the most important commercial crops. In 1992, more land was devoted to coffee than to any other crop, and it is the nation's leading export in terms of value. Nearly two-thirds of the coffee crop comes from the northern part of the central highlands, in the area north and east of the town of Estelí Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery. In the early 1980s, cotton became Nicaragua's second-largest export earner. Production is centered on large farms along the central Pacific coast. Unfortunately, the growth of the cotton industry has created serious problems. Soil erosion and pollution from the heavy use of pesticides have become serious concerns in the cotton district. Yields and exports have both been declining since 1985 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery. Plantation crops are significant in the Caribbean lowlands. After disease wiped out most of the region's banana plants in the years before 1945, attempts were made to diversify crops. Today most of Nicaragua's bananas are grown in the northwestern part of the country near the port of Corinto; sugarcane is also grown in the same district. Subsistence farms, where food is grown mainly for the consumption of the farm family instead of for sale Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery, are found throughout Nicaragua. Favorite food crops grown on such farms include rice, beans, maize, citrus fruits, and cassava. Cassava, a root crop somewhat similar to the potato, is an important food in tropical regions. The plant's roots can be eaten boiled and sliced, or ground into flour. Cassava is also the main ingredient in tapioca pudding Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. The Pacific lowlands and the middle and southern parts of the Central highlands are the principal cattle-grazing areas. An especially large number of cattle are found to the east of Lake Nicaragua. Nicaragua's economy has also grown due to the emigration of retirees from parts of North America and Europe. The influx of incoming residents has generated the construction of residencies and commercial services throughout the country Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery. Illustrated above are the residencies of Viejo Santo Domingo, which are some of the country's high-end residencies. Beginning in the 1960s, shrimp became big business on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The main shrimping centers on the Pacific coast are Corinto and San Juan del Sur. Fishing boats on the Caribbean side bring shrimp as well as lobsters into processing plants at Puerto Cabezas, Bluefields, and Laguna de Perlas Sony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. The lumber industry, concentrated mainly in the eastern third of the country, has been lethargic since 1980, with its activities limited by several problems. First, the best trees in the most accessible places have already been cut down. In addition, pure groves of trees are uncommon in tropical forests. Hundreds of species per acre are generally the rule Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery, complicating the task of harvesting. Moreover, the most valuable dense hardwoods will not float. As a result, these trees must be trucked out of the forest rather than floated downriver to a sawmill. Finally, more restrictions are being placed on lumbering due to increased environmental concerns about destruction of the rain forests. But lumbering continues despite these obstacles; indeed, a single hardwood tree may be worth thousands of dollars Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery. Political turmoil has had a severe impact on the mining industry. Exports of gold are down, and little effort has been made to develop the large copper deposits of the northeast. Fighting during the revolution destroyed nearly one-third of Nicaragua's industry. As it rebuilds, the government is trying to change the industrial mix of the country and achieve decentralization Sony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Before the revolution, more than 60% of the nation's industrial production, by value, was concentrated in Managua. The industrial-decentralization policy may help to slow the growth of the largest cities, while assisting in the redistribution of income and development of economies in impoverished areas. Major industries include food processing, cement production, metal fabrication Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery, and oil refining. The Centroamérica power plant on the Tuma River in the Central highlands has been expanded, and other hydroelectric projects have been undertaken to help provide electricity to the nation's newer industries. The economic core of Nicaragua is in the Pacific zone, and the railway and highway network reflects that concentration of activity. The government-owned rail system—an inefficient money loser—is gradually being replaced by truck transport Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery. Transportation throughout the rest of the nation is often inadequate. For example, one cannot travel all the way by highway from Managua to the Caribbean coast. The road ends at the town of Rama. Travelers have to transfer and make the rest of the trip by riverboat down the Río Escondido—a five-hour journey Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Corinto is the only modern deepwater port in Nicaragua. It handles both agricultural exports and general-cargo imports. Petroleum is unloaded at Puerto Sandino, from which it travels by pipeline to a refinery in Managua. Trade with other nations in Central America has increased in recent years. Nicaragua has long been considered as a possible site for a new sea-level canal that could supplement the Panama Canal Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. Components of the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion USD.[3] The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents 17% of GDP, the highest percentage in Central America [117] (2008 est.). Remittances account for over 15% of the Nicaraguan GDP. Close to one billion dollars are sent to the country by Nicaraguans living abroad. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P batteryNicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industrial sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008). A Nicaraguan farmer After 1950 the scope of capital-intensive modern agriculture increased greatly. This growth was concentrated in export crops, while crops destined for domestic use continued to be produced by traditional labor-intensive methods. The shift to industrialized agriculture also significantly reduced the proportion of the population directly dependent on agriculture (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Commercial agriculture thrives in the Pacific lowlands, where cotton and sugarcane are the staple crops. Although coffee is grown in the Pacific zone at elevations over 1,000 feet (300 meters), the most important coffee zone is the northwestern part of the Central highlands, from Matagalpa to Jinotega. Cattle for the export of beef are raised in the southeastern part of the highlands (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery). The overall expansion of export production by large landholders pushed the smallholders who produced the country's maize, beans, and other dietary staples onto marginal lands, with the result that food production could not keep up with population increase. In the 1990s the government initiated efforts to diversify agriculture. Some of the new export-oriented crops were peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery)Nicaragua's agricultural sector has benefited because of the country's strong ties to Venezuela. It is estimated that Venezuela will import approximately $200 million in agricultural goods.[119] Shrimp is one of the main marine export products of the Nicaraguan economy. Forestry and fishing are the bases of the eastern seaboard's commercial economy. In national terms, neither sector was important until the take-off of the fishing industry in the late 20th century (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). Mahogany was harvested commercially on the Atlantic coast beginning early in the 19th century. In the 20th century pine stands began to be exploited. In neither case, though, was the resource managed so as to ensure a sustained yield. Nicaragua's fishing industry operates off both coasts and in freshwater Lake Nicaragua. The lake also has an aquaculture industry. The most valuable catches are shrimp and spiny lobster. The government expanded the size of the fishing fleet in the 1980s (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery), which permitted a rapid expansion of shrimp and lobster exports in the 1990s. A turtle fishery thrived on the Caribbean coast before it collapsed from overexploitation. Mining and the production of energy Mining is not a major industry in Nicaragua,[120] contributing less than 1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Still, gold and silver mines in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country are important elements of regional economies and constitute sources of revenue (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). Important domestic sources of electrical energy are hydropower and geothermal power, the latter from the volcano Momotombo, near Managua. But most commercial electricity is generated by imported petroleum. Although the manufacturing sector of the economy contributes somewhat more to GDP than agriculture, it employs far fewer people. It was traditionally concerned largely with the processing of agricultural products (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery), and it supplied the domestic market with foods, beverages, edible oils, cigarettes, and textile goods. Also manufactured were light metal goods, construction materials, wood and paper products, and chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides. The manufacturing sector was expanded beyond these areas in the 1990s with the introduction of maquila industries, in which imported parts are assembled for reexport. The principal products were garments, footwear, aluminum frames, and jewelry( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery). Growth in the maquila sector slowed in the first decade of the 21st century with rising competition from Asian markets, particularly China. Economic development in the 21st century Nicaragua has widespread underemployment and the second lowest per capita income in the Americas. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods. Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60% of Nicaragua's exports( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery), but recent increases in the minimum wage have a strong possibility of eroding Nicaragua's comparative advantage in this industry. Nicaragua's minimum wage is among the lowest in the Americas and in the World. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal and external debt financing obligations. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). In October 2007, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program. Despite the support, severe budget shortfalls resulting from the suspension of large amounts of direct budget support from foreign donors concerned with recent political developments has caused a slowdown in PRGF disbursements( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery). Similarly, private sector concerns surrounding Daniel Ortega's handling of economic issues have dampened investment. Economic growth has slowed in 2009, due to decreased export demand from the US and Central American markets from the overall recession, lower commodity prices for key agricultural exports, and low remittance growth. Remittances are equivalent to roughly 15% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery) Nicaragua, the poorest country in Central America and the second poorest in the Hemisphere, has widespread underemployment and poverty. The US-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) has been in effect since April 2006 and has expanded export opportunities for many agricultural and manufactured goods. Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal- and external-debt financing obligations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). Foreign donors have curtailed this funding, however, citing accusations of fraud in the November 2008 elections. In early 2004, Nicaragua secured some $4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Managua still struggles with a high public debt burden, however, it succeeded in reducing that burden substantially in 2011. The economy grew at a rate of about 4% in 2011( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery). Nicaragua is among the poorest countries in the Americas. Nicaragua's nominal GDP stands at 6.554 for 2009 and increasing to 8.532 by 2014.[citation needed] Nicaragua's GDP (PPP) 16.709 billion and the GDP per capita is $1,028 for Nicaragua. According to the United Nations Development Programme, 48% of the population in Nicaragua live below the poverty line,[128] 79.9% of the population live with less than $2 per day, ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery) unemployment is 3.9%, and another 46.5% are underemployed (2008 est.). As in many other developing countries, a large segment of the economically poor in Nicaragua are women. In addition, a relatively high proportion of Nicaragua's homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of rural homes. According to UN figures, 80% of the indigenous people (who make up 5% of the population) live on less than $1 per day. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery)According to the FAO, 27% of all Nicaraguans are suffering from undernourishment; the highest percentage in Central America. During the war between the US-backed Contras and the government of the Sandinistas in the 1980s, much of the country's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed.[131] Inflation averaged 30% throughout the 1980s. After the United States imposed a trade embargo in 1985, which lasted 5 years, Nicaragua's inflation rate rose dramatically( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery). The 1985 annual rate of 220% tripled the following year and rose to more than 13,000% in 1988, the highest rate for any country in the Western Hemisphere in that year. The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms to improve profits for foreign businesses, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005 finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua's foreign debt( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery), as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank, Nicaragua's GDP was around $4.9 billion US dollars. In March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s. Since the end of the war almost two decades ago, more than 350 state enterprises have been privatized. Inflation reduced from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and the foreign debt was cut in half( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). According to the World Bank, Nicaragua ranked as the 62nd best economy for starting a business: making it the second best in Central America, after Panama.[134] Nicaragua's economy is "62.7% free" with high levels of fiscal, government, labor, investment, financial, and trade freedom.[135] It ranks as the 61st freest economy, and 14th (of 29) in the Americas( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery). Main article: Nicaraguan córdoba Nicaragua uses polymer banknotes in its circulated currency. Illustrated here is a 50 córdoba banknote. During the era of the Spanish colonial rule, and for more than 50 years afterward, Nicaragua used Spanish coins that were struck for use in the "New World". The first unique coins for Nicaragua were issued in 1878 in the peso denomination( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). The córdoba became Nicaragua's currency in 1912 and was initially equal in value to the U.S. dollar. The Córdoba was named after Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, the national founder. The front of each of Nicaragua's circulating coins features the national coat of arms. The five volcanoes represent the five Central American countries at the time of Nicaragua's independence( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery); the rainbow at the top symbolizes peace; and the cap in the center is a symbol of freedom. The design is contained within a triangle to indicate equality. The back of each coin features the denomination, with the inscription En Dios Confiamos (In God We Trust). Nicaragua is the first country in the Americas to successfully overhaul production of its paper currency in favor of polymer banknotes( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Polymer banknotes were issued in 2009 to reduce the need to reprint banknotes, combat counterfeiting and introduce a more hygienic currency. The previously issued banknotes are still accepted as legal tender. However, unlike previous banknote series, the current series does not have any illustration of politicians. Rather, the current currency series celebrates the country's landmarks, history and culture( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery). Conversion to the SUCRE Main articles: Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and SUCRE (currency) Nicaragua is currently a member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, which is also known as ALBA. ALBA has proposed creating a new currency, the Sucre for use among its members. In essence, this means that the Nicaraguan córdoba will be replaced with the Sucre. Members must make their local currency deposits in Caracas, to enter into force on sucre( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery). The monetary union first will be virtual, to be used only among the states for inter-regional trade. It will then be used in print form. The ALBA-Sucre union is similar to that of the Euro of the European Union. Other nations that will follow a similar pattern include: Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras, Cuba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica and Antigua and Barbuda. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery) Main article: Tourism in Nicaragua By 2006, tourism in Nicaragua had become the second largest industry in the nation,[137] over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%–16% annually.[138] Nicaragua had seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade, and it became the first largest industry in 2007. The increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery) The growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. Gazebo of Selva Negra Mountain Resort in Matagalpa. Every year about 60,000 U.S. citizens visit Nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives.[140] Some 5,300 people from the U.S. reside in the country now. The majority of tourists who visit Nicaragua are from the U.S., Central or South America, and Europe. According to the Ministry of Tourism of Nicaragua (INTUR), ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery) the colonial cities of León and Granada are the preferred spots for tourists. Also, the cities of Masaya, Rivas and the likes of San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe, Mombacho Volcano, the Corn Islands, and others are main tourist attractions. In addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to Nicaragua( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). According to TV Noticias (news program) on Canal 2, a Nicaragua television station, the main attractions in Nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as León and Granada, and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in Northern Nicaragua.[138] As a result of increased tourism, Nicaragua has seen its foreign direct investment increase by 79.1% from 2007 to 2009( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery). Population According to the CIA World Factbook, population of 5,891,199; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 5% Amerindian, 9.0% black and other races and this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 84% urban[citation needed]. The life expectancy was 71.90 years in 2011,[143] a figure roughly equivalent to that of Vietnam and Palau. The infant mortality rate stood at 25.5, roughly equivalent to that of the Marshall Islands and Paraguay. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery) Nicaraguan girls at a concert in Managua. Nicaragua appears ranked 91st in the international mortality rate, which places it between the world average and Panama.[145] The most populous city in Nicaragua is the capital, Managua, with a population of 1.8 million (2005) and an estimated 2.2 by 2010 and more than 2.5 mill for the metro area. As of 2005, over 7.0 million inhabitants live in the Pacific, Central and North regions, 5.5 in the Pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the Caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery) There is a growing expatriate community[147] the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from all across the world, such as from the US, Canada, Taiwan, and various European countries; the majority have settled in Managua, Granada and San Juan del Sur. Many Nicaraguans live abroad, particularly in the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Canada. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery) Nicaragua has a population growth rate of 1.8% as of 2008.[citation needed] This is the result of one of the highest birth rates in the Western Hemisphere: 24.9 per 1,000 according to the United Nations for the period 2005–2010.[citation needed] The death rate is 4.1 per 1,000 during the same period according to the United Nations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery). An African-Nicaraguan The majority of the Nicaraguan population, (86% or approximately 5.06 million people), is either Mestizo or White. 69% are Mestizos (mixed Amerindian and European) and 17% of European origin, the majority of Spanish, German, Italian, English or French ancestry. Mestizos and Whites mainly reside in the western region of the country( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery). About 9% of Nicaragua's population are black, and mainly reside on the country's sparsely populated Caribbean or Atlantic coast. The black population is mostly composed of black English-speaking Creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of Scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as Campbell, Gordon( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery), Downs and Hodgeson. Although many Creoles supported Somoza because of his close association with the US, they rallied to the Sandinista cause in July 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of 'westernization' and imposition of central rule from Managua.[149] Nicaragua has the largest African diaspora population in Central America. There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed West African, Carib and Arawak descent( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya – consisting of the eastern half of the country – into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic. The remaining 5% of Nicaraguans are Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, after whom the country is named( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery), were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the Mayans. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the 19th century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). Palestinian Nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nicaraguan revolution in Managua waving Palestinian and Sandinista flags Relative to its overall population, Nicaragua has never experienced any large-scale immigrant waves. The total number of immigrants to Nicaragua, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. The 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery) .06% in 10 years.[146] In the 19th century Nicaragua experienced modest waves of immigration from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, particularly the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation Germans. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery), newspapers, hotels and banks. Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, Jewish Nicaraguans, and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. There is also an East Asian community mostly consisting of Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese. The Chinese Nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery) The Chinese arrived in the late 19th century but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s. Main article: Nicaraguan Diaspora The Civil War forced many Nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. Although many Nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century due to the lack of employment opportunities and poverty. The majority of the Nicaraguan Diaspora migrated to Costa Rica and the United States, and today one in six Nicaraguans live in these two countries. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery) The diaspora has also seen Nicaraguans settling around in smaller communities in other parts of the world, particularly Western Europe. Small communities of Nicarguans are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Communities also exist in Australia and New Zealand. Canada, Brazil and Argentina in the Americas also host small groups of these communities. In Asia, Japan also hosts a small Nicaraguan community( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). Due to extreme poverty in Nicaragua, many Nicaraguans are now living and working in neighboring El Salvador a country that has the US dollar as currency. Maternal and child health care U.S. medic checks an infant for an ear infection, August 2008 In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Nicaragua is 100. This is compared with 102.6 in 2008 and 100.8 in 1990( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery). The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 27 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 46. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Nicaragua the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 7 and 1 in 300 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery) Main article: Culture of Nicaragua Nicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance. The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence on Nicaraguan clothing. Nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors( SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery). Nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands. The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by Europeans. It was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. The indigenous groups that historically inhabited the Pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery). The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, the Cayman Islands, etc. Unlike on the west coast, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean coast have maintained distinct identities, and some still speak their native languages as first languages( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery). Main article: Music of Nicaragua Nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish, influences. Musical instruments include the marimba and others common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. He is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). The marimba is made with hardwood plates placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo which is popular throughout the country. It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May. The Garifuna community (Afro-Indian) is known for its popular music called Punta( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery). Nicaragua enjoys a variety of international influence in the music arena. Bachata, Merengue, Salsa and Cumbia have gained prominence in cultural centers such as Managua, Leon and Granada. Cumbia dancing has grown popular with the introduction of Nicaraguan artists, including Gustavo Leyton, on Ometepe Island and in Managua. Salsa dancing has become extremely popular in Managua's nightclubs. With various influences( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery), the form of salsa dancing varies in Nicaragua. New York style and Cuban Salsa (Salsa Casino) elements have gained popularity across the country. Bachata dancing has also gained popularity in Nicaragua. Combinations of styles from the Dominican Republic and the United States can be found throughout the country. The nature of the dance in Nicaragua varies depending on the region. Rural areas tend to have a stronger focus on movement of the hips and turns( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery). Urbanized cities, on the other hand, focus primarily on more sophisticated footwork in addition to movement and turns. A considerable amount of Bachata dancing influence comes from Nicaraguans living abroad, in cities that include Miami, Los Angeles and, to a much lesser extent, New York City. Tango has also surfaced recently in cultural cities and ballroom dance occasions( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery). Main article: Literature of Nicaragua Rubén Darío, the founder of the modernismo literary movement in Latin America. The literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times; the myths and oral literature formed the cosmogonic view of the world of the indigenous people. Some of these stories are still known in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery). Nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the Spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as Rubén Darío, who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua. He is called the "Father of Modernism" for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century.[156] Other literary figures include Carlos Martinez Rivas, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Alberto Cuadra Mejia( Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery), Manolo Cuadra, Pablo Alberto Cuadra Arguello, Orlando Cuadra Downing, Alfredo Alegría Rosales, Sergio Ramirez Mercado, Ernesto Cardenal, Gioconda Belli, Claribel Alegría and José Coronel Urtecho, among others. The satirical drama El Güegüense was the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America's most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as Nicaragua's signature folkloric masterpiece( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery), combining music, dance and theater.[156] The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century, making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the Western Hemisphere.[157] After centuries of popular performance, the play was first published in a book in 1942. Main articles: Languages of Nicaragua, Central American Spanish, Nicaraguan Spanish, and Voseo A sign in Bluefields in English (top), Spanish (middle) and Miskito (bottom) ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery) Nicaraguan Spanish has many indigenous influences and several distinguishing characteristics. Until the 19th century, a hybrid form of Nahuat-Spanish was the common language of Nicaragua. Today Nahuat, Mangue, and Mayan words and syntax can be found in everyday speech. The Nicaraguan accent dates back to the 16th century in Andalusia( Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery), and the relative isolation of Nicaragua meant that the accent did not change in the same ways that the Andalusian accent has. For example, some Nicaraguans have a tendency to replace the "s" sound with an "h"" sound when speaking.[159] Other Nicaraguans pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. In the central part of the country, regions such as Boaco pronounce vos without the s sound at the end. The result is vo, similar to vous in French and voi in Italian( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery). In this map, the use of the voseo form is illustrated, with countries such as Nicaragua, where it is predominant, represented in dark blue. Voseo is also predominant in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, where Rioplatense Spanish is spoken. Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of Nicaragua's population. In Nicaragua, the voseo form of address is dominant in both speech and publications. The same is true for the Río de la Plata region of South America( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery). Nicaraguan Spanish can be understood everywhere in the Hispanosphere. Nicaraguans, unlike most Spanish-speaking groups, cannot be categorized uniformly in terms of accent and word usage. Although Spanish is spoken throughout the country, the country has great variety: vocabulary, accents and colloquial language can vary between towns and departments( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery). In the Caribbean coast, many Afro-Nicaraguans and creoles speak English and creole English as their first language, but as a second language, they speak a fluent Spanish. The language in the North and South Atlantic Regions are influenced by English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and French roots. In addition, many of the indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the Miskito, Sumo, Rama and Garifuna language( Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery). In addition, many ethnic groups in Nicaragua have maintained ancestral languages, while also speaking Spanish or English; these include Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian. Spanish is taught as the principal language. English is taught to students during their high school years and tends to be the national second language. Other languages can also be found sporadically, particularly within expatriate communities( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38 battery). Nicaragua was home to three extinct languages, one of which was never classified. Nicaraguan Sign Language is also of particular interest to linguists as the world's youngest language.[162] While Religion in Nicaragua is growing in diversity, the majority of Nicaraguans identify themselves as observers of the Roman Catholic faith. Pictured above is the Leon Cathedral, which is among one of the nation's World Heritage Sites and an active place of religious worship in León, Nicaragua( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery). Religion is a significant part of the culture of Nicaragua and is referred to in the constitution. Religious freedom, which has been guaranteed since 1939, and religious tolerance are promoted by both the Nicaraguan government and the constitution. Nicaragua has no official religion. Catholic Bishops are expected to lend their authority to important state occasions( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/P battery), and their pronouncements on national issues are closely followed. They can also be called upon to mediate between contending parties at moments of political crisis. The largest denomination, and traditionally the religion of the majority, is Roman Catholic. The numbers of practicing Roman Catholics have been declining, while members of evangelical Protestant groups and Mormons have been rapidly growing in numbers since the 1990s. There are also strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast( Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/B battery). Roman Catholicism came to Nicaragua in the 16th century with the Spanish conquest and remained, until 1939, the established faith. Protestantism and other Christian denominations came to Nicaragua during the 19th century, but only gained large followings in the Caribbean Coast during the 20th century( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/S battery). Popular religion revolves around the saints, who are perceived as intercessors (but not mediators) between human beings and God. Most localities, from the capital of Managua to small rural communities, honor patron saints, selected from the Roman Catholic calendar, with annual fiestas. In many communities, a rich lore has grown up around the celebrations of patron saints( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/P battery), such as Managua's Saint Dominic (Santo Domingo), honored in August with two colorful, often riotous, day-long processions through the city. The high point of Nicaragua's religious calendar for the masses is neither Christmas nor Easter, but La Purísima, a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, during which elaborate altars to the Virgin Mary are constructed in homes and workplaces( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/B battery). The country's close political ties have also encouraged religious ties. Buddhism has increased with a steady influx of immigration. Main article: Cuisine of Nicaragua The Cuisine of Nicaragua is a mixture of criollo food and dishes of pre-Columbian origin. The Spaniards found that the Creole people had incorporated local foods available in the area into their cuisine. Traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast; while the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around local fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast cuisine makes use of seafood and the coconut( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35M/B battery). As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as the nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as sweets and desserts. In addition to corn, rice and beans are eaten very often( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/S battery). Gallo pinto, Nicaragua's national dish, is made with white rice and red beans that are cooked separately and then fried together. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil and/or grated coconut on the Caribbean coast. Most Nicaraguans begin their day with Gallopinto. Gallopinto is most usually served with carne asada, a salad, fried cheese, platains or maduros( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/P battery). Many of Nicaragua's dishes include indigenous fruits and vegetables such as jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote.[165] Nicaraguans also have been known to eat guinea pigs, tapirs, iguanas, turtle eggs, armadillos and boas but efforts are currently underway to curb this tendency( Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery). Batter of the Fieras del San Fernando, a Nicaraguan professional baseball team Baseball is the most popular sport played in Nicaragua. Although some professional Nicaraguan baseball teams have folded in the recent past, Nicaragua enjoys a strong tradition of American-style Baseball. Baseball was introduced to Nicaragua at different years during the 19th century. In the Caribbean coast locals from Bluefields were taught how to play baseball in 1888 by Albert Addlesberg, a retailer from the United States. ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery) Baseball did not catch on in the Pacific coast until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed "La Sociedad de Recreo" (Society of Recreation) where they played various sports, baseball being the most popular among them.[166] There are five teams that compete amongst themselves: Indios del Boer (Managua), Chinandega, Tiburones (Sharks) of Granada, León and Masaya( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery). Players from these teams comprise the national team when Nicaragua competes internationally. The country has had its share of MLB players (including current Boston Red Sox pitcher Vicente Padilla and Boston Red Sox pitcher Devern Hansack), but the most notable is Dennis Martínez, who was the first baseball player from Nicaragua to play in Major League Baseball( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery). He became the first Latin-born pitcher to throw a perfect game, and the 13th in major league history, when he played with the Montreal Expos against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium in 1991. Boxing is the second most popular sport in Nicaragua. The country has had world champions such as Alexis Argüello and Ricardo Mayorga among others. Recently, football has gained popularity, especially with the younger population. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has served as a venue for both baseball and football but the first ever national football stadium in Managua is currently under construction( Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery). Main article: Education in Nicaragua See also: Universities in Nicaragua and List of Schools in Nicaragua Literacy Campaign Propaganda Poster Nicaragua's first public primary school opened in 1837. By the late 1860s public grade schools existed in most of the larger cities. In 1877, Nicaraguan authorities accepted the principle that such schools should be nationally funded, and that attendance should be free and compulsory. In 1881 education was formally removed from religious control and turned over to government( Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery), but church-run schools continued to operate alongside the public system. Subsequently shortages of facilities and teachers, especially in rural areas, hampered educational development. The Sandinista government sharply increased spending on education and reduced illiteracy significantly, but shortages of facilities and personnel remained a problem. The Sandinistas also added a leftist ideological content to the curriculum, which was removed after 1990( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S battery). Higher education dates from 1818 when the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) was founded in León. A major reform, begun in 1980, reorganized the country's postsecondary system into two universities: the UNAN, with campuses in León and Managua, and the Central American University in Managua. It also restructured the curriculum, giving more emphasis to science and technology, and less to law and commerce( Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S battery). Nicaragua also has several more specialized institutions, with a focus on education that will promote economic development. Education is paid via taxes for all Nicaraguans. Elementary education is free and compulsory, but many children in rural areas are unable to attend due to lack of schools and other reasons. Communities on the Caribbean coast have access to education in their native languages( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/S battery). The majority of higher education institutions are in Managua, higher education has financial, organic and administrative autonomy, according to the law. Also, freedom of subjects is recognized.[172] Nicaragua's higher education system consists of 48 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics, computer systems and sciences( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery), agroforestry, construction and trade-related services.[173] The educational system includes 1 U.S. accredited English-language university, 3 Bilingual university programs, 5 Bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree.[174] 18% of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%( Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery). As of 1979, the educational system was one of the poorest in Latin America.[175] Under the Somoza dictatorships, limited spending on education and generalized poverty, which forced many adolescents into the labor market, constricted educational opportunities for Nicaraguans. One of the first acts of the newly elected Sandinista government in 1980 was an extensive and successful literacy campaign, using secondary school students( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery), university students and teachers as volunteer teachers: it reduced the overall illiteracy rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months.[176] This was one of a number of large scale programs which received international recognition for their gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and land reform.[177][178] In September 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the Nadezhda Krupskaya award for the literacy campaign( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery). This was followed by the literacy campaigns of 1982, 1986, 1987, 1995 and 2000, all of which were also awarded by UNESCO.[179] Today, the literacy rate in Nicaragua is still below 70%. Communications and media For most Nicaraguans radio and TV are the main sources of news. There are more than 100 radio stations, many of them in the capital, and several TV networks. Cable TV is available in most urban areas( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery). The print media are varied and partisan, representing pro and anti-government positions. La Prensa; El Nuevo Diario; Confidencial Varies; Hoy; Mercurio Televicentro Canal 2; Multinoticias Canal 4; Telenica Canal 8; Canal 9; Canal 10; TVRED canal 11; Nicavision Canal 12; Viva Nicaragua Canal 13; VosTV Canal 14; 100% Noticias canal 15; CDNN Canal 23; Extraplus Canal 37 Radio Corporacion; Radio Mundial; Radio Nicaragua (state-owned); Radio Sandino; Radio Pirata; Radio Maranata: ( Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery); Estacion X; Radio joya; Radio Romantica; Radio Pachanguera; Radio Buenisima; Radio Disney: Radio Oldis
Costa Rica (meaning "rich coast" in Spanish) is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east Dell Latitude E5420 Battery. Costa Rica constitutionally abolished its army permanently in 1949. It is the only Latin American country included in the list of the world's 22 older democracies. Costa Rica has consistently been among the top Latin American countries in the Human Development Index (HDI), ranked 69th in the world in 2011 Dell Latitude E5520 Battery. Costa Rica was cited by the UNDP in 2010 as one of the countries that have attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, and in 2011 was highlighted by UNDP for being a good performer on environmental sustainability, and better record on human development and inequality than the median of their region. It was also the only country to meet all five criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Dell Latitude E6120 Battery The country is ranked fifth in the world, and first among the Americas, in terms of the 2012 Environmental Performance Index. In 2007, the Costa Rican government announced plans for Costa Rica to become the first carbon-neutral country by 2021. The New Economics Foundation (NEF) ranked Costa Rica first in its 2009 Happy Planet Index, and once again in 2012. The NEF also ranked Costa Rica in 2009 as the "greenest" country in the world Dell Latitude E6220 Battery. In 2012 Costa Rica is set to be the first country in the American continent to ban recreational hunting after the country’s legislature approved the popular measure by a wide margin. History Main article: History of Costa Rica Pre-Columbian period Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently Dell Latitude E6320 Battery, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The northwest of the country, Nicoya Peninsula, was the southernmost reach of the Nahuatl culture when the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the 16th century.[citation needed] The rest of the country was influenced by various Chibcha speaking indigenous groups Dell Latitude E6420 Battery. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants Dell Latitude E6520 Battery, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama. Spanish colonization Accounts differ as to whether the name la costa rica (Spanish for "rich coast") was first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, Dell Latitude D420 Batteryand reported the presence of vast quantities of gold jewelry among the natives[22] or by the conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, met with the natives, and appropriated some of their gold.[23] During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (i.e., Mexico) Dell Latitude D430 Battery, but which in practice operated as a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law to trade with its southern neighbors in Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e., Colombia), and the lack of resources, such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Dell Studio 1450 BatteryCosta Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719. Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for Encomienda (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land, preventing the establishment of large haciendas (properties). For all these reasons Dell Studio 1457 Battery, Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors Dell Studio 1458 Battery. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.[26] Independence Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15, 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–21) Dell Latitude D410 Battery, the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica, even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León. Like other Central American nations Dell Inspiron 9100 Battery, Costa Rica joined the short-lived First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide but, after its collapse in 1823, Costa Rica became instead a province of the new Federal Republic of Central America, which theoretically existed from 1823 to 1839, but which exercised a very loose authority over its constituent provinces, particularly the poor and remote Costa Rica Dell Inspiron XPS Battery. In 1824, the Costa Rican capital was moved to San José, leading to a brief outburst of violence over rivalry with the old capital, Cartago. While civil wars raged both among the provinces of the Federal Republic of Central America and between political factions within individual provinces, Costa Rica remained largely at peace Dell Inspiron 1320 Battery. The 1849 national coat of arms was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862 In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now Dell Vostro a90n Battery, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica's reluctance to become politically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration. Economic growth Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in the early 19th century, and was first shipped to Europe in 1843, soon becoming Costa Rica's first major export. Coffee production would remain Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century Dell Inspiron mini 910 Battery. Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas. Since the main market for the coffee was in Europe, it soon became a high priority to develop a transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s Dell Inspiron mini 9 Battery, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890. Most Afro-Costa Ricans, who constitute about 3% of the country's population, descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway. Dell Inspiron 910 Battery United States convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export Dell Inspiron 11z Battery, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company) began to hold a major role in the national economy.[citation needed] 20th century Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability compared with many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917–19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile Dell Inspiron mini 10 Battery. The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between the previous president Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (he served as president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. Dell Inspiron mini 1010 Battery With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century. The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether, and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly.[29] Having enacted these reforms, the junta relinquished its power on November 8, 1949, to the new democratic government. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero Dell Inspiron mini 1010n Battery, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 13 presidential elections, the latest in 2010. All of them have been widely regarded by the international community as peaceful and transparent. Geography Main article: Geography of Costa Rica Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, lying between latitudes 8° and 12°N, and longitudes 82° and 86°W. It borders the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres (800 mi) of coastline, 212 km (132 mi) on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km (631 mi) on the Pacific Dell Inspiron mini 1011 Battery. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km or 192 mi of border) and Panama to the south-southeast (639 km or 397 mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometres (19,700 sq mi) plus 589 square kilometres (227 sq mi) of territorial waters. The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at 3,819 metres (12,530 ft); it is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m or 11,257 ft). The largest lake in Costa Rica is Lake Arenal Dell Inspiron mini 1011n Battery. Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island (24 square kilometres / 9.3 square miles) stands out because of its distance from continental landmass, 300 mi (480 km) from Puntarenas, but Calero Island is the largest island of the country (151.6 square kilometres / 58.5 square miles). Over 25% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by SINAC (the National System of Conservation Areas), which oversees all of the country's protected areas Dell Inspiron 1470 Battery. Costa Rica also possesses the greatest density of species in the world. See also: List of volcanoes in Costa Rica, Islands of Costa Rica, and Category:Waterfalls of Costa Rica Climate Main article: Climate of Costa Rica Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region Dell Inspiron 1470n Battery. Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period and not to the four seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer, and the rainy season, known locally as winter. The "summer" or dry season goes from December to April, and "winter" or rainy season goes from May to November Dell Inspiron 1570 Battery, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions. The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Central Cordillera mountains, with an annual rainfall of over 5,000 mm (196.9 in). Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around 27 °C (81 °F), 20 °C (68 °F) in the main populated areas of the Central Cordilera Dell Inspiron 1570n Battery, and below 10 °C (50 °F) on the summits of the highest mountains. Flora and fauna Red-eyed Tree Frog (Agalychnis callidryas) Heliconius doris Linnaeus butterfly of Costa Rica See also: Wildlife of Costa Rica and List of birds of Costa Rica Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.25% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%) dell inspiron 500M battery. Costa Rica has successfully managed to diminish deforestation from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005. One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife. Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. dell inspiron 600M batteryThese include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler,the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and considered endangered until 2008, when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Deforestation, illegal pet-trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status. dell inspiron 630M batteryTortuguero National Park—the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of Turtles"—is home to spider, howler and white-throated capuchin monkeys; the three-toed sloth and two-toed sloth; 320 species of birds; and a variety of reptiles. The park is recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle, and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest there dell inspiron 640M battery. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species,[45] including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there. As a whole, around 700 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance dell inspiron 6000 battery. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis). Economy An Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica is responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 5% of the country's GDP dell inspiron 6400 battery. A coffee plantation in the Orosí Valley Main articles: Economy of Costa Rica and Tourism in Costa Rica According to the World Bank, Costa Rica's GDP per capita is US$11,122 PPP (as of 2009); however, this developing country still faces lack of maintenance and new investment in infrastructure, a poverty rate estimated to be 23%, a 7.8% unemployment rate (2009 est.),[2] and a trade deficit of 5.2%. For the fiscal year 2007, the country showed a government surplus. Economic growth in 2008 diminished to a 3% increase in the face of a global recession (down from 7% and 9% growth in the prior two years) dell inspiron 9200 battery. Costa Rica's inflation rate was an estimated 4.8% in 2011. On October 16, 2006, a new currency exchange system was introduced, allowing the value of the CRC colón to float between two bands as done previously by Chile. This policy's objective was to allow the Central Bank to be able to better tackle inflation and discourage the use of U.S. dollars dell inspiron 9300 battery. However, as of August 2009, the value of the colón against the dollar has decreased to 86% of its late-2006 value (see commonly available forex trading charts). The unit of currency is the colón, and as of May 2012, it trades around 507 to the US$,[49] and about 660 colones to the euro. The central government offers tax exemptions for those willing to invest in the country dell inspiron 9400 battery. Several global high tech corporations have already started developing in the area and are exporting goods, including chip manufacturer Intel, pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline, and consumer products company Procter & Gamble. In 2006, Intel's microprocessor facility alone was responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. Trade with Southeast Asia and Russia boomed during 2004 and 2005 dell inspiron e1505 battery, and the country obtained full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership in 2007 after becoming an observer in 2004. The Financial Times Intelligent Unit awarded Costa Rica with the fDi’s Caribbean and Central American Country of the Future 2011/12 for its successful record in attracting FDI into the country, and being the number one destination country in the region in terms of foreign direct investment (FDI) project numbers since 2003 dell inspiron e1705 battery. In recent times, pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism have become the prime industries in Costa Rica's economy. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. Since 1999, tourism earns more foreign exchange than the combined exports of the country's three main cash crops: bananas, pineapples and coffee. dell latitude d820 battery Coffee production has played a key role in Costa Rica's history and economy, and by 2006, was the third cash crop export.[54] The largest coffee growing areas are in the provinces of San José, Alajuela, Heredia, Puntarenas, and Cartago. Costa Rica is famous for its gourmet coffee beans, with Costa Rican Tarrazú among the finest arabica coffee beans in the world used for making espresso coffee, together with Jamaican Blue Mountain, Guatemalan Antigua and Ethiopian Sidamo dell latitude d830 battery. Costa Rica's location provides access to American markets as it has the same time zone as the central part of the United States and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia. In a countrywide referendum on October 5, 2007, the voters of Costa Rica narrowly backed a free trade agreement, with 51.6% of "Yes" votes. Dell Latitude E5500 BatteryPoás Volcano Crater is one of the country's main tourist attractions. With a $2.2 billion per year tourism industry, Costa Rica is the most visited nation in the Central American region, with two million foreign visitors in 2008,[60] which translates into a high expenditure per tourist of $1,077 per trip, one of the highest in the Caribbean Basin. In 2008, most visitors came from the United States (38.6%), neighboring Nicaragua (21.8%), Europe (11.3%) and Canada (5.2%). In 2005, tourism contributed 8.1% of the country's GNP Dell Latitude E5400 Battery, and represented 13.3% of direct and indirect employment.[62] Tourism now earns more foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. Ecotourism draws many tourists to visit the extensive national parks and protected areas around the country. Costa Rica was a pioneer in this type of tourism, and the country is recognized as one of the few with true ecotourism. In terms of the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index DELL Latitude E5410 Battery, Costa Rica ranked 44th in the world and second among Latin American countries after Mexico. Considering its subindex natural resources, Costa Rica ranks sixth worldwide in the natural resources pillar, but 104th in terms of its cultural resources due to the country's limited number of cultural sites. Costa Rica has also developed a system of payments for environmental services.[37] Similarly, Costa Rica has a tax on water pollution to penalize businesses and homeowners that dump sewage, agricultural chemicals, and other pollutants into waterways. DELL Latitude E5510 Battery In May 2007, the Costa Rican government announced its intentions to become 100% carbon neutral by 2021.[67] As of 2012, Costa Rica produces more than 90% of its electricity through renewable sources.[68] In 1996, the Forest Law was enacted to provide direct financial incentives to landowners for the provision of environmental services.[37] This helped reorient the forestry sector away from commercial timber production and the resulting deforestation dell latitude e6400 battery, and helped create awareness of the services it provides for the economy and society (i.e. carbon fixation, hydrological services such as producing fresh drinking water, biodiversity protection, and provision of scenic beauty).[37] Main articles: Provinces of Costa Rica and Cantons of Costa Rica Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which in turn are divided into 81 cantons (Spanish: cantón, plural cantones), each of which is directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each canton's people dell latitude e6500 battery. There are no provincial legislatures. The cantons are further divided into 421 districts (distritos). The provinces are: Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Costa Rica Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the United Nations University of Peace are based in Costa Rica. It is also a member of many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy DELL Latitude E6410 Battery Battery. A main foreign policy objective of Costa Rica is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth. Costa Rica is a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). On 10 September 1961, some months after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi ended diplomatic relations with Cuba through Executive Decree Number 2 DELL Latitude E6510 Battery. This freeze lasted for 47 years until President Óscar Arias Sánchez announced on 18 March 2009 that normal relations were to be re-established, saying, "If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica?" Arias also announced both countries would exchange ambassadors. DELL Precision M2400 BatteryCosta Rica also has a long-term disagreement with Nicaragua over the San Juan River, which defines the border between the two countries. This disagreement arises regarding Costa Rica's rights of navigation on the river.[71] In 2010, there was also a dispute around Isla Calero, and the impact of Nicaraguan dredging of the river in that area. DELL Precision M4400 BatteryOn July 14, 2009, the Hague (ICJ) court upheld the rights Costa Ricans had to navigate for commercial purposes to subsistence fishing on their side of the river. An 1858 treaty extended navigation rights to Costa Rica, but Nicaragua denied passenger travel and fishing were part of the deal; the court ruled Costa Ricans on the river were not required to have Nicaraguan tourist cards or visas as Nicaragua alleged, but, in a nod to the Nicaraguans DELL Precision M4500 Battery, ruled Costa Rican boats and passengers must stop at the first and last Nicaraguan port along their route. They must also have an identity document or passport. Nicaragua can also impose timetables on Costa Rican traffic. Nicaragua may require Costa Rican boats to display the flag of Nicaragua, but may not charge them for departure clearance from its ports. These were all specific items of contention brought to the court in the 2005 filing. DELL Precision M6400 BatteryOn June 1, 2007, Costa Rica broke diplomatic ties with Taiwan, switching recognition to the People's Republic of China. Costa Rica was the first of the Central American nations to do so. President Óscar Arias Sánchez admitted the action was a response to economic exigency.[74] In appreciation, the PRC built Costa Rica a new, $100 million, state-of-the-art football stadium in Parque la Sabana DELL Precision M6500 Battery, in the province of San José. Approximately 600 Chinese engineers and laborers took part in this project, and it was inaugurated in March 2011, with a match between the Costa Rica and China national teams. Costa Rica finished a term on the United Nations Security Council, having been elected for a nonrenewable, two-year term in the 2007 election. Its term expired on 31 December 2009; this was Costa Rica's third time on the Security Council dell xps m1210 battery. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Costa Rica and Costa Rican people Costa Rican Censuses The 2011 census counted a population of 4,301,712 people. Whites, castizos and mestizos 83.63%,[75] while 1.05% are Black, or Afro-Caribbean, 6.12% Mulattoes, 2.4% Native American, 0.2% Chinese, and 6.6% other. The average Costa Rican from the Central Valley is 75% European, 20% Amerindian and 5% Black dell xps m1330 battery. There are also over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica) dell xps m1530 battery. The population of European ancestry is primarily of Spanish descent,[2] with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, Lebanese and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish community. The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers dell xps m1710 battery. The 2011 census classified 83.63% of the population as white, castizo or mestizo, Mulattoes (mix of white and black) represent now 6.12% of the total population, 2.4% as Amerindian, 2% as black and less than 1% as asian. Native and European mixed blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries. Exceptions are Guanacaste, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo dell xps m1730 battery, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro-Costa Rican community lives. Costa Rica hosts many refugees, mainly from Colombia and Nicaragua. As a result of that and illegal immigration, an estimated 10–15% (400,000–600,000) of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans. Some Nicaraguans migrate for seasonal work opportunities and then return to their country Dell Vostro 1710 Battery. Costa Rica took in many refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s, notably from Chile and Argentina, as well as people from El Salvador who fled from guerrillas and government death squads. According to the World Bank, in 2010 about 489,200 immigrants lived in the country, mainly from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States Dell Vostro 1720 Battery, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. Health Main article: Health care in Costa Rica According to the UNDP, in 2010 the life expectancy at birth for Costa Ricans was 79.3 years.[81] The Nicoya Peninsula is considered one of the Blue Zones in the world, where people commonly live active lives past the age of 100 years. The New Economics Foundation (NEF) ranked Costa Rica first in its 2009 Happy Planet Index, and once again in 2012 dell studio xps 1340 battery. The index measures the health and happiness they produce per unit of environmental input. According to NEF, Costa Rica's lead is due to its very high life expectancy which is second highest in the Americas, and higher than the United States. The country also experienced well-being higher than many richer nations and a per capita ecological footprint one third the size of the U.S. dell studio xps 13 batteryHospital de Alajuela, Alajuela, Costa Rica In 2002, there were 0.58 new general practitioner (medical) consultations and 0.33 new specialist consultations per capita, and a hospital admission rate of 8.1%. Preventive health care is also successful. In 2002, 96% of Costa Rican women used some form of contraception, and antenatal care services were provided to 87% of all pregnant women dell Studio XPS 16 battery. All children under one have access to well-baby clinics, and the immunization coverage rate in 2002 was above 91% for all antigens.[citation needed] Costa Rica has a very low malaria incidence of 48 per 100,000 in 2000 and no reported cases of measles in 2002. The perinatal mortality rate dropped from 12.0 per 1000 in 1972 to 5.4 per 1000 in 2001. dell Studio XPS 1640 batteryCosta Rica has been cited in various journals as Central America's great health success story.[citation needed] Its healthcare system is ranked higher than that of the United States, despite having a fraction of its GDP.[86] Prior to 1940, government hospitals and charities provided most health care delivery. But since the 1941 creation of the Social Security Administration (Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social – CCSS) dell Studio XPS 1645 battery, Costa Rica has provided universal health care to its wage-earning residents, with coverage extended to dependants over time. In 1973, the CCSS took over administration of all 29 of the country's public hospitals and all health care, also launching a Rural Health Program (Programa de Salud Rural) for primary care to rural areas, later extended to primary care services nationwide dell Studio XPS 1647 battery. In 1993, laws were passed to enable elected health boards that represented health consumers, social security representatives, employers, and social organizations. By the year 2000, social health insurance coverage was available to 82% of the Costa Rican population. Each health committee manages an area equivalent to one of the 83 administrative cantons of Costa Rica. There is limited use of private, for-profit services (around 14.4% of the national total health expenditure) dell Studio 17 battery. About 7% of GDP is allocated to the health sector, and over 70% is government funded. There are some threats to the universal health care model. Primary health care facilities in Costa Rica include health clinics, with a general practitioner, nurse, clerk, pharmacist and a primary health technician. In 2008, there were five specialty national hospitals, three general national hospitals, seven regional hospitals dell Studio 1749 battery, 13 peripheral hospitals, and 10 major clinics serving as referral centers for primary care clinics, which also deliver biopsychosocial services, family and community medical services and promotion and prevention programs. Patients can choose private health care to avoid waiting lists dell Studio 1745 battery. Costa Rica is among the Latin America countries that have become popular destinations for medical tourism. In 2006, Costa Rica received 150,000 foreigners that came for medical treatment. Costa Rica is particularly attractive to American tourists because of its proximity and short flight, the quality of medical services, and lower medical costs. dell Studio 1747 batteryReligion Main article: Religion in Costa Rica Basílica de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles (Basilica of Our Lady of the Angels), during 2007 pilgrimage Christianity is the predominant religion, and Roman Catholicism is the official state religion according to the 1949 Constitution, which at the same time guarantees freedom of religion. According to the most recent nationwide survey of religion, conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica Dell Inspiron 1440 Battery, 70.5% of Costa Ricans are Roman Catholics, 44.9% of the population are practicing Catholics, 13.8% are evangelical Protestants, 11.3% report they do not have a religion, and 4.3% belonged to another. Because of the recent small but continuous immigration from Asia and the Middle East, other religions have grown, the most popular being Buddhism (because of a growing Han Chinese community of 40,000), and smaller numbers of Hindu, Jewish, Bahá’í, and Muslim adherents Dell Inspiron 1750 Battery. The Sinagoga Shaarei Zion synagogue [90] is near La Sabana Metropolitan Park in San José. Several homes in the neighborhood east of the park display the Star of David and other Jewish symbols.[91] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) claim more than 35,000 members, and has a temple in San Jose that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica, Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras.[92] However, they represent less than 1% of the population. Dell Inspiron 14 BatteryLanguages Main article: Languages of Costa Rica The primary language spoken in Costa Rica is Costa Rican Spanish. Some native languages are still spoken in indigenous reservations. The most numerically important are the Bribri, Maléku, Cabécar and Ngäbere languages, some of which have several thousand speakers in Costa Rica – others a few hundred. Some languages, such as Teribe and Boruca Dell Inspiron 1464 Battery, have fewer than a thousand speakers. A Creole-English language, Jamaican patois (also known as Mekatelyu), is spoken along the Caribbean coast. About 10.7% of Costa Rica's adult population (18 or older) also speaks English, 0.7% French, and 0.3% speaks Portuguese or German as a second language. Dell Inspiron 15 BatteryCulture Main article: Culture of Costa Rica See also: Costa Rican cuisine Costa Rican breakfast with gallo pinto Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the 16th century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African workers during the 17th and 18th centuries Dell Inspiron 1564 Battery. Costa Rican cuisine is a blend of Native American, Spanish, African and many other cuisine origins. Dishes such as the very traditional tamale and many others made of corn are the most representative of its indigenous inhabitants, and similar to other neighboring Mesoamerican countries. Spaniards brought many new ingredients to the country from other lands Dell Inspiron 17 Battery, especially spices and domestic animals. And later in the 19th century, the African flavor lent its presence with influence from other Caribbean mixed flavors. This is how Costa Rican cuisine today is very varied, with every new ethnic group who had recently become part of the country's population influencing the country's cuisine. As a result of the immigration of Spaniards, their 16th-century Spanish culture and its evolution marked everyday life and culture until today Dell Inspiron 1764 Battery, with Spanish language and the Catholic religion as primary influences. The Department of Culture, Youth, and Sports is in charge of the promotion and coordination of cultural life. The work of the department is divided into Direction of Culture, Visual Arts, Scenic Arts, Music, Patrimony and the System of Libraries. Although the department creates many initiatives, they are constrained by lack of resources.[citation needed] Permanent programs Dell Studio 1440 Battery, such as the National Symphony Orchestra of Costa Rica and the Youth Symphony Orchestra, are conjunctions of two areas of work: Culture and Youth. Dance-oriented genres, such as soca, salsa, bachata, merengue, cumbia and Costa Rican swing are enjoyed increasingly by older rather than younger people. The guitar is popular, especially as an accompaniment to folk dances Dell Studio 1440n Battery; however, the marimba was made the national instrument. "Pura Vida" is the most recognizable phrase attached to Costa Ricans, and it reflects the Costa Rican way of life. Often, people walking down the streets, or buying food at shops say hello by saying "Pura Vida", which means pure life, or good life. It can be phrased as a question or as an acknowledgement of one's presence. A recommended response to "How are you?" would be "Pura Vida" Dell Studio 1535 Battery. Main article: Education in Costa Rica Estudios Generales (General Studies) building inside Universidad de Costa Rica The literacy rate in Costa Rica is 94.9%,[2] one of the highest in Latin America. When the army was abolished in 1949, it was said that the "army would be replaced with an army of teachers."[97] Elementary and high schools are found throughout the country in practically every community. Universal public education is guaranteed in the constitution Dell Studio 1536 Battery. Primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and high school are free. There are only a few schools in Costa Rica that go beyond the 12th grade. Students who finish 11th grade receive a Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Education. There are both state and private universities, with the public universities being regarded as the best in the country Dell Studio 1537 Battery, as well as being one of the best means of social mobility, given the large proportion of the budget spent to subsidize students from poor families. The University of Costa Rica has been awarded the title "Meritorious Institution of Costa Rican Education and Culture". In recent years, many private universities and colleges have consolidated because demand for higher education exceeds places available in the public sector Dell Studio 1555 Battery. Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti (République d'Haïti; Repiblik Ayiti), is a Caribbean country. It occupies the western, smaller portion of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Ayiti (land of high mountains) was the indigenous Taíno or Amerindian name for the island. The country's highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft) Dell Studio 1557 Battery. The total area of Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) and its capital is Port-au-Prince. Haitian Creole and French are the official languages. Haiti's regional, historical, and ethno-linguistic position is unique for several reasons. It was the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the first black-led republic in the world, and the second republic in the Americas when it gained independence in 1804 as part of a successful slave revolution lasting nearly a decade. Dell Studio 1558 BatteryIn 2012, Haiti announced its intention to seek associate membership status in the African Union.[7] Haiti is the most populous of the predominantly Francophone independent nations in the Americas; others include Saint Lucia, and the Commonwealth of Dominica. It is one of only two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France Dell Studio 1735 Battery. Haiti is the most populous full member-state of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM)-bloc. It is the poorest country in the Americas as per the Human Development Index. Political violence has occurred regularly throughout its history, leading to government instability. Most recently, in February 2004, a coup d'état originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. Dell Studio 1737 Battery A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Michel Martelly, the current president, was elected in the Haitian general election, 2011. The island has had a history of destructive earthquakes. A 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti on 12 January 2010 and devastated Port-au-Prince. The highest reliable death count was estimated at 220,000.[8] Haitian government estimates were higher. Dell Inspiron 1210 Battery The Presidential palace, Parliament and many other important structures were destroyed, along with countless homes and businesses, leaving hundreds of thousands of people homeless. The country has yet to recover from the 2010 earthquake (and subsequent incidents) due to both the severity of the damage Haiti endured in 2010, as well as a government that was ineffective well before the earthquake. Dell Inspiron Mini 12 Battery United States aid organizations have donated $2 billion. Combined with other international donations, these funds are intended to contribute to the rebuilding of the country. Precolonial and Spanish colonial periods The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western third, is one of many Caribbean islands inhabited at the time of European arrival by the Taíno Indians, speakers of an Arawakan language. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti or Kiskeya Dell Latitude E4300 Battery. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean Islands, the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique; the Europeans called these polities caciquedoms or chiefdoms (French caciquat, Spanish cacicazgo). Before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five or six long-established caciquedoms. The five caciquedoms of Hispaniola at the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus Dell Latitude E4310 Battery. The modern country of Haiti spans most of the territory of the caciquedoms of Xaragua (Jaragua in modern Spanish) and Marien. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests. Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country, which have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogane, a town in the southwest, is at the site of Xaragua's former capital Dell Vostro 1310 Battery. Christopher Columbus landed at Môle Saint-Nicolas on 5 December 1492, and claimed the island for Spain. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien; Columbus was forced to leave behind 39 men, who founded the settlement of La Navidad. Following the destruction of La Navidad by the local indigenous people Dell Vostro 1320 Battery, Columbus moved to the eastern side of the island and established La Isabela. One of the earliest leaders to fight off Spanish conquest was Queen Anacaona, a princess of Xaragua who married Caonabo, the cacique of Maguana. The couple resisted Spanish rule in vain; she was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. Queen Anacaona is revered in Haiti as one of the country's founders Dell Vostro 1510 Battery. 1510 Taíno pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola The Spanish exploited the island for its gold, and directed its mining by the labor of local Amerindians. Those refusing to work in the mines were killed or sold into slavery. Europeans brought with them infectious diseases that were new to the Caribbean, to which the indigenous population lacked immunity Dell Vostro 1520 Battery. These new diseases were the chief cause of the dying off of the Taíno, but ill treatment, malnutrition, and a drastic drop in the birthrate as a result of societal disruption also contributed. The first recorded smallpox outbreak in the Americas occurred on Hispaniola in 1507. Epidemics of the disease caused high fatalities among the Taíno Dell Vostro 2510 Battery. François l'Olonnais was nicknamed "Flail of the Spaniards" and had a reputation for brutality – offering no quarter to Spanish prisoners The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, the first nationally codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regards to native Indians. They forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism,[16] and legalized the colonial practice of creating encomiendas Dell Inspiron 1410 Battery, where Indians were grouped together to work under colonial masters.[17] The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in a distant colony. With the decline in the Taíno population, the Spanish governors began importing enslaved Africans as laborers. In 1517, Charles V authorized the draft of slaves. The Taíno people became virtually, but not completely, extinct on the island of Hispaniola. Some who evaded capture fled to the mountains and established independent settlements Dell Vostro 1014 Battery. Survivors mixed with escaped African slaves (runaways called maroons) and produced a multiracial generation the Spanish called zambos. They used the term mestizo for those children born to native women and European – usually Spanish – men. The later French settlers called people of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry marabou. The children born of unions between African women and European men were called mulâtres Dell Vostro 1015 Battery. During the French colonial years, some white fathers sent their mixed-race sons to France to be educated and passed on social capital in other ways, freeing their slaves mistresses and their children. A class of gens de couleur libre (free people of color) developed on the island. As a gateway to the Caribbean, Hispaniola became a haven for pirates. The western part of the island was settled by French buccaneers. Among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco Dell Vostro 1088 Battery. His success prompted many of the numerous buccaneers and freebooters to turn into settlers. This population did not submit to Spanish royal authority until the year 1660 and caused a number of conflicts. By 1640, the buccaneers of Tortuga were calling themselves the Brethren of the Coast. 17th-century settlement Bertrand d'Orgeron attracted many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe, such as those of Jean Roy, Jean Hebert, and Guillaume Barre Dell Vostro A840 Battery. They and others were driven from their lands when more land was needed for the expansion of the sugar plantations, which produced the major commodity crop. From 1670 to 1690, a drop in the tobacco markets significantly reduced the number of settlers on the island. The first windmill for processing sugar was built in 1685. Treaty of Ryswick and French colony (1697) Portrait of J. B. Belley, Deputy for Saint-Domingue. France and Spain settled hostilities on the island by the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them Dell Vostro A860 Battery. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. (The current Santo-Domingo is in the Dominican Republic and was part of the eastern side given to the Spanish through the treaty). Many French colonists soon arrived and established plantations in Saint-Domingue due to high profit potential from agricultural development Dell XPS M2010 Battery. They developed large sugar cane plantations, especially, but also devoted land to the cultivation of coffee and indigo. The colonists imported slaves from Africa to work in the labor-intensive cultivation and processing of the commodity crops, and Saint-Domingue became a "slave society," dependent on slavery as the basis of its economy, with the slaveholders comprising the ruling class. Dell Inspiron 1520 BatteryBy 1789, approximately 40,000 French colonists lived on the western part of the island.[18] In contrast, by 1763 the French population of Canada, a much larger territory, numbered 65,000.[19] There were ten times the number of imported slaves than there were ethnic French. The largest sugar plantations and concentrations of slaves were in the north of the island, associated with the Plaine-du-Nord Dell Inspiron 1521 Battery. By about 1790, Saint-Domingue had overshadowed its eastern counterpart in terms of wealth and population. It became the richest French colony in the New World due to the profits from the sugar, coffee and indigo industries, all based on slave labor. The French-enacted Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms Dell Inspiron 1720 Battery. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died quickly from tropical diseases, smallpox, and typhoid.[21] Some women were suspected of abortions and infanticide to keep children from growing up in slavery Dell Inspiron 1721 Battery. Under these conditions, French colonists often took sexual advantage of African women. A population of mixed-race people resulted; in some cases, the French fathers provided for their children, especially boys, including sending them to France for education. They also sometimes freed their slave mistresses and the children, and gradually a class of free people of color Dell Vostro 1500 Battery (gens libres de couleur) developed, with certain political rights in the colony. They tended to become artisans, shopkeepers and tradesmen, and more often lived in the towns of the southwest, especially Port-au-Prince, the main city. They also lived in Cap-Français in the north, the major colonial city of the region. Generally growing up Catholic and speaking French, the gens du couleur libre became educated, adopted French styles, and struggled to become independent property owners Dell Vostro 1700 Battery. They developed as a class apart from the black slaves. Especially in the North, the continuing importation of slaves from Africa meant that they kept more distinctly African cultural traditions. Revolution (1791) Main article: Haitian Revolution Burning of the town of Cap-Francais Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of men, free people of colour and slaves in Saint-Domingue and the French and West Indies pressed for freedom and more civil rights. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint-Domingue Dell Inspiron 1420 Battery, starting in the northern plains in 1791, where Africans greatly outnumbered the whites. They massacred many planters and other whites, and thousands of refugees fled from Saint-Domingue through the next years, settling in United States cities of New York, Philadelphia, Charlestown and New Orleans. Jean Jacques Dessalines, leader of the Haitian Revolution slave revolt and the first ruler of an independent Haiti Dell Vostro 1400 Battery. In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to reestablish control. They began to build an alliance with the free people of colour who wanted more civil rights. In 1793, France and Great Britain went to war, and British troops invaded Saint-Domingue. The execution of Louis XVI heightened tensions in the colony, and refugees continued to leave. That year Dell Latitude 2100 Battery, 2,000 refugees emigrated to Philadelphia, where they were nearly 5% of the city's population. To build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the National Convention, led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies. Toussaint Louverture Dell Latitude 2110 Battery, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt — a man who rose in importance as a military commander because of his many skills — achieved peace in 1794 in Saint-Domingue after years of war against both external invaders and internal dissension. Having established a disciplined, flexible army, Louverture drove out not only the Spanish (from Santo Domingo) but also the British invaders who threatened the colony. He restored stability and prosperity by daring measures Dell Latitude D620 Battery. These steps included inviting planters to return and insisting freed men work on plantations to renew revenues for the island. He also renewed trading ties with Great Britain and the United States. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides, with its traders supplying both the French and the rebels. Dell Latitude D630 BatteryIndependence and Division (1804) When the French government changed, new members of the national legislature – lobbied by planters – began to rethink their decisions on colonial slavery. After Toussaint Louverture created a separatist constitution, Napoléon Bonaparte sent an expedition of more than 20,000 men under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc in 1802 to retake the island Dell Precision M2300 Battery. Leclerc's mission was to oust Louverture and restore slavery. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months, yellow fever had killed most of the French soldiers. More than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. Leclerc invited Toussaint Louverture to a parley, kidnapped him and sent him to France, where he was imprisoned at Fort de Joux. He died there in 1803 of exposure and tuberculosis or malnutrition and pneumonia sony vgp-bps2 battery. Battle between Polish troops in French service and the Haitian rebels. Slaves, along with free gens de couleur and allies continued their fight for independence after the French transported Louverture to France. The native leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines – long an ally and general of Toussaint Louverture, brilliant strategist and soldier – defeated French troops led by Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau, at the Battle of Vertières sony vgp-bps3 battery. In late 1803, France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire. With the war going badly, he sold Louisiana to the United States. At the end of the double battle for emancipation and independence, former slaves proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue on 1 January 1804,[26] declaring the new nation be named "Ayiti", sony vgp-bps4 battery both a Native American and African term, meaning "home or mother of the earth" in the Taíno-Arawak Native American language and "sacred earth or homeland" in the Fon African language, to honor one of the indigenous Taíno names for the island. Haiti is the only contemporary nation born of a slave revolt. Historians have estimated the slave rebellion resulted in the deaths of 100,000 blacks and 24,000 of the 40,000 white colonists, as well as many free people of color. sony vgp-bps5 battery The United States President Thomas Jefferson continued an arms and goods embargo against the new country. Due to the pressure of southern Congressmen, who feared their slaves being encouraged by the revolt, the United States refused to recognize Haiti's new government until 1867. Americans feared potential slave rebellions incited by free blacks and, after 1810, sony vgp-bps7 battery reduced the number of manumissions in the South, which had increased markedly in the first two decades following its own Revolution. In February 2010, the eight-page document containing the official Declaration of Independence, which was believed to have been destroyed or thrown out, was found by a Canadian graduate student from Duke University in Britain's National Archives. Coming as it did soon after the 2010 devastating earthquake, the discovery is seen by many to be providential. sony vgp-bpl7 batteryThe revolution in Saint-Domingue unleashed a massive multiracial exodus: French Créole colonists fled with those slaves they still held, as did numerous free people of color, some of whom were also slaveholders and transported slaves with them.[29] In 1809, nearly 10,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue arrived through Cuba, where they had first fled, to settle en masse in New Orleans. sony vgp-bps8 battery They doubled that city's population and helped preserve its French language and culture for several generations. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African and multiracial culture.[31] Dessalines was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" by his troops.[32] He exiled or killed the remaining whites and ruled as a despot.[33] In the continuing competition for power, he was assassinated on 17 October 1806. sony vgp-bps8a batteryThe country was then divided between a kingdom in the north directed by Henri I; and a republic in the south directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur. Henri I is best known for constructing the Citadelle Laferrière, the largest fortress in the Western Hemisphere, to defend the island against the French. Despite opposition from the mulatto populace, Henri Christophe successfully united Northern Haiti for a period of time under a semi-feudal corvée system sony vgp-bps8b battery, establishing a rigid education and economic code aimed at sustainable improvement for all Haitians.[34] In 1815, Simón Bolívar, the South American political leader who was instrumental in Latin America's struggle for independence from Spain, received military and financial assistance from Haiti. Bolívar had fled to Haiti after an attempt had been made on his life in Jamaica, where he had unsuccessfully sought support for his efforts sony vgp-bpl8 battery. In 1817, on condition that Bolívar free any enslaved people he encountered in his fight for South American independence, Haitian president Pétion provided Bolívar with soldiers, weapons and financial assistance, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada (now Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela) sony vgp-bps9 battery. Jean-Pierre Boyer, one of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution, and President of Haiti from 1818 to 1843 Beginning in 1821, President Jean Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, managed to reunify the two parts of St. Domingue and extend control over the western part of the island.[36] In addition, after Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain, Boyer sent forces in to take control. Boyer then ruled the entire island. sony vgp-bps9/s battery According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "During his presidency, Boyer tried to halt the downward trend of the economy – which had begun with the successful revolt of black slaves against their French masters in the 1790s – by passing the Code Rural. Its provisions sought to tie the peasant labourers to plantation land by denying them the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own and by creating a rural constabulary to enforce the code." sony vgp-bps9a/s batteryDuring Boyer's administration, his government negotiated with Loring D. Dewey, an agent of the American Colonization Society (ACS), to encourage free blacks from the United States to emigrate to Haiti. They hoped to gain people with skills to contribute to the independent nation. In the early 19th century, the ACS – an uneasy blend of abolitionists and slaveholders sony vgp-bps9/b battery – proposed resettlement of American free blacks to other countries, primarily to a colony in Liberia, as a solution to problems of racism in the US. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 American free blacks migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by the ACS.[40] Due to the poverty and other difficult conditions there, many returned to the US within a short time sony vgp-bps9a/b battery. In July 1825, King Charles X of France sent a fleet of 14 vessels and thousands of troops to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs (reduced to 90 million in 1838) – an indemnity for profits lost from the slave trade. French abolitionist Victor Schoelcher wrote sony vgp-bps9a battery, "Imposing an indemnity on the victorious slaves was equivalent to making them pay with money that which they had already paid with their blood." After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843. A long succession of coups followed his departure to exile. National authority was disputed by factions of the army, the elite class, and the growing commercial class, increasingly made up of numerous immigrant businessmen: Germans, Americans, French and English. sony vgp-bps9b batteryIn 1912, Syrians residing in Haiti participated in a plot in which the Presidential Palace was destroyed.[citation needed] On more than one occasion, French, US, German and British forces allegedly claimed large sums of money from the vaults of the National Bank of Haiti. Expatriates bankrolled and armed opposing groups. sony vgp-bpl9c batteryIn addition, national governments intervened in Haitian affairs. In 1892, the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin.[citation needed] In January 1914, British, German and US forces entered Haiti, ostensibly to protect their citizens from civil unrest.[41] United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934) Cpt. Smedley Butler, Sgt. Ross Iams and Pvt. Samuel Gross entering Fort Riviere in 1915, at the start of the United States occupation of Haiti sony vgp-bpl9 battery. In an expression of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the United States occupied the island in 1915 and US Marines were stationed in the country until 1934. According to Monroe, treaties in 1915 and 1917 gave the U.S. State and Navy departments (and the Navy's Marine Corps) effective control over key government roles sony vgp-bps10 battery; the U.S. assumed responsibility for maintaining domestic peace and put down several small rebellions such as the "Cacos" uprising. Haiti had huge debts, which were refinanced by new loans from the National City Bank of New York, and paid off by American government officials who took control of customs and the national budget. The U.S. transformed the Garde into a modern police force and built up advanced public health, education, ports and roads Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery. According to Paul Farmer, the US administration dismantled the constitutional system, reinstituted virtual slavery for building roads, and established the National Guards that ran the country by violence and terror after the Marines left. It also made massive improvements to infrastructure: 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi) of roads were made usable; 189 bridges were built; many irrigation canals were rehabilitated Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery; hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.[citation needed] Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugar and cotton became significant exports.[42] The U.S. Marines supervised the operations of a client Haitian government, and emphasized American-style modernization of the infrastructure and universal education Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery. Haitian traditionalists were highly resistant to these changes while the urban elites wanted more control. Together they helped force an end to the occupation in 1934.[43] President Herbert Hoover sent a commission that set up a plan of withdrawal that was achieved under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The first step was a gradual, systematic turnover of government functions to the Haitian government Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery; in 1934 it took control of the Garde and the Marines departed. The debts were still outstanding and the American financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941. In 1915, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave was elected president. He was succeeded by Louis Borno in the 1922 elections. Borno worked closely with the Americans. Aware that many Haitians did not speak French, he was the first president to authorize the use of Creole in the education system Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had a sharp impact on black writers in the U.S. (as well as white writers exploring black themes), including Eugene O'Neill, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and Orson Welles.[45] End of US occupation until election of Duvalier (1934–1956) The US occupation forces established a boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic by taking disputed land from the latter. Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery After the US left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo – in an event known as the Parsley Massacre – ordered his Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.[46][47] In a "three-day genocidal spree", he murdered between 10,000 and 20,000 Haitians.[46] He then developed a uniquely Dominican policy of racial discrimination, Antihaitianismo ("anti-Haitianism"), targeting the mostly black inhabitants of his neighboring country Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. Sténio Vincent was succeeded as President in 1941 by Élie Lescot. In 1949, Lescot tried to change the constitution to allow for his own reelection, but in 1950 this triggered another coup. General Paul Magloire led the country until December 1956, when he was forced to resign by a general strike. After a period of disorder, an election held in September 1957 saw Dr. François Duvalier elected President Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery. Duvalier family dictatorship (1957–1986) From 1957 to 1986 Haiti was governed by the hereditary dictatorship of the Duvalier family. Former minister of health and labor François Duvalier, known as "Papa Doc" and initially popular among the black population of the nation, was the President of Haiti from 1957 until his death in 1971. A strong believer in the rights of the Haitian black majority, he advanced black interests in the public sector.[48] He stayed in power by enlisting an organization known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace. Sony VGP-BPS13B/S batteryIn the 1960s and 1970s, Haiti's diaspora made vital contributions to the establishment of francophone Africa's newly independent countries as Haiti's university professors, medical doctors, administrators and development specialists emigrated to these countries. "Papa Doc" was succeeded by his son (born 3 July 1951) Jean-Claude Duvalier – known also as "Bébé Doc" – who led the country from 1971 until his ouster in 1986 Sony VGP-BPS13A battery. In 1986, protests against "Baby Doc" led him to seek exile in France. Army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council.[50] In March 1987, a new constitution was overwhelmingly approved by Haiti's population. General elections in November were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes, and scores more were massacred around the country. Fraudulent military-controlled elections followed Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery, boycotted by opposition candidates, and the elected President, Leslie Manigat, was overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état when he sought to assert his constitutional control over the military. The September 1988 Haitian coup d'état followed after the St Jean Bosco massacre brought to the fore the increasing prominence of former Tontons Macoutes Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery, and General Prosper Avril led a military regime until March 1990. Throughout the late 1980s and into the 1990s, leading members of the military, intelligence and police were involved in the illegal drug trade in Haiti, assisting Colombian drug traffickers smuggling drugs into the United States. In December 1990, the former priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President in the Haitian general election, winning more than two thirds of the vote Sony VGP-BPS13S battery. His 5-year mandate began on 7 February 1991, having survived a coup attempt even before his inauguration, when former Tonton Macoute leader Roger Lafontant seized the provisional President Ertha Pascal-Trouillot and declared himself President. After large numbers of Aristide supporters filled the streets in protest and Lafontant attempted to declare martial law, the Army crushed the incipient coup Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery. During Aristide's short-lived first period in office, he attempted to carry out substantial reforms, which brought passionate opposition from Haiti's business and military elite. His relationship with the National Assembly soon deteriorated, partly over his selection of his friend René Préval as Prime Minister. In September, Aristide was overthrown in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery, led by Army General Raoul Cédras, and flown into exile. Elections were scheduled, but then cancelled. The Organization of American States condemned the coup, and the United Nations set up a trade embargo. A campaign of terror against Aristide supporters was started by Emmanuel Constant. In 1993, Constant, who had been on the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's payroll as an informant since 1992, organized the Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti (FRAPH) Sony VGP-BPS13AB battery, which targeted and killed an estimated 5000 Aristide supporters. In 1994, an American team, under the direction of the Clinton Administration, successfully negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of US forces under Operation Uphold Democracy, thereby paving the way for the restoration of Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president.[51] In October 1994, Aristide returned to Haiti to complete his term in office.[52] Aristide disbanded the Haitian army, and established a civilian police force Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. Aristide vacated the presidency in February 1996, the scheduled end of his 5-year term based on the date of his inauguration. In the 1995 election, René Préval was elected as president for a five-year term, winning 88% of the popular vote. Préval had previously served as Aristide's Prime Minister from February to October 1991. See also: 2004 Haitian coup d'etat, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, and 2010 Haiti earthquake Sony VGP-BPS13B/B batteryThe November 2000 election gave the presidency back to Aristide with an overwhelming 92% of the vote.[53] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, now organised into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence and human rights abuses. Aristide supporters attacked the opposition. Sony VGP-BPL21 battery Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive. In 2004, a revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital; and Aristide was forced into exile, whereupon the United Nations stationed peacekeepers in Haiti. Much evidence points to a key U.S. role in Aristide's ouster Sony VGP-BPS21 battery, with Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, claiming that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore US Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti.[55][56] Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority Sony VGP-BPS21A battery. René Préval was elected President in February 2006, following elections marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations. The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (also known as MINUSTAH) remains in the country, having been there since the 2004 coup d'etat. The United States led a vast international campaign to prevent Aristide from returning to his country while he was exiled in South Africa Sony VGP-BPS21B battery. Released Wikileaks cables show that high-level U.S. and U.N. officials coordinated a politically motivated prosecution of Aristide to prevent him from "gaining more traction with the Haitian population and returning to Haiti." The United States and its allies allegedly poured tens of millions of dollars into unsuccessful efforts to slander Aristide as a drug trafficker, human rights violator, and heretical practitioner of voodoo. Sony VGP-BPS26 BatteryMichèle Pierre-Louis was the second female Prime Minister of Haiti (September 2008-Nov. 2009).[60] Claudette Werleigh (1995–1996) was the first. 2010–2011: Earthquake, cholera, and flooding Main articles: 2010 Haiti earthquake and 2010–2011 Haiti cholera outbreak Port-au-Prince, 19 January 2010 The 2010 Haiti earthquake left up to 316,000 people dead and 1.6 million homeless.[61] Massive homelessness and displacement continues and does not appear to have significantly abated. Government agencies were also hard hit Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. Two days afterwards thousands of U.S. troops arrived to aid in the earthquake relief effort[62] and relief agencies are playing a large role in rebuilding Haiti's infrastructure, while taking care of the short-term emergency needs of the many injured and displaced Haitians.[63] In October 2010 a cholera epidemic was identified. On October 14, the first cases of diarrhea, acute fever, vomiting, and severe dehydration were observed in Haiti, northwest of Port-au-Prince, near the banks of Meye river, next to Mirebalais, Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery Three weeks later, Hurricane Tomas worsened the situation by mixing polluted bodies of water.[65] On October 22, the Pan American Health Organization recorded 183 deaths.[66] These increased after the hurricane. The World Health Organization reported 1,415 deaths on November 20.[67] The Haitian Ministry of Health reported 3,333 deaths and 148,787 infected persons on December 26.[68] Cholera had never been observed in Haiti., Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery"The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that the cholera strain ravaging the country matched a strain specific to South Asia, but said they had not pinpointed its origin or how it arrived in Haiti."[70] The expert panel appointed by the UN concluded that the cholera epidemic in Haiti was due to contamination of the Meye River, a tributary of the Artibonite River Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery, with a pathogenic strain of Vibrio cholerae of South Asian origin resulting from human activities.[71] General elections had been planned for January 2010, but were postponed due to the earthquake. The elections were held on 28 November 2010 for senate, parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011 Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.[72] Haiti is on the western part of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic (the latter shares a 360-kilometre (224 mi) border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is only about 45 nautical miles (83 km; 52 mi) away from Cuba and has the second longest coastline Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery (1,771 km/1,100 mi) in the Greater Antilles, Cuba having the longest. The country lies mostly between latitudes 18° and 20°N (Tortuga island lies just north of 20°), and longitudes 71° and 75°W. Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain) Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery. The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery. Beach at Gommier The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Lac Azuéi Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).[73] The country's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau. Haiti also includes various offshore islands Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. The historically famous island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve. Gonâve Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Cow Island), a lush island with many beautiful sights, is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. Also part of Haiti are the Cayemites and Île d' Anacaona Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. La Navasse located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti,[74] is subject to an on-going territorial dispute with the United States. Main articles: Environment of Haiti and Deforestation in Haiti Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side In 1925, Haiti was lush, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Since then, Haiti's residents have cut down an estimated 98% of its original forest cover for use as fuel for cookstoves, and in the process have destroyed fertile farmland soils, contributing to desertification Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery. In addition to soil erosion, deforestation has caused periodic flooding, as seen on 17 September 2004. Earlier that year in May, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic. There has been little marine, coastal, and river basin management. Forest cover in the steep hills surrounding Haiti's river basin retains soil, which in turn retains water from rainfall Sony VGP-BPS18 battery, reducing river flood peaks and conserving flows in the dry season. But deforestation has resulted in much of the soil being released from the upper catchments. Many of Haiti's rivers are now highly unstable, changing rapidly from destructive flooding to inadequate flows.[77] Scientists at the Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Sony VGP-BPS22 BatteryRegenerative Initiative an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management. Natural disasters Hurricanes and tropical storms In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.[78] Haiti was again pummeled by tropical storms in late August and early September 2008. The storms – Tropical Storm Fay SONY VGN-FZ11E battery, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike – all produced heavy winds and rain in Haiti. Due to weak soil conditions throughout Haiti, the country's mountainous terrain, and the devastating coincidence of four storms within less than four weeks, valley and lowland areas throughout the country experienced massive flooding. Casualties proved difficult to count because the storm diminished human capacity and physical resources for such record keeping SONY VGN-FZ11L battery. Bodies continued to surface as the flood waters receded. A 10 September 2008 source listed 331 dead and 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.[79] The grim state of affairs produced by these storms was all the more life threatening due to already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008. SONY VGN-FZ11M battery2010 earthquake Main article: 2010 Haiti earthquake The National Palace, after the 12 January 2010 earthquake On 12 January 2010, at 21:53 UTC, (4:53 pm local time) Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake, the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.[81] The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince.[82] On 10 February the Haitian government gave a death toll of 230,000.[9] Widespread damage resulted from the quake, and the capital city was devastated SONY VGN-FZ11S battery. The Presidential Palace was badly damaged, the second floor collapsing onto the first floor; the Haitian Parliament building, UN mission headquarters and the National Cathedral were also destroyed. International aid flowed in but was hampered by damaged infrastructure: the main port was damaged beyond immediate use, the one local airport was of limited capacity, and border crossings with the Dominican Republic were distant and crowded SONY VGN-FZ11Z battery. As many as one million Haitians were left homeless.[83] A Haitian school and school bus after the earthquake Haiti will need to be completely rebuilt from the ground up, according to a journalist, as "[e]ven in good times, Haiti is an economic wreck, balancing precariously on the razor's edge of calamity."[84] Several international appeals were launched within days of the earthquake, including the Disasters Emergency Committee in the United Kingdom SONY VGN-FZ130E/B battery, Young Artists for Haiti (Canada) and Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief based in the USA, which was a global effort to raise relief funds by way of a charity telethon held on 22 January 2010. International officials are looking at the short and long term priorities while continuing the daily task of managing the emergency situation.[85] As of September 2010, there were over one million refugees living in tents and the humanitarian situation was characterized as still being in the emergency phase. SONY VGN-FZ130E batteryOn 31 May 2011, BBC News reported that a new report challenges Haiti's official earthquake death toll. "Significantly fewer people died or were left homeless by last year's earthquake in Haiti than claimed by the country's leaders, a draft report commissioned by the US government has said. The unpublished report puts the death toll between 46,000 and 85,000 SONY VGN-FZ140E/B battery. (Haiti's government says about 316,000 died.) It also suggests many of those still living in tent cities did not lose their homes in the disaster. The draft report, which has yet to be released publicly, is based on a survey commissioned by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and draws its numbers from door-to-door surveys carried out over 29 days in January 2011." SONY VGN-FZ140E battery[edit]Demographics Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometer (650 per sq mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Haiti's population was about 9.8 million according to UN 2008 estimates,[88] with half of the population being under 20 years.[89] The first formal census, taken in 1950, showed that the population was 3.1 million. SONY VGN-FZ140N/B battery85% of Haitians (depending on the source because the Haitian government does not conduct a census) are primarily of African descent; the remaining 15–20% of the population are mostly of mixed-race background. Smaller minority groups include people of Western European (French, German, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish), Arab, Armenian,or Jewish origin. SONY VGN-FZ145E battery Haitians of east Asian descent or East Indian origin number approximately 400. Millions of Haitians live abroad in: the Dominican Republic, United States, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), Bahamas, France, French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and French Guiana. There are an estimated 800,000 Haitians in the Dominican Republic, SONY VGN-FZ15 battery600,000 in the United States,[94] 100,000 in Canada,[95] 80,000 in France,[96] and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas.[97] A Voodoo ceremony in Jacmel. Around 80% of Haitians profess to be Catholics. Protestants make up about 16% of the population.[2] Some Haitians combine their Catholicism with elements of Voodoo.[98] One of Haiti's two official languages is French, which is the principal written and administratively authorized language. It is spoken by all educated Haitians SONY VGN-FZ150E battery, is spoken in schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church masses. The second is the recently standardized Haitian Creole,[99] which is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. Haitian Creole is one of the French-based creole languages. It is closely related to French, but is also influenced by African languages. Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles SONY VGN-FZ15G battery, but most closely to Mauritian Creole and Louisiana Creole. See also: National Assembly of Haiti, President of Haiti, and Military of Haiti The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections.[100] The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government SONY VGN-FZ15L battery. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987. The current president is Michel Martelly SONY VGN-FZ15M battery. In 2010, there were 7,000 people in the Haitian National Police.[101] The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien.[102] The legal system for torts is based on a version of the Napoleonic Code. Departments, arrondissements, and communes Further information: Departments of Haiti, Arrondissements of Haiti, and Communes of Haiti For reasons of administration, Haiti has been divided into ten departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses SONY VGN-FZ15S battery. General Haitian politics have been contentious: in its 200-year history, Haiti has suffered 32 coups.[104] Haiti's is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution, but a long history of oppression by dictators – including François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier – has markedly affected the nation. France and the United States have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. SONY VGN-FZ15T batteryThe 2006 Haitian general elections. According to a Corruption Perceptions Index report in 2006, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty and Haiti ranked first of all countries surveyed for of levels of perceived domestic corruption. The International Red Cross reports that seven out of ten Haitians live on less than US$2 a day SONY VGN-FZ160E/B battery. Cité Soleil, Haiti's largest slum in the capital of Port-au-Prince, has been called "the most dangerous place on Earth" by the United Nations.[107] The slum is a stronghold of supporters of former Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide,[108] who, according to the BBC, "accused the US of forcing him out – an accusation the US rejected as 'absurd'". SONY VGN-FZ160E batteryJean-Claude Duvalier suddenly returned to Haiti in late January 2011, claiming his doing so was out of concern for the present situation in Haiti. On the other hand, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was initially denied access to Haiti by Haitian immigration authorities, despite issuing appeals to his supporters, and to international observers, to be able to enter. The world's most prominent governments did not overtly oppose such appeals, nor did they support them SONY VGN-FZ17 battery; an unnamed analyst 'close to the Haitian government' who was repeatedly quoted in several media sources including the New York Times, is reported to have commented, "Aristide could have 15 passports and he's still not going to come back to Haiti. ...France and the United States are standing in the way." However, Aristide finally returned to Haiti just days before the 2011 Presidential election, on 18 March 2011. SONY VGN-FZ17G batteryIn February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU). The AU plans at its next summit in June 2013 to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate. Main article: Elections in Haiti The first round of the 2010 Haiti Elections, was held in December and qualified Mirlande Manigat and Jude Celestin for the second round, but the results of the election were contested. Some people said that the first round was a fraud SONY VGN-FZ17L battery, and that Michel Martelly should be in the place of Jude Celestin, René Préval's chosen successor. There was some violence between the contending parties.[113] On 4 April 2011 the Provisional Electoral Council announced preliminary results that Martelly had won the presidential election.[114] Bas-Ravine, in the northern part of Cap-Haïtien Haiti's economy is still recovering from the massive earthquake in January 2010. Its purchasing power parity GDP fell 8% in 2010 (from $12.15 billion to $11.18 billion) and the GDP per capita remained unchanged at (PPP US$) 1,200. SONY VGN-FZ18 battery Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures. SONY VGN-FZ180E/B batteryThe World Factbook reports a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment and underemployment, saying "more than two-thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs", and describes pre-earthquake Haiti as "already the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere with 80% of the population living under the poverty line and 54% in abject poverty."[2] Most Haitians live on $2 or less per day. SONY VGN-FZ180E batteryAdult literacy is variously reported as 52.9% [World Factbook] and 65.3% [United Nations], and the World Bank estimates that in 2004 over 80% of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad, with their remittances home representing 52.7% of Haiti's GDP.[116] Cité Soleil is considered one of the worst slums in the Americas;[117] most of its 500,000 residents live in extreme poverty. SONY VGN-FZ18E battery Poverty has forced at least 225,000 Haitian children to work as restavecs (unpaid household servants); the United Nations considers this to be a modern-day form of slavery.[118] About 66% of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming, but this activity makes up only 30% of the GDP. The country has experienced little formal job-creation over the past decade, although the informal economy is growing. Mangoes and coffee are two of Haiti's most important exports. SONY VGN-FZ18G batteryGraphical depiction of Haiti 's product exports in 28 color coded categories. Natural resources of Haiti include bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, gold, marble and hydropower. Haiti contains relatively small amounts of gold, silver, antimony, tin, lignite, sulphur, coal, nickel, gypsum, limestone, manganese, marble, iron, tungsten, salt, clay, and various building stones. Gold and copper are found in small quantities in the north of the country SONY VGN-FZ18M battery. The government announced the discovery of new gold deposits in the northern peninsula in 1985, but long-standing plans for gold production proceeded slowly. Copper also was mined, beginning in the 1960s, but production of the ore was sporadic. There are bauxite (aluminum ore) deposits on the southern peninsula, but large scale mining there was discontinued in 1983 SONY VGN-FZ18ME battery. The country's only bauxite mine, the Miragoâne mine in the southern peninsula, produced an average of 500,000 tons of bauxite a year in the early 1980s; however, in 1982 the declining metal content of the ore, high production costs, and the oversupplied international bauxite market forced the mine to close. Bauxite had at one time been the country's second leading export SONY VGN-FZ18S battery. Haiti apparently has no hydrocarbon resources on land or in the Gulf of Gonâve and is therefore heavily dependent on energy imports (petroleum and petroleum products).[119] Haiti's richest 1% own nearly half the country's wealth.[120] Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.[121] Since the day of "Papa Doc" Duvalier, Haiti's government has been notorious for its corruption SONY VGN-FZ18T battery. It is estimated that President "Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wife Michelle, and three other people took $504 million from the Haitian public treasury between 1971 and 1986.[122] Female vendors at a roadside market in Port-au-Prince, 2010. Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide. However the accuracy of the information is questionable and may have been concocted to discredit Aristide. In March 2004, at the time of Aristide's being kidnapped SONY VGN-FZ190 battery, a BBC article wrote that the Bush administration State department claimed that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking.[127] The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.[128] However this cannot necessarily be entirely blamed on Aristide since one of his conditions upon being returned to Haiti by SONY VGN-FZ190E battery the Clinton administration during the 90s was that he not stir the pot away from US Free Market Trade Policies.[129] Clinton recently expressed regret and apologized for the US's trade policies with Haiti[130] Aristide however decided against being further tied to the free market policies that he was restricted to, and he attempted to raise the country's minimum wage SONY VGN-FZ210CE battery. Foreign aid makes up approximately 30–40% of the national government's budget. The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union.[131] From 1990 to 2003, Haiti received more than $4 billion in aid. The United States alone had provided Haiti with 1.5 billion in aid.[132] Venezuela and Cuba also make various contributions to Haiti's economy SONY VGN-FZ21E battery, especially after alliances were renewed in 2006 and 2007. In January 2010, China promised $4.2 million for the quake-hit island.[133] US President Barack Obama pledged $1.15 billion in assistance.[134] European Union nations promised more than 400 million euros ($616 million) in emergency aid and reconstruction funds.[135] US aid to the Haitian government was completely cut off from 2001 to 2004, after the 2000 election was disputed and President Aristide was accused of various misdeeds. SONY VGN-FZ21J battery After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored, and the Brazilian army led the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. Following almost 4 years of recession ending in 2004, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.[137] In 2005 Haiti's total external debt reached an estimated US$1.3 billion, which corresponds to a debt per capita of US$169 SONY VGN-FZ21M battery. In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.[138] "Tap tap" bus in Port-Salut. Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien SONY VGN-FZ21S battery. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve. According to the Washington Post, "Officials from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers said Saturday [23 January 2010] that they assessed the damage from the 12 Jan. quake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and found that many of the roads aren’t any worse than they were before because they’ve always been in poor condition SONY VGN-FZ21Z battery." The port at Port-au-Prince, Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees, compared to ports in the Dominican Republic SONY VGN-FZ220E/B battery. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and congested Port-au-Prince, as well as its central location relative to numerous Haitian cities. During the 2010 Earthquake, the Port-au-Prince port suffered widespread damage, impeding aid to the victims. The main pier caved in and fell into the water. One of the main cranes also collapsed in the water. Port access roads were severely damaged as well SONY VGN-FZ220E battery. Main article: List of airports in Haiti Toussaint Louverture International Airport is located 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) North/North East of Port-au-Prince. It has Haiti's main jetway, and as such, handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. To travel on from the international airport at Port-au-Prince to other Haitian cities requires boarding a smaller plane. Cities such as Jacmel SONY VGN-FZ230E/B battery, Jérémie, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien, and Port-de-Paix have airports that are accessible only by smaller aircraft. Companies that fly to these airports include: Caribintair, Sunrise Airways and Tortug' Air. Main article: Rail transport in Haiti In the past, Haiti used rail transport, but, today, railroads are no longer in use, due to their replacement by other forms of transportation SONY VGN-FZ230E battery. Telecommunications Main article: Telecommunications in Haiti Medical personnel prepare a Haitian woman for surgery at the Milot hospital in cap-Haitian, Haiti operated by the Crudem Foundation. Half of the children in Haiti are unvaccinated; only 40% of the population has access to basic health care.[140] Prior to the 2010 earthquake, nearly half of all Haitian deaths were attributed to HIV/AIDS, respiratory infections, meningitis and diarrheal diseases SONY VGN-FZ240E/B battery, according to the World Health Organization.[141] Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.[142] HIV infection is found in 2.2% of Haiti's adult population.[143] The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America.[144] Approximately 30,000 people in Haiti suffer each year from malaria. SONY VGN-FZ240E batteryMost people living in Haiti are at high risk for major infectious diseases. Food or waterborne diseases include bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever; common vectorborne diseases are dengue fever and malaria; water contact diseases include leptospirosis. Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water SONY VGN-FZ25 battery. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel, and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake.[146] Main article: Education in Haiti Haitian girls at the République du Chili school (2006) SONY VGN-FZ250E/B battery. The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.[147] Haiti counts 15,200 primary schools, of which 90% are non-public and managed by communities, religious organizations or NGOs. SONY VGN-FZ250E battery The enrollment rate for primary school is 67%, and fewer than 30% reach 6th grade. Secondary schools enroll 20% of eligible-age children. Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. Haiti's literacy rate is 52.9%. SONY VGN-FZ260E batteryThe January, 2010 earthquake was a major setback for education reform in Haiti. Literacy levels remain near 50%. Haiti is one of the lowest-ranked countries in the world, 177th out of 186, for national spending on education.[149] Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least $3 billion USD to create an adequately funded system. SONY VGN-FZ27 batteryRara (Gaga) ritual dancers. Haiti has a long and storied history and therefore retains a rich culture. Haitian culture is a mixture of primarily French, African elements, and native Taíno, with influence from the colonial Spanish. The country's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola SONY VGN-FZ28 battery. In nearly all aspects of modern Haitian society however, the European and African elements dominate. Haiti is world famous for its distinctive art, notably painting and sculpture. The music of Haiti is influenced mostly by European colonial ties and African migration (through slavery). In the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French SONY VGN-FZ280E/B battery, however Haitian music has been influenced to a significant extent by its Spanish-speaking neighbors, the Dominican Republic and Cuba, whose Spanish-infused music has contributed much to the country's musical genres as well. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Voodoo ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, troubadour ballads, and the wildly popular Compas SONY VGN-FZ280E battery. Compas (in French) or Kompa (in Creole)[152] is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, played with an underpinning of tipico, and méringue (related to Dominican merengue) as a basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially SONY VGN-FZ29VN battery. One of the most popular Haitian artists is Wyclef Jean. Wyclef Jean, however, left the country before his teenage years. His music is somewhat hip-hop mixed with world music. Brilliant colors, naive perspective and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, delectable foods, lush landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. Artists frequently paint in fables SONY VGN-FZ31B battery. People are disguised as animals and animals are transformed into people. In a mostly illiterate land, symbols take on great meaning. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the Haitian flag often represent his Lavalas party. Many artists cluster in ‘schools’ of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city SONY VGN-FZ31E battery, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Voodoo symbolism. A table setting of Haitian food. Haitian cuisine originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, namely the French, African, and the Taíno SONY VGN-FZ31J battery. Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the Latin-Caribbean (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles) however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. Its primary influence derive from French cuisine, and African cuisine, with notable derivatives from native Taíno and Spanish culinary technique. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors to the island SONY VGN-FZ31M battery. Haitians often use peppers and other strong flavorings. Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally and consequently Haitian cuisine tends to be moderately spicy, not mild and not too hot. In the country, however, many businesses of foreign origin have been established introducing several foreign cuisines into the mainstream culture. Years of adaptation have led to these cuisines (ie: Levantine from Arab migration to Haiti) SONY VGN-FZ31Z battery to merge into Haitian cuisine. Rice and beans in several differing ways are eaten throughout the country regardless of location, becoming a sort of national dish. They form the staple diet, which consists of a lot of starch and is high in carbohydrates. Rural areas, with better access to agricultural products, have a larger variety of choices. One such dish is mais moulu (mayi moulin), which is comparable to cornmeal that can be eaten with sauce aux pois (sòs pwa) SONY VGN-FZ320E/B battery, a bean sauce made from one of many types of beans such as kidney, pinto, chickpeas, or pigeon peas (known in some countries as gandules). Mais moulin can be eaten with fish (often red snapper), or alone depending on personal preference. Some of the many plants used in Haitian dishes include tomato, oregano, cabbage, avocado, bell peppers. A popular food is banane pesée (ban-nan'n peze) SONY VGN-FZ32B battery, flattened plantain slices fried in soybean oil (known as tostones in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico). It is eaten both as a snack and as part of a meal is, often eaten with tassot or griot, which are deep-fried goat and pork respectively. Haiti national football team training in Port-au-Prince, 2004. Soccer is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small soccer clubs competing at the local level, and basketball is growing in popularity. SONY VGN-FZ340E/B batteryNotable natives and residents Main article: List of Haitians Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, who might have been born in St Marc, Saint-Domingue in 1745, established a fur trading post at present-day Chicago, Illinois; he is considered one of the city's founders. In 1779, more than 500 volunteers from Saint-Domingue, under the command of Comte d'Estaing, fought alongside American colonial troops against the British in the Siege of Savannah, one of the most significant foreign contributions to the American Revolutionary War. SONY VGN-FZ340E batteryThe French pirate Jean Lafitte, who operated around New Orleans and Galveston on the Gulf Coast of the United States, was born in Port-au-Prince around 1782.[155] John James Audubon, the renowned ornithologist and painter, was born in 1785 in Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue. His parents returned to France, where the boy was educated. He emigrated to the United States as a young man; and made a career as he painted, catalogued and described the birds of North America Sony VAIO VGN-CR110 battery. Michaëlle Jean, 27th Governor General of Canada, was born in Port-au-Prince in 1957 and lived in Haiti until 1968. Wyclef Jean, Croix-des-Bouquets-born Haitian-American musician.
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after Greater São Paulo.[6] It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent Sony PCG-71313M battery. Greater Buenos Aires conurbation, which also includes several Buenos Aires Province districts, constitutes the third-largest conurbation in Latin America, with a population of around thirteen million.[3] The city of Buenos Aires is not a part of Buenos Aires Province, nor is it the Province's capital, but an autonomous district Sony PCG-71212M battery. In 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalised and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores (both are currently neighborhoods of the city). The 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (Autonomous City of Buenos Aires) Sony PCG-71311M battery. Its citizens first elected a Chief of Government (i.e. Mayor) in 1996; before, the Mayor was directly appointed by the President of the Republic. Buenos Aires is rated one of the 20 largest cities in the world. It, along with São Paulo and Mexico City, one of the three Latin American cities alpha category for the study GaWC5[7] and has been ranked as the most important global city and competitive marketplace of Latin America Sony PCG-71213M battery. Buenos Aires has the best quality of life in Latin America, ranked at 61 ° in the world and its per capita income is among the three highest in the region[8] [9][10].It is the most visited city in South America[11], and most important, largest and most populous of South American capitals as well as the Latin American Documentary "United by History" is the Paris of South America Sony PCG-61211M battery. People from Buenos Aires are referred to as porteños (people of the port).[13] Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination,[14] and is known for its European style architecture[15] and rich cultural life,[16] with the highest concentration of theatres in the world.[17] Buenos Aires is currently bidding to host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics Sony VAIO PCG-31114V battery. Etymology Main article: Names of Buenos Aires When the Aragonese conquered Cagliari, Sardinia from the Pisans in 1324, they established their headquarters on top of a hill that overlooked the city. The hill was known to them as Buen Ayre (or "Bonaria" in the local language), as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city (the Castle area), which is adjacent to swampland. Sony VAIO PCG-31113V battery During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill. In 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea Sony VAIO PCG-31112V battery. The statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the "Fair Winds" to aid them in their navigation and prevent shipwrecks. A sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. In the first foundation, Pedro de Mendoza called the city Santa María del Buen Aire ("Holy Mary of the Fair Winds") Sony VAIO PCG-31111V battery, a name chosen by the chaplain of Mendoza's expedition, a devotee of the Virgin of Buen Ayre. Mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous peoples, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to Sancho del Campo, who is said to have exclaimed: How fair are the winds of this land!, as he arrived. But Eduardo Madero, in 1882, after conducting extensive research in Spanish archives would ultimately conclude that the name was closely linked with the devotion of the sailors to Our Lady of Buen Ayre Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire ("City of the Most Holy Trinity and Port of Saint Mary of the Fair Winds") Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. The short form "Buenos Aires" became the common usage during the 17th century.[19] Depiction of Juan de Garay and the second founding of Buenos Aires, 1580 Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516. His expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. The city of Buenos Aires was first established as Ciudad de Nuestra Señora Santa María del Buen Ayre[20] (literally "City of Our Lady Saint Mary of the Fair Winds") after Our Lady of Bonaria (Patroness Saint of Sardinia) on 2 February 1536 by a Spanish expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza. The settlement founded by Mendoza was located in what is today the San Telmo district of Buenos Aires, south of the city center Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. More attacks by the indigenous peoples forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad" and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires." Sony VAIO PCG-41111V batteryFrom its earliest days, Buenos Aires depended primarily on trade. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Spanish ships were menaced by pirates, so they developed a complex system where ships with military protection were dispatched to Central America, cross the land, from there to Lima, Peru and from it to the inner cities of the viceroyalty Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery. Because of this, products took a very long time to arrive in Buenos Aires, and the taxes generated by the transport made them prohibitive. This scheme frustrated the traders of Buenos Aires, and a thriving contraband industry developed. This also instilled a deep resentment in porteños towards the Spanish authorities. Sony VAIO PCG-41111M batterySensing these feelings, Charles III of Spain progressively eased the trade restrictions and finally declared Buenos Aires an open port in the late 18th century. The capture of Porto Bello by British forces also fueled the need to foster commerce via the Atlantic route, to the detriment of Lima-based trade. One of his rulings was to split a region from the Viceroyalty SONY VAIO PCG-21214V battery of Perú and create instead the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with Buenos Aires as the capital. However, Charles's placating actions did not have the desired effect, and the porteños, some of them versed in the ideology of the French Revolution, became even more convinced of the need for Independence from Spain SONY VAIO PCG-21213V battery. War of independence During the British invasions of the Río de la Plata, British forces attacked Buenos Aires twice. In 1806 the British successfully invaded Buenos Aires, but an army from Montevideo led by Santiago de Liniers defeated them. In the brief period of British rule, the viceroy Rafael Sobremonte managed to escape to Córdoba and designated this city as capital SONY VAIO PCG-21212V battery. Buenos Aires became again the capital after its liberation, but Sobremonte could not resume as viceroy. Santiago de Liniers, chosen as new viceroy, armed the city to be prepared against a possible new British attack, defeating the invasion attempt of 1807. The militarization generated in society changed the balance of power favorably for the criollos (in contrast to peninsulars) SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery, as well as the development of the Peninsular War in Spain. An attempt by the peninsular merchant Martín de Álzaga to remove Liniers and replace him with a Junta was defeated by the criollo armies. However, by 1810 it would be those same armies who would support a new revolutionary attempt, successfully removing the new viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery. This is known as the May Revolution, which is in present day celebrated as a national holiday. This event started the Argentine War of Independence, and many armies left Buenos Aires to fight the diverse strongholds of royalist resistance, with varying levels of success. The government was held first by two Juntas of many members, then by two triumvirates of only three members SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, and finally by an unipersonal office, the Supreme Director. Formal independence from Spain was declared in 1816, in the Congress of Tucumán. Buenos Aires managed to endure the whole Spanish American wars of independence without falling again into royalist rule. Historically, Buenos Aires has been Argentina's main venue for liberal and free-trade ideas, while many of the provinces SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery, especially to the northwest, advocated a more conservative Catholic approach to political and social issues. Much of the internal tension in Argentina's history, starting with the centralist-federalist conflicts of the 19th century, can be traced back to these contrasting views. In the months immediately following the 25 May Revolution, Buenos Aires sent a number of military envoys to the provinces with the intention of obtaining their approval SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. Many of these missions ended in violent clashes, and the enterprise fueled the tensions between the capital and the provinces. In the 19th century the city was blockaded twice by naval forces: by the French from 1838 to 1840, and later by a joint Anglo-French expedition from 1845 to 1848. Both blockades failed to force the city into submission, and the foreign powers eventually desisted from their demands SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery. Modern history The May Square during the centennial of the May Revolution, 1910. During most of the 19th century, the political status of the city remained a sensitive subject. It was already capital of Buenos Aires Province, and between 1853 and 1860 it was the capital of the seceded State of Buenos Aires. The issue was fought out more than once on the battlefield, until the matter was finally settled in 1880 when the city was federalized and became the seat of government, with its Mayor appointed by the President. The Casa Rosada became the seat of the President. SONY VAIO PCG-51111V batteryIn addition to the wealth generated by the Buenos Aires Customs and the fertile pampas, railroad development in the second half of the 19th century increased the economic power of Buenos Aires as raw materials flowed into its factories. A leading destination for immigrants from Europe, particularly Italy and Spain, from 1880 to 1930 Buenos Aires became a multicultural city that ranked itself with the major European capitals SONY VAIO PCG-81211V battery. The Colón Theater became one of the world's top opera venues, and the city became the regional capital of radio, television, cinema, and theatre. The city's main avenues were built during those years, and the dawn of the 20th century saw the construction of South America's then-tallest buildings and the first underground system. A second construction boom from 1945 to 1980 reshaped downtown and much of the city SONY VAIO PCG-81111V battery. Subte, the metro has historically been characterized by artistic works in its stations. Buenos Aires also attracted migrants from Argentina's provinces and neighboring countries. Shanty towns (villas miseria) started growing around the city's industrial areas during the 1930s, leading to pervasive social problems and social contrasts with the largely upwardly mobile Buenos Aires population. These laborers became the political base of Peronism SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery, which emerged in Buenos Aires during the pivotal demonstration of 17 October 1945, at the Plaza de Mayo.[23] Industrial workers of the Greater Buenos Aires industrial belt have been Peronism's main support base ever since, and Plaza de Mayo became the site for demonstrations and many of the country's political events; on 16 June 1955, however, a splinter faction of the Navy bombed the Plaza de Mayo area Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery, killing 364 civilians (see Bombing of Plaza de Mayo). This was the only time the city was attacked from the air, and the event was followed by a military uprising which deposed President Perón, three months later (see Revolución Libertadora). In the 1970s the city suffered from the fighting between left-wing revolutionary movements (Montoneros, E.R.P. and F.A.R.) and the right-wing paramilitary group Triple A, supported by Isabel Perón, who became president of Argentina in 1974 after Juan Perón's death SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. The March 1976 coup, led by General Jorge Videla, only escalated this conflict; the "Dirty War" resulted in 30,000 desaparecidos (people kidnapped and killed by the military during the years of the junta).[24] The silent marches of their mothers (Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo) are a well-known image of Argentines suffering during those times SONY VAIO PCG-7192V battery. The Cabildo of Buenos Aires view from Plaza de Mayo. The dictatorship's appointed mayor, Osvaldo Cacciatore, also drew up plans for a network of freeways intended to relieve the city's acute traffic gridlock. The plan, however, called for a seemingly indiscriminate razing of residential areas and, though only three of the eight planned were put up at the time, they were mostly obtrusive raised freeways that continue to blight a number of formerly comfortable neighborhoods to this day SONY VAIO PCG-7191V battery. The city was visited by Pope John Paul II twice: in 1982, because of the outbreak of the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del Atlántico Sur), and a second visit in 1987, which gathered some of the largest crowds in the city's history. The return of democracy in 1983 coincided with a cultural revival, and the 1990s saw an economic revival, particularly in the construction and financial sectors SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery. On 17 March 1992 a bomb exploded in the Israeli Embassy, killing 29 and injuring 242. Another explosion, on 18 July 1994 destroyed a building housing several Jewish organizations, killing 85 and injuring many more, these incidents marked the beginning of Middle Eastern terrorism to South America SONY VAIO PCG-7195M battery. Following a 1993 agreement, the Argentine Constitution was amended to give Buenos Aires autonomy and rescinding, among other things, the president's right to appoint the city's mayor (as had been the case since 1880). On 30 June 1996, voters in Buenos Aires chose their first elected mayor (Chief of Government) SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery. On 30 December 2004 a fire at the República Cromagnon nightclub killed almost 200 people, one of the greatest non-natural tragedies in Argentine history. In April 2012, a storm hit the region, killing 13 people, including four in the city of Buenos Aires.[25] The current mayor of the city is Mauricio Macri, elected in 2007 and re-elected in 2011. Government and politics SONY VAIO PCG-7192M batteryGovernment structure The Congress Palace in Balvanera. Buenos Aires is represented in the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Pink House viewed from Plaza de Mayo. The Executive is held by the Chief of Government (Spanish: Jefe de Gobierno), elected for a four-year term together with a Deputy Chief of Government, who presides over the 60-member Buenos Aires City Legislature. Each member of the Legislature is elected for a four-year term SONY PCG-8113M battery; half of the legislature is renewed every two years. Elections use the D'Hondt method of proportional representation. The Judicial branch is composed of the Supreme Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justicia), the Magistrate's Council (Consejo de la Magistratura), the Public Ministry, and other City Courts. The Article 61 of the 1996 Constitution of the City of Buenos Aires states that "Suffrage is free SONY PCG-8112M battery, equal, secret, universal, compulsory and non-accumulative. Resident aliens enjoy this same right, with its corresponding obligations, on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in the district, under the terms established by law."[26] Legally, the city has less autonomy than the Provinces[citation needed]. In June 1996, shortly before the City's first Executive elections were held, the Argentine National Congress issued the National Law 24.588 SONY PCG-7134M battery (known as Ley Cafiero, after the Senator who advanced the project) by which the authority over the 25,000-strong Argentine Federal Police and the responsibility over the federal institutions residing at the City (e.g., National Supreme Court of Justice buildings) would not be transferred from the National Government to the Autonomous City Government until a new consensus could be reached at the National Congress SONY PCG-7131M battery. Furthermore, it declared that the Port of Buenos Aires, along with some other places, would remain under constituted federal authorities.[27] As of 2011, the deployment of the Metropolitan Police of Buenos Aires is ongoing. Beginning in 2007, the city has embarked on a new decentralization scheme, creating new Communes (comunas) which are to be managed by elected committees of seven members each. Recent political history SONY PCG-7122M batteryIn 1996, following the 1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution, the city held its first mayoral elections under the new statutes, with the mayor's title formally changed to "Head of Government". The winner was Fernando de la Rúa, who would later become President of Argentina from 1999 to 2001 SONY PCG-7121M battery. De la Rúa's successor, Aníbal Ibarra, won two popular elections, but was impeached (and ultimately deposed on 6 March 2006) as a result of the fire at the República Cromagnon nightclub. Jorge Telerman, who had been the acting mayor, was invested with the office. In the 2007 elections, Mauricio Macri won the second-round of voting over Daniel Filmus, taking office on 9 December 2007 SONY PCG-7113M battery . National representation Buenos Aires is represented in the Argentine Senate by three senators (as of 2011, María Eugenia Estenssoro, Samuel Cabanchik and Daniel Filmus).[29] The people of Buenos Aires also elect 25 national deputies to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies. Demographics Census data In the census of 2001 there were 2,891,082 people residing in the city.[30] The population density in Buenos Aires proper was 13,680 inhabitants per square kilometer (34,800 per mi2) SONY PCG-7112M battery , but only about 2,400 per km2 (6,100 per mi2) in the suburbs. The racial makeup of the city is 88.9% White, 7% Mestizo, 2% Asian and 1% Black.[31] The population of Buenos Aires proper has hovered around 3 million since 1947, due to low birth rates and a slow migration to the suburbs. The surrounding districts have, however, expanded over fivefold (to around 10 million) since then SONY PCG-8Z3M battery. The 2001 census showed a relatively aged population: with 17% under the age of fifteen and 22% over sixty, the people of Buenos Aires have an age structure similar to those in most European cities. They are older than Argentines as a whole (of whom 28% were under 15, and 14% over 60) SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. Two-thirds of the city's residents live in apartment buildings and 30% in single-family homes; 4% live in sub-standard housing.[33] Measured in terms of income, the city's poverty rate was 8.4% in 2007 and, including the metro area, 20.6%.[34] Other studies estimate that 4 million people in the metropolitan Buenos Aires area live in poverty. SONY PCG-8Z1M batteryThe city's resident labor force of 1.2 million in 2001 was mostly employed in the services sector, particularly social services (25%), commerce and tourism (20%) and business and financial services (17%); despite the city's role as Argentina's capital, public administration employed only 6%. Manufacturing still employed 10%. SONY PCG-8Y3M batteryMain article: Barrios of Buenos Aires The city is divided into 48 barrios or, districts, for administrative purposes.[36] The division was originally based on Catholic parroquias (parishes), but has undergone a series of changes since the 1940s. A newer scheme has divided the city into 15 comunas (communes). Population origin The Immigrants' Hotel, constructed in 1906, received and assisted the thousands of immigrants arriving to the city. The hotel is now a National Museum SONY PCG-8Y2M battery. See also: Immigration in Argentina The majority of porteños have European origins, with Italian and Spanish descent being the most common, from the Calabrian, Ligurian, Piedmont, Lombardy, Sicily and Campania regions of Italy and from the Andalusian, Galician, Asturian, and Basque regions of Spain.[38][39] Other origins include Polish, Arab, German, French, Irish, Dutch, Greek, Portuguese, Norwegian, Russian, Swedish, Croatian, and British SONY PCG-7Z1M battery. In the 1990s there was a small wave of immigration from Romania and Ukraine.[40] There is a minority of old criollo stock, dating back to the Spanish colonial days. The Criollo and Spanish-aboriginal (mestizo) population in the city has increased mostly as a result of immigration from the inner provinces and from other countries such as neighboring Bolivia, Paraguay and Chile and Perú, since the second half of the 20th century. SONY PCG-6W2M batteryImportant Syrian-Lebanese and Armenian communities have had a significant presence in commerce and civic life since the beginning of the 20th century. The Jewish community in Greater Buenos Aires numbers around 250,000, and is the largest in Latin America and the second largest in the Americas. Most are of Northern and Eastern European Ashkenazi origin, primarily Russian, German and Polish Jews SONY PCG-5J5M battery , with a significant Sephardic minority, mostly made up of Syrian Jews.[41] The first major East Asian community in Buenos Aires was the Japanese, mainly from Okinawa. Traditionally, Japanese-Argentines were noted as flower growers; in the city proper, there was a Japanese near-monopoly in dry cleaning. Later generations have branched out into all fields of economic activity SONY PCG-5K2M battery . Starting in the 1970s there has been an important influx of immigration from China and Korea. Most inhabitants are Roman Catholic, though studies in recent decades found that fewer than 20% are practicing.[42] Buenos Aires is the seat of a Roman Catholic metropolitan archbishop (the Catholic primate of Argentina), currently Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio. There are Protestant, Orthodox Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormon minorities SONY PCG-5K1M battery. The city is home to the largest mosque in South America.[43] Aerial view of the city's coast. Aerial view of Buenos Aires and Río de La Plata. The limits of Buenos Aires proper are determined in the eastern part and north-east by the Rio de la Plata, in the southern part and southeast by the Riachuelo and to the northwest, west and Southwest by Avenida General Paz, a 24 km (15 mi) long highway that separates the province of Buenos Aires from the 203 km2 that form the city SONY PCG-5J4M battery. The city of Buenos Aires lies in the pampa region, except for some zones like the Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve, the Boca Juniors (football) Club "sports city", Jorge Newbery Airport, the Puerto Madero neighborhood and the main port itself; these were all built on reclaimed land along the coasts of the Rio de la Plata (the world's widest river). SONY PCG-5J1M batteryThe region was formerly crossed by different creeks and lagoons, some of which were refilled and others tubed. Among the most important creeks are Maldonado, Vega, Medrano, Cildañez and White. In 1908 many creeks were channelled and rectified, as floods were damaging the city's infrastructure. Starting in 1919, most creeks were enclosed. Notably, the Maldonado was tubed in 1954, and currently runs below Juan B. Justo Avenue SONY PCG-5G2M battery. Further information: Climate of Argentina Buenos Aires has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with humid summers and mild winters. The warmest month is January, with a daily average of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F). Most days see temperatures in the 28 to 31 °C (82 to 88 °F) with nights between 16 to 21 °C (61 to 70 °F). Heat waves from Brazil can push temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F), yet the city is subject to cold fronts that bring short periods of pleasant weather and crisp nights Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery. Relative humidity is 64–70% in the summer, so the heat index is higher than the true air temperature. The highest temperature ever recorded was 43.3 °C (110 °F) on 29 January 1957.[45] Spring (September to November) and autumn (March to May) are generally mild and volatile, with averages temperatures of around 17 °C (63 °F) and frequent thunderstorms, especially during the spring Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Winters are temperate, though suburban areas often experience frost from May to September, as opposed to downtown Buenos Aires, which experiences the phenomenon only several times per season. Relative humidity averages in the upper 70s%, which means the city is noted for its moderate to heavy fogs during autumn and winter. Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery July is the coolest month, with an average temperature of 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). Cold spells originating from Antarctica occur almost every year, and combined with the high wintertime humidity, conditions in winter may feel much cooler than the measured temperature. Most days peak reach 12 to 17 °C (54 to 63 °F) and drop to 3 to 8 °C (37 to 46 °F) at night. Southerly winds may keep temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F) for a few days Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery, whereas northerly winds may bring temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F) for a few days; these variations are normal. The lowest temperature ever recorded in central Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Observatory) was −5.4 °C (22 °F) on 9 July 1918.[47] The last snowfall occurred on 9 July 2007 when, during the coldest winter in Argentina in almost thirty years, severe snowfalls and blizzards hit the country. It was the first major snowfall in the city in 89 years Sony VAIO PCG-8112M battery). On 17 July 2010, in the midst of another cold winter, snowfalls struck the southern reaches of Buenos Aires, but not the central parts as occurred in 2007 or 1918. Spring is very windy and variable: there may be heat waves with temperatures of 35 °C (95 °F) even in early October, as well as periods of much colder weather with highs close to 10 °C (50 °F). Frost has been recorded as late as early November, although this is unusual. Severe thunderstorms are likely between September and December Sony VAIO PCG-7186M battery. The city receives 1,242.6 mm (49 in) of rainfall per year.[50] Rain can be expected at any time of year and hailstorms are not unusual Buenos Aires is the political, financial, industrial, commercial, and cultural hub of Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in South America; navigable rivers by way of the Rio de la Plata connect the port to north-east Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. As a result it serves as the distribution hub for a vast area of the south-eastern region of the continent Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery. Tax collection related to the port has caused many political problems in the past. The economy in the city proper alone, measured by Gross Geographic Product (adjusted for purchasing power), totalled US$ 84.7 billion (US$ 34,200 per capita) in 2011[54] and amounts to nearly a quarter of Argentina's as a whole.[55] Metro Buenos Aires, according to one well-quoted study, constitutes the 13th largest economy among the world's cities. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery The Buenos Aires Human Development Index (0.923 in 1998) is likewise high by international standards.[57] The city's services sector is diversified and well-developed by international standards, and accounts for 76% of its economy (compared to 59% for all of Argentina's).[53] Advertising, in particular, plays a prominent role in the export of services at home and abroad. The financial and real-estate services sector is the largest Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery, however, and contributes to 31% of the city's economy. Finance (about a third of this) in Buenos Aires is especially important to Argentina's banking system, accounting for nearly half the nation's bank deposits and lending.[53] Nearly 300 hotels and another 300 hostels and bed & breakfasts are licensed for Tourism in Buenos Aires, and nearly half the rooms available were in four-star establishments or higher Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. Manufacturing is, nevertheless, still prominent in the city's economy (16%) and, concentrated mainly in the southside, it benefits as much from high local purchasing power and a large local supply of skilled labor as it does from its relationship to massive agriculture and industry just outside the city limits themselves Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery. Construction activity in Buenos Aires has historically been among the most dramatic indicators of national economic fortunes (see table at right), and since 2006 around 3 million m² (32 million ft²) of construction has been authorized annually.[53] The Port of Buenos Aires handles over 11 million revenue tons annually,[59] and Dock Sud, just south of the city proper, handles another 17 million metric tons. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M batteryTo the west of Buenos Aires is the Pampa Húmeda, the most productive agricultural region of Argentina produces wheat, soybeans and corn (as opposed to the dry southern Pampa, mostly used for cattle farming and more recently production of premium Buenos Aires wines). Meat, dairy, grain, tobacco, wool and leather products are processed or manufactured in the Buenos Aires metro area Sony VAIO PCG-8161M battery. Other leading industries are automobile manufacturing, oil refining, metalworking, machine building and the production of textiles, chemicals, clothing and beverages.[citation needed] The city's budget, per Mayor Macri's 2011 proposal, will include US$5.9 billion in revenues and US$6.3 billion in expenditures. The city relies on local income and capital gains taxes for 61% of its revenues, while federal revenue sharing will contribute 11%, property taxes Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery, 9%, and vehicle taxes, 6%. Other revenues include user fees, fines and gambling duties. The city devotes 26% of its budget to education, 22% for health, 17% for public services and infrastructure, 16% for social welfare and culture, 12% in administrative costs and 4% for law enforcement. Buenos Aires maintains low debt levels and its service requires less than 3% of the budget Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Strongly influenced by European culture, Buenos Aires is sometimes referred to as the "Paris of South America". The city has the busiest live theater industry in Latin America, with scores of theaters and productions.[63] Buenos Aires is the site of the Teatro Colón, an internationally rated opera house.[64] There are several symphony orchestras and choral societies Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery. The city has numerous museums related to history, fine arts, modern arts, decorative arts, popular arts, sacred art, arts and crafts, theatre and popular music, as well as the preserved homes of noted art collectors, writers, composers and artists. The city is home to hundreds of bookstores, public libraries and cultural associations (it is sometimes called "the city of books") Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M battery, as well as the largest concentration of active theatres in Latin America. It has a world-famous zoo and botanical garden, a large number of landscaped parks and squares, as well as churches and places of worship of many denominations, many of which are architecturally noteworthy.[64] Argentine cultural icon Geniol head in vintage advertising poster by Lucien-Achille Mauzan Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery. Every April in the city, the Buenos Aires International Book Fair is celebrated; it is one of the top five book fairs in the world, oriented to the general public as well as to the literary community . "La Noche de los Museos"[65] (Night of Museums) also takes place every November. On this day, most of the museums of the city are open all night long. Buenos Aires is also very active in street art, with major murals everywhere in the city Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. Language See also: Belgranodeutsch and cocoliche Milonga musical band Known as Rioplatense Spanish, Buenos Aires' Spanish (as that of other cities like Rosario and Montevideo, Uruguay) is characterised by voseo, yeísmo and aspiration of s in various contexts. It is heavily influenced by the dialects of Spanish spoken in Andalusia and Murcia. A phonetic study conducted by the Laboratory for Sensory Investigations of CONICET and the University of Toronto showed that the prosody of porteño is closer to the Neapolitan language of Italy than to any other spoken language. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L batteryIn the early 20th century, Argentina absorbed millions of immigrants, many of them Italians, who spoke mostly in their local dialects (mainly Neapolitan, Sicilian and Genoan). Their adoption of Spanish was gradual, creating a pidgin of Italian dialects and Spanish that was called cocoliche. Its usage declined around the 1950s Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. Many Spanish immigrants were from Galicia, and Spaniards are still generically referred to in Argentina as gallegos (Galicians). Galician language, cuisine and culture had a major presence in the city for most of the 20th century. In recent years, descendants of Galician immigrants have led a mini-boom in Celtic music (which also highlighted the Welsh traditions of Patagonia) Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery. Yiddish was commonly heard in Buenos Aires, especially in the Balvanera garment district and in Villa Crespo until the 1960s.[citation needed] Most of the newer immigrants learn Spanish quickly and assimilate into city life. The Lunfardo argot originated within the prison population, and in time spread to all porteños. Lunfardo uses words from Italian dialects Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, from Brazilian Portuguese, from African and Caribbean languages and even from English. Lunfardo employs humorous tricks such as inverting the syllables within a word (vesre). Today, Lunfardo is mostly heard in tango lyrics;[66] the slang of the younger generations has been evolving away from it. See also: History of Tango Sony VAIO PCG-8141L batteryTango dancers Tango music's birthplace is in Argentina. Its sensual dance moves were not seen as respectable until adopted by the Parisian high society in the 1920s, and then all over the world. In Buenos Aires, tango-dancing schools (known as academias) were usually men-only establishments. On 30 September 2009, UNESCO's Intergovernmental Committee of Intangible Heritage declared tango part of the world's cultural heritage Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery, making Argentina eligible to receive financial assistance in safeguarding this cultural treasure for future generations.[67] Main article: Cinema of Argentina See also: Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema The cinema first appeared in Buenos Aires in 1896. The city has been the centre of the Argentine cinema industry in Argentina for over 100 years since French camera operator Eugene Py directed the pioneering film La Bandera Argentina in 1897. Since then, over 2000 films have been directed and produced within the city, many of them referring to the city in their titles Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery, such as I Was Born in Buenos Aires (1959), Buenas noches, Buenos Aires (1964), and Buenos Aires a la vista (1950). The culture of tango music has been incorporated into many films produced in the city, especially since the 1930s. Many films have starred tango performers such as Hugo del Carril, Tita Merello, Carlos Gardel and Edmundo Rivero Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery. See also: Argentine painting Buenos Aires has a long tradition in visual arts, and it hosts many the most important art galleries, such as APPETITE,[68] Braga Menendez, Ruth Benzacar: museums, like MALBA and Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires) and cultural centers like Centro Cultural Recoleta. Many events keep the art scene very busy and attract visitors every month Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. They include hundreds of exhibition openings, gallery nights, art fairs like ArteBA and Expotrastiendas, and La Noche Del Museos. Museo de Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires. Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes Centro Cultural Recoleta Buenos Aires hosts many fashion events. The most important is the Buenos Aires Fashion Week that is held twice a year. It's been held since 2001 and is often a good chance for national designers to display their collections. Sony VAIO PCG-81114L battery Other major events are the Argentina Fashion Week and Buenos Aires Moda. Buenos Aires Runway, a fashion event organised by the city's government, it's been held since 2011 to showcase both local styles and the most representative designers of the current scene.[70] In 2005, Buenos Aires was appointed as the first UNESCO City of Design.[71] The city received this title once again in 2007 Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery. Architecture Main article: Architecture of Argentina The Barolo tower, arguably Argentina's best-known Art Nouveau building and César Pelli's Repsol-YPF tower, a clear example of the postmodern style of buildings in Puerto Madero. Architectural styles converge at Diagonal Norte Château Tower of Puerto Madero Work on the neo-Second Empire architecture Buenos Aires is characterized by its European style architecture. Buenos Aires architecture is characterized by its eclectic nature, with elements resembling Barcelona, Paris and Madrid. There is a mix, due to immigration, of Colonial, Art Deco, Art Nouveau, Neo-Gothic and French Bourbon styles. Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery Italian and French influences increased after the declaration of independence at the beginning of the 19th century, though the academic style persisted until the first decades of the 20th century. Attempts at renovation took place during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, when European influences penetrated into the country, reflected by several buildings of Buenos Aires such as the Iglesia Santa Felicitas by Ernesto Bunge Sony VAIO PCG-7141L battery; the Palace of Justice, the National Congress, and the Teatro Colón, all of them by Vittorio Meano. The simplicity of the Rioplatense baroque style can be clearly seen in Buenos Aires through the works of Italian architects such as André Blanqui and Antonio Masella, in the churches of San Ignacio, Nuestra Señora del Pilar, the Cathedral and the Cabildo. In 1912 the Basilica del Santisimo Sacramento was opened to the public. Totally built by the generous donation of Mrs. Mercedes Castellanos de Anchonera, Argentina's most prominent family, the church is an excellent example of French neo-classicism Sony VAIO PCG-71111L battery. With extremely high-grade decorations in its interior, the magnificent Mutin-Cavaillé coll organ (the biggest ever installed in an Argentine church with more than four-thousand tubes and four manuals) presided the nave. The altar is full of marble, and was the biggest ever built in South America at that time. Sony VAIO PCG-61411L batteryIn 1919 the construction of Palacio Barolo began. This was South America's tallest building at the time, and was the first Argentine skyscraper built with concrete (1919–1923).[75] The building was equipped with 9 elevators, plus a 20-metre high lobby hall with paintings in the ceiling and Latin phrases embossed in golden bronze letters Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. A 300,000-candela beacon was installed at the top (110 m), making the building visible even from Uruguay. In 2009 the Barolo Palace went under an exhausive restoration, and the beacon was made operational again. In 1936 the Kavanagh building was inaugurated, with 120 metres height, 12 elevators (provided by Otis) and the world's first central air-conditioning system (provided by north-American company "Carrier"), is still an architectural landmark in Buenos Aires. Sony VAIO PCG-61111L batteryThe architecture of the second half of the 20th century continued to reproduce French neoclassic models, such as the headquarters of the Banco de la Nación Argentina built by Alejandro Bustillo, and the Museo Hispanoamericano de Buenos Aires of Martín Noel. However, since the 1930s the influence of Le Corbusier and European rationalism consolidated in a group of young architects from the University of Tucumán, among whom Amancio Williams stands out Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery. The construction of skyscrapers proliferated in Buenos Aires until the 1950s. Newer modern high-technology buildings by Argentine architects in the last years of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st include the Le Parc Tower by Mario Álvarez, the Torre Fortabat by Sánchez Elía and the Repsol-YPF tower by César Pelli. The ubiquitous white smock of children at public schools is a national symbol of learning. See also: Education in Argentina Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L batteryPrimary education Primary education comprises the first two EGB cycles (grades 1–6). Because of the system that was in place until 1995 (seven years of primary school plus five or six of secondary school), primary schools used to offer grades 1–7. Although most schools have already converted to teach the 8th and 9th grades, others chose to eliminate 7th grade altogether Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery, forcing the students to complete the third cycle in another institution. Nevertheless, most primary schools in the city still adhere to the traditional seven-year primary school. EGB was never put in practice in Buenos Aires. Secondary education Secondary education in Argentina is called Polimodal ("polymodal", that is, having multiple modes), since it allows the student to choose his/her orientation. Polimodal is not yet obligatory but its completion is a requirement to enter colleges across the nation Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. Polimodal is usually 3 years of schooling, although some schools have a fourth year. Before entering the first year of polimodal, students choose an orientation, among these five: Humanities and Social Sciences, Economics and Management of Organizations, Art and Design, Health and Sport and Biology and Natural Sciences Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. Conversely to what happened on primary schools, most secondary schools in Argentina contained grades 8th and 9th, plus Polimodal (old secondary), but then started converting to accept 7th grade students as well, thus allowing them to keep the same classmates for the whole EGB III cycle Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. In December 2006 the Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Congress passed a new National Education Law restoring the old system of primary followed by secondary education, making secondary education obligatory and a right, and increasing the length of compulsory education to 13 years. The government vowed to put the law in effect gradually, starting in 2007. Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L batteryUniversity education See also: University Revolution and List of Argentine universities University of Buenos Aires' Law School in Recoleta There are many public universities in Argentina, as well as a number of private universities. The University of Buenos Aires, one of the top learning institutions in South America, has produced five Nobel Prize winners and provides taxpayer-funded education for students from all around the globe.[78] Buenos Aires is a major center for psychoanalysis Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery, particularly the Lacanian school. Buenos Aires is home to several private universities of different quality, such as: Buenos Aires Institute of Technology, CEMA University, Favaloro University, Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina, University of Belgrano, University of Palermo, University of Salvador, and Torcuato di Tella University Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. Main article: Tourism in Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Bus, the city's touristic bus service. The official estimate is that the bus carries between 700 and 800 passengers per day, and has carried half a million passengers since its opening.[79] According to the World Travel & Tourism Council,[80] tourism has been growing in the Argentine capital since 2002. In a survey by the travel and tourism publication Travel + Leisure Magazine in 2008, travellers voted Buenos Aires the second most desirable city to visit after Florence, Italy. Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery In 2008, an estimated 2.5 million visitors visited the city.[82] Visitors have many options such as going to a tango show, an estancia in the Province of Buenos Aires, or enjoy the traditional asado. New tourist circuits have recently evolved, devoted to famous Argentines such as Carlos Gardel, Eva Perón or Jorge Luis Borges. Due to the favourable exchange rate, its shopping centres such as Alto Palermo Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery, Paseo Alcorta, Patio Bullrich, Abasto de Buenos Aires and Galerías Pacífico are frequently visited by tourists. The city also plays host to musical festivals, some of the largest of which are Quilmes Rock, Creamfields BA and the Buenos Aires Jazz Festival. Panoramic image of the Avenue 9 July, One of the meeting points for tourists. Notable streets Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L batteryAvenida Alvear passes through the upscale Recoleta area, and is the address for five-star hotels and embassies, many of them former mansions. Caminito, colorfully restored by local artist Benito Quinquela Martín Avenida Corrientes, a principal thoroughfare in Buenos Aires, and intimately tied to the Tango and Porteño culture Avenida del Libertador connects downtown to upscale areas in the northwest, passing by many of the city's best-known museums, gardens and cultural points of interest Sony VAIO PCG-51513L batteryAvenida de Mayo is often compared with those of Madrid, Barcelona and Paris for its sophisticated buildings of Art Nouveau, Neoclassic and eclectic styles Florida Street, a downtown pedestrian street Avenida 9 de Julio, one of the widest avenues in the world; its name honors Argentina's Independence Day Sony VAIO PCG-51511L batteryLooking on Corrientes Avenue Neighborhoods Belgrano (tipa-lined residential streets, Tudor architecture and numerous museums) La Boca (the old port district still maintains its 19th-century ambience) Palermo (a trendy neighborhood filled with restaurants, shops and clubs called boliches) Parque Patricios (technology district) Puerto Madero (these 1880-era docklands are now the city's newest neighborhood with a modern skyline and upscale restaurants) Recoleta (the traditionally upscale district combines Parisian architecture with trendy highrises and a variety of cultural venues) Sony VAIO PCG-51412L batteryRetiro (Art Nouveau cafés and restaurants among Art Deco office architecture) San Telmo (one of the oldest neighborhoods of Buenos Aires, this area is characterized by well-preserved 19th century architecture) Art shows and antique fairs take place in Defensa Street on weekends, widely transited by tourists, San Telmo district High-rise condominium towers along Dock 3 representing the latest architectural trends in the city, Puerto Madero district Sony VAIO PCG-51411L batteryPresident Roque Saenz Peña Avenue, Diagonal Norte. Parque Tres de Febrero (this park, one of the city's largest, is home to a rose garden and paddleboat lake) Botanical Gardens (among the oldest in Latin America and an easy walk to other Palermo-area sights) Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens (the largest of its type in the World, outside Japan)[83] Plaza de Mayo (surrounded by national and city government offices, this square has been central to many of Argentina's historical events) Sony VAIO PCG-51312L batteryPlaza San Martín (central to the Retiro area, the leafy park is surrounded by architectural landmarks) Recoleta Cemetery (includes graves of many of Argentina's historical figures, including several presidents and scientists, as well many among Argentina's influential families) Buenos Aires Zoo (renowned for its collection and the Hindu Revival elephant house) Tres de Febrero Park with the Planetarium Main article: Landmarks in Buenos Aires Cabildo (seat of government house during colonial times) Caminito (renowned for Benito Quinquela Martín's pastel hues and wall reliefs) Casa Rosada (the official seat of the executive branch of the Argentine government) Central Post Office (soon to be reopened as the Bicentennial Cultural Center) Sony VAIO PCG-51311L batteryCity Legislature (the monumental neoclassical building also houses two libraries and a museum) Kavanagh building (the Art Deco residential building was the first true skyscraper in Buenos Aires) Metropolitan Cathedral (mother church of the Archdiocese of Buenos Aires) National Congress (Argentine Parliament) Sony VAIO PCG-51211L batteryNational Library (the largest library in Argentina and one of the most important in the Americas) National Museum of History (original documents, former presidents' belongings and recreated historical rooms) The Obelisk (one of the city's iconic landmarks and a venue for various cultural activities and other events) Teatro Colón (an internationally renowned opera house opened in 1908) The Water Company Palace (perhaps the world's most ornate water pumping station) Transport Sony VAIO PCG-41112L batteryLocal roads and personal transport Avenida General Paz Buenos Aires is based on a square, rectangular grid pattern, save for natural barriers or the relatively rare developments explicitly designed otherwise (notably, the neighbourhood of Parque Chas). The rectangular grid provides for square blocks named manzanas, with a length of roughly 110 meters. Pedestrian zones in the city centre Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery, like Florida Street are partially car-free and always bustling, access provided by bus and the Metro (subte) Line C. Buenos Aires, for the most part, is a very walkable city and the majority of residents in Buenos Aires use public transport. Two diagonal avenues in the city centre alleviate traffic and provide better access to Plaza de Mayo. Most avenues running into and out of the city centre are one-way and feature six or more lanes, with computer-controlled green waves to speed up traffic outside of peak times Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. The city's principal avenues include the 140-metre (459 ft)-wide Avenida 9 de Julio, the over-35 km (22 mi)-long Avenida Rivadavia,[84] and Avenida Corrientes, the main thoroughfare of culture and entertainment. In the 1940s and 1950s the Avenida General Paz beltway that surrounds the city along its border with Buenos Aires Province and freeways leading to the new international airport and to the northern suburbs heralded a new era in Buenos Aires traffic Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery. Encouraged by pro-automaker policies pursued towards the end of the Perón (1955) and Frondizi administrations (1958–62) in particular, auto sales nationally grew from an average of 30,000 during the 1920–57 era to around 250,000 in the 1970s and over 600,000 in 2008.[85] Today, over 1.8 million vehicles (nearly one-fifth of Argentina's total) are registered in Buenos Aires. Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L batteryToll motorways opened in the late 1970s by then-mayor Osvaldo Cacciatore provided fast access to the city centre and are today used by over a million vehicles daily.[87] Cacciatore likewise had financial district streets (roughly one square kilometre in area) closed to private cars during daytime. Most major avenues are, however, gridlocked at peak hours Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. Following the economic mini-boom of the 1990s, record numbers started commuting by car and congestion increased, as did the time-honored Argentine custom of taking weekends off in the countryside. In December 2010, the city government launched a bicycle sharing program with bicycles free for hire upon registration. Located in mostly central areas, there are 21 rental stations throughout the city providing over 700 bicycles to be picked up and dropped off at any station within an hour. Sony VAIO PCG-393L batteryThe bike-share program runs from 8:00 am to 8:00 pm Monday through Friday and from 9:00 am to 3:00 pm on Saturdays. As of 2012, the city has constructed 70 km (43.50 mi) of protected bicycle lanes and has plans to construct another 100 km (62.14 mi).[89] The Buenos Aires commuter network system is very extensive: every day more than 1.3 million people commute to the Argentine capital Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery. These suburban trains operate between 4 am and 1 am. The Buenos Aires railway system also connects the city with long-distance rail to Rosario and Córdoba, among other metropolitan areas. There are four principal terminals for both long-distance and local passenger services in the city centre: Constitucion, Retiro, Federico Lacroze and Once Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. Underground Main article: Buenos Aires Metro Buenos Aires Subway entrance on Avenida de Mayo The Buenos Aires Metro (locally known as subte, from "subterráneo" meaning underground or metro), is a high-yield system providing access to various parts of the city. Opened in 1913, it is the oldest underground system in the Southern Hemisphere and second oldest in the Spanish-speaking world after Madrid's in Spain Sony VAIO PCG-382L battery. The system has six lines, named by letters (A to E, and H) There are 74 stations, and 52.3 km (32 mi) of route. An expansion program is underway to extend existing lines into the outer neighborhoods and add a new north-south line. Route length is expected to reach 89 km (55 mi) by 2011. Line "A" is the oldest one (service opened to public in 1913) and stations kept the "belle-époque" decoration Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery, the trains still sport incandescent-bulb illumination and doors must be manually opened by the passengers, as in 1913. Daily ridership on weekdays is 1.7 million and on the increase.[90][91] Fares remain relatively cheap, although the city government hiked the fares by over 125% in January 2012. A single journey, with unlimited interchanges between lines, now costs AR$2.50, which is roughly USD$0.60. Sony VAIO PCG-7185L battery The Buenos Aires Metro has six lines which also have links to the commuter rail.[93] Current renovation and expansion The subway is currently undergoing renovation and expansion. At Line A two new stations after Carabobo are under construction, being Nazca the new future terminal while newer metro carriages are slowly being introduced to handle the increased demand. On Line B Since 2004, work began to expand the line to Villa Ortúzar and Villa Urquiza.[94] On Line H further extensions are planned to run from Retiro to Nueva Pompeya once constructed Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery. It will connect the Southern part of the city with the North, thus improving the flow to the centre of the city, and will be approximately 11 km (6.8 mi) long from end to end. The Line H will provide cross-connections with almost all the other lines.[95] On Line E work has begun in 2009 to expand the line up to Retiro.[96] Planned underground lines New underground lines are planned and were presented by the Government of the City of Buenos Aires on 26 May 2007. There are currently three lines planned Sony VAIO PCG-7183L battery: Line F would join Constitución Station with Plaza Italia and would have an extension of 7.6 km (4.7 mi). It would be transverse-radial, according to the section, with strong integration with the rest of the network. Line G would connect the Retiro Station with the Cid Campeador and would have a length of 7.6 km (4.7 mi). It would be radial to connect the axes of high-density residential and commercial areas, and would bring the underground to the northwest of the city Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery. Line I would run from the Emilio Mitre (Line E) Station to Plaza Italia, a distance of 7.3 km (4.5 mi). It would be the outermost transverse line of the network and would link the neighborhoods of the north, center and south of the city and link with the radial lines far from the city centre. Retiro Rail Terminal Buenos Aires had an extensive street railway (tram) system with over 857 km (533 mi) of track Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery, which was dismantled during the 1960s in favor of bus transportation and is now in the process of a slow comeback. The PreMetro or Line E2 is a 7.4 km (4.6 mi) light rail line that connects with Metro Line E at Plaza de los Virreyes station and runs to General Savio and Centro Cívico. It is operated by Metrovías. The official inauguration took place on 27 August 1987 Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. A new 2 km (1.2 mi) tramway (LRT), Tranvía del Este, runs across the Puerto Madero district. Extensions planned would link the Retiro and La Boca terminal train stations. Other routes are being studied. A Heritage streetcar maintained by tram fans operates on weekends, near the Primera Junta line A metro station in the Caballito neighbourhood Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. There are over 150 city bus lines called Colectivos, each one managed by an individual company. These compete with each other, and attract exceptionally high use with virtually no public financial support.[97] Their frequency makes them equal to the underground systems of other cities, but buses cover a far wider area than the underground system Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery. Colectivos in Buenos Aires do not have a fixed timetable, but run from four to several per hour, depending on the bus line and time of the day. With inexpensive tickets and extensive routes, usually no further than four blocks from commuters' residences, the colectivo is the most popular mode of transport around the city. Buenos Aires has recently opened a two-lane 12 km (7.5 mi), bus rapid transit system, the MetroBus Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. The system uses modular median stations that serve both directions of travel, which enable pre-paid, multiple-door, level boarding. The system runs across the Juan B. Justo Ave has 21 stations and was inaugurated on 31 May 2011. The SUBE card is a contactless smart card system introduced in February 2009 by Argentina's President.[99] It is used on public transport services within the Buenos Aires metropolitan area and was promoted by the Argentine Secretary of Transportation Sony VAIO PCG-7162L battery. It is valid on a number of different travel systems across the city including Buenos Aires Metro, buses and trains. This change has helped speed passengers on to the bus. People no longer have to wait to be issued a printed receipt as they enter the bus. This should help reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and nitrogen because buses don't have to idle as long while passengers load Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery, helping improve air quality in the city. The electronic ticket is eliminating the printed receipts, thus lowering the amount of littering in the city. The city, in turn, no longer has to process, collect, count, and transport coinage received in payment of some 11 million trips per day. A fleet of 40,000 black-and-yellow taxis ply the streets at all hours. License controls are not enforced rigorously. There have been numerous reports of organized crime controlling the access of taxis to the city airports and other major destinations. Sony VAIO PCG-7154L batteryTaxi drivers are known for trying to take advantage of tourists.[101] Radio-link companies provide reliable and safe service; many such companies provide incentives for frequent users. Low-fare limo services, known as remises, have become popular in recent years. See also: Buenos Aires-Rosario-Córdoba high-speed railway Buquebus high-speed ferries connect Buenos Aires to coastal cities in Uruguay Pistarini International Airport terminal A new high-speed rail line between Buenos Aires, Rosario and Córdoba, with speeds up to 320 km/h is planned. Sony VAIO PCG-7153L batteryLong-distance bus terminal The main terminal for long-distance buses is Retiro bus station, near Retiro railway station, from where buses depart for all parts of Argentina and for neighbouring countries. Buenos Aires is also served by a ferry system operated by the company Buquebus that connects the port of Buenos Aires with the main cities of Uruguay, (Colonia del Sacramento, Montevideo and Punta del Este) Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. More than 2.2 million people per year travel between Argentina and Uruguay with Buquebus. One of these ships is a catamaran, which can reach a top speed of about 80 km/h (50 mph), making it the fastest ferry in the world.[105] The Buenos Aires international airport, Ministro Pistarini International Airport, is located in the suburb of Ezeiza and is often called "Ezeiza" Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery. The Aeroparque Jorge Newbery airport, located in the Palermo district next to the riverbank, serves only domestic traffic and flights to Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. A smaller San Fernando Airport serves only general aviation. Metropolitan Police of Buenos Aires City. The Guardia Urbana de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Urban Guard) was a specialized civilian force of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, that used to deal with different urban conflicts with the objective of develop actions of prevention, dissuasion and mediation Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery, promoting effective behaviors that guarantee the security and the integrity of public order and social coexistence. The unit continuously assisted the personnel of the Argentine Federal Police, especially in emergency situations, events of massive concurrence, and protection of tourist establishments Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery. The group permanently did controls of seat belt use, blood alcohol content tests, and traffic order; also its agents are enabled to offer quick and objective information to tourists and foreign people. Other functions include take part when a public case of intentional damage or negligence happen; anyway, its personnel always must act in a preventive, educative, dissuasive and coordinated form Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery. The Urban Guard officials did not carry any weapon in the performing of their duties. Their basic tools are an HT radio transmissor and a whistle. As of March, 2008, the Guardia Urbana was removed. Its people were "recycled" into a new law enforcement organization, about traffic order called the Seguridad Vial. The Metropolitan Police is the police force under the authority of the Autonomous City (or Federal District) of Buenos Aires Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. The force was created in 2010 and is composed of 1,850 officers, and is planned to expand to 16,000. Security in the city is concurrently the responsibility of the Metropolitan Police and the Argentine Federal Police. The city government claims the new force is based on the model of the British London Metropolitan Police and the New York Police Department. The force was intended to use high technology support and adopt a policy of zero tolerance Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery. The police are headed by a Chief and a Deputy Chief. Both are appointed by the head of the executive branch of the City. Football is a passion for Argentines. Buenos Aires has the highest concentration of football teams of any city in the world (featuring no fewer than 24 professional football teams),[106] with many of its teams playing in the major league. The best-known rivalry is the one between River Plate and Boca Juniors Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. Watching a match between these two teams was deemed one of the "50 sporting things you must do before you die" by The Observer.[106] Other major clubs include San Lorenzo de Almagro, Club Atlético Huracán, Vélez Sársfield, Asociación Atlética Argentinos Juniors and Club Ferro Carril Oeste. Diego Armando Maradona, born in Lanús Partido (county) south of Buenos Aires, is widely hailed as one of the greatest football players of all time (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Maradona started his career with Argentinos Juniors, later playing for Boca Juniors, the Argentina national football team and others (most notably FC Barcelona in Spain and SSC Napoli in Italy).[107] Buenos Aires has been a candidate city for the Summer Olympic Games on three occasions: for the 1956 Games, which were lost by a single vote to Melbourne; for the 1968 Summer Olympics, held in Mexico City (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery); and in 2004, when the games were awarded to Athens. However, Buenos Aires hosted the first Pan American Games (1951)[64] and was also host city to several World Championship events: the 1950 and 1990 Basketball World Championships, the 1982 and 2002 Men's Volleyball World Championships and, most remembered, the 1978 FIFA World Cup, won by Argentina on 25 June 1978, when it defeated the Netherlands by 3–1. In September 2013 (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery), the city will host the 125th IOC Session, where the International Olympic Committee will select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics as well as a new IOC President. Buenos Aires is currently bidding to host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.[108] Juan Manuel Fangio won five Formula One World Driver's Championships, and was only outstripped by Michael Schumacher, with seven Championships (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). The Buenos Aires Oscar Gálvez car-racing track hosted 20 Formula One events as the Argentine Grand Prix, between 1953 and 1998; it was discontinued on financial grounds. The track features various local categories on most weekends. The 2009 and 2010 Dakar Rally started and ended in the city. Argentines' love for horses can be experienced in several ways: horse racing at the Hipódromo Argentino de Palermo racetrack (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery), polo in the Campo Argentino de Polo (located just across Libertador Avenue from the Hipódromo), and pato, a kind of basketball played on horseback that was declared the national game in 1953. Buenos Aires native Guillermo Vilas (who was raised in Mar del Plata) was one of the great tennis players of the 1970s and 1980s,[64] and popularized tennis Nationwide in Argentina. He won the ATP Buenos Aires numerous times in the 1970s. Other popular sports in Buenos Aires are golf, basketball, rugby, field hockey and cricket (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery). International relations See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in South America World rankings Buenos Aires is an important node in the global economic system. The city is classified as an Alpha World City, according to the Loughborough University group's (GaWC) 2008 inventory.[109] It is ranked 22th in the 2010 ranking of global cities by the American journal Foreign Policy, in conjunction with consulting firm A.T. Kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs. (See "Global city" for the top 30 in the list.) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery)
San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States of America and second-largest city in California. The city is located on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, immediately adjacent to the Mexican border. The birthplace of California, San Diego is known for its mild year-round climate, natural deep-water harbor( Dell N3010 battery), extensive beaches, long association with the U.S. Navy, and recent emergence as a healthcare and biotechnology enclave. The population was 1,301,617 at the 2010 census. Historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Cabrillo claimed the entire area for Spain( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery), forming the basis for the settlement of Alta California 200 years later. The Presidio and Mission of San Diego, founded in 1769, were the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of newly independent Mexico, and in 1850, became part of the United States following the Mexican-American War and the admission of California to the union( Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery). The city is the county seat of San Diego County and is the economic center of the San Diego–Carlsbad–San Marcos metropolitan area as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diego's main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, and manufacturing( Dell Inspiron 1200 battery). The presence of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. History Main article: History of San Diego Kumeyaay people lived in San Diego before Europeans settled there. Namesake of the city, Didacus of Alcalá: Saint Didacus in Ecstasy Before the Cross by Murillo (Musée des Augustins) Mission San Diego de Alcalá Namesake of Horton Plaza, Alonzo Horton developed "New Town" which became Downtown San Diego( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery). Original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito and La Jolla people.[4] The area of San Diego has been inhabited for more than 10,000 years by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery). Sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542 and named the site 'San Miguel'.[7] In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast. Arriving on his flagship San Diego, Vizcaíno surveyed the harbor and what are now Mission Bay and Point Loma and named the area for the Catholic Saint Didacus( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery), a Spaniard more commonly known as San Diego de Alcalá. On November 12, 1602, the first Christian religious service of record in Alta California was conducted by Friar Antonio de la Ascensión, a member of Vizcaíno's expedition, to celebrate the feast day of San Diego. In May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery). In July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Father Junípero Serra.[9] By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in and around the mission proper.[10] Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery). In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican state of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the level land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government, and most of the Mission lands were distributed to wealthy Californio settlers( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery). As a result of the Mexican-American War of 1846–1848, the territory of Alta California, including San Diego, was ceded to the United States by Mexico. The Battle of San Pasqual, a battle of the Mexican-American War, was fought in 1846 in the San Pasqual Valley which is now part of the city of San Diego. The state of California was admitted to the United States in 1850( Dell inspiron 1525 battery). That same year San Diego was designated the seat of the newly established San Diego County and was incorporated as a city. The initial city charter was established in 1889 and today's city charter was adopted in 1931. The original town of San Diego was located at the foot of Presidio Hill, in the area which is now Old Town San Diego State Historic Park( Dell inspiron 1526 battery). The location was not ideal, being several miles away from navigable water. In the late 1860s, Alonzo Horton promoted a move to "New Town", several miles south of the original settlement, in the area which became Downtown San Diego. People and businesses flocked to New Town because of its location on San Diego Bay convenient to shipping. New Town quickly eclipsed the original settlement( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery), known to this day as Old Town, and became the economic and governmental heart of the city. In the early part of the 20th century, San Diego hosted two World's Fairs: the Panama-California Exposition in 1915 and the California Pacific International Exposition in 1935. Both expositions were held in Balboa Park, and many of the Spanish/Baroque-style buildings that were built for those expositions remain to this day as central features of the park( Dell Inspiron 2000 battery). The buildings were intended to be temporary structures, but most remained in continuous use until they progressively fell into disrepair. Most were eventually rebuilt, using castings of the original facades to retain the architectural style. The menagerie of exotic animals featured at the 1915 exposition provided the basis for the San Diego Zoo( Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery). Balboa Park on the cover of a guidebook for the World Exposition of 1915 Significant U.S. Navy presence began in 1901 with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma, and expanded greatly during the 1920s.[17] By 1930 the city was host to Naval Base San Diego, Naval Training Center San Diego, San Diego Naval Hospital, Camp Matthews( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery), and Camp Kearny (now Marine Corps Air Station Miramar). The city was also an early center for aviation: as early as World War I San Diego was proclaiming itself "The Air Capital of the West." The city was home to important airplane developers and manufacturers like Ryan Airlines (later Ryan Aeronautical), founded in 1925, and Consolidated Aircraft (later Convair) ( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery), founded in 1923. Charles A. Lindbergh's plane The Spirit of St. Louis was built in San Diego in 1927 by Ryan Airlines. During World War II, San Diego became a major hub of military and defense activity, due to the presence of so many military installations and defense manufacturers. The city's population grew rapidly during and after World War II, more than doubling between 1930 (147,995) ( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery) and 1950 (333,865).[19] After World War II, the military continued to play a major role in the local economy, but post-Cold War cutbacks took a heavy toll on the local defense and aerospace industries. The resulting downturn led San Diego leaders to seek to diversify the city's economy by focusing on research and science, as well as tourism. ( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery) From the start of the 20th century through the 1970s, the American tuna fishing fleet and tuna canning industry were based in San Diego, "the tuna capital of the world".[21] San Diego's first tuna cannery was founded in 1911, and by the mid 1930s the canneries employed more than 1,000 people. Due to rising costs and foreign competition( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery), the last of the canneries closed in the early 1980s. A large fishing fleet supported the canneries, mostly staffed by immigrant fishermen from the Portuguese Azores and Italy, whose influence is still felt in neighborhoods like Little Italy and Point Loma. Downtown San Diego was in decline in the 1960s and 1970s but experienced some urban renewal since the early 1980s, including the opening of Horton Plaza( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery), the revival of the Gaslamp Quarter, and the construction of the San Diego Convention Center; Petco Park opened in 2004.[24] See also: Beaches in San Diego and Parks in San Diego San Diego lies next to the Pacific Ocean According to SDSU professor emeritus Monte Marshall, San Diego Bay is "the surface expression of a north-south-trending, nested graben". The Rose Canyon and Point Loma fault zones are part of the San Andreas Fault system. About 15 miles east of the bay are the Laguna Mountains in the Peninsular Ranges, which are part of the backbone of the American continents. ( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery) The city lies on approximately 200 deep canyons and hills separating its mesas, creating small pockets of natural open space scattered throughout the city and giving it a hilly geography.[26] Traditionally, San Diegans have built their homes and businesses on the mesas, while leaving the urban canyons relatively wild. ( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery) Thus, the canyons give parts of the city a segmented feel, creating gaps between otherwise proximate neighborhoods and contributing to a low-density, car-centered environment. The San Diego River runs through the middle of San Diego from east to west, creating a river valley which serves to divide the city into northern and southern segments( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery). The river used to flow into San Diego Bay and its fresh water was the focus of the earliest Spanish explorers.[25] Several reservoirs and Mission Trails Regional Park also lie between and separate developed areas of the city. Notable peaks within the city limits include Cowles Mountain, the highest point in the city at 1,593 feet (486 m); Black Mountain at 1,558 feet (475 m) ( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery); and Mount Soledad at 824 feet (251 m). The Cuyamaca Mountains and Laguna Mountains rise to the east of the city, and beyond the mountains are desert areas. The Cleveland National Forest is a half-hour drive from downtown San Diego. Numerous farms are found in the valleys northeast and southeast of the city( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery). Communities and neighborhoods Normal Heights, a neighborhood Main article: List of communities and neighborhoods of San Diego The city of San Diego recognizes 52 individual areas as Community Planning Areas.[28] Within a given planning area there may be several distinct neighborhoods. Altogether the city contains more than 100 identified neighborhoods.[29] Downtown San Diego is located on San Diego Bay. Balboa Park encompasses several mesas and canyons to the northeast, surrounded by older, dense urban communities including Hillcrest and North Park( Dell Inspiron 710m battery). To the east and southeast lie City Heights, the College Area, and Southeast San Diego. To the north lies Mission Valley and Interstate 8. The communities north of the valley and freeway, and south of Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, include Clairemont, Kearny Mesa, Tierrasanta, and Navajo. Stretching north from Miramar are the northern suburbs of Mira Mesa, Scripps Ranch( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery), Rancho Peñasquitos, and Rancho Bernardo. The far northeast portion of the city encompasses Lake Hodges and the San Pasqual Valley, which holds an agricultural preserve. Carmel Valley and Del Mar Heights occupy the northwest corner of the city. To their south are Torrey Pines State Reserve and the business center of the Golden Triangle( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery). Further south are the beach and coastal communities of La Jolla, Pacific Beach, and Ocean Beach. Point Loma occupies the peninsula across San Diego Bay from downtown. The communities of South San Diego, such as San Ysidro and Otay Mesa, are located next to the Mexico – United States border, and are physically separated from the rest of the city by the cities of National City and Chula Vista( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery). A narrow strip of land at the bottom of San Diego Bay connects these southern neighborhoods with the rest of the city. For the most part, San Diego neighborhood boundaries tend to be understood by its residents based on geographical boundaries like canyons and street patterns.[30] The city recognized the importance of its neighborhoods when it organized its 2008 General Plan around the concept of a "City of Villages"( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery). Cityscape Main article: List of tallest buildings in San Diego San Diego was originally centered in the Old Town district, but by the late 1860s the center of focus had relocated to the bayfront in the belief that this new location would increase trade. As the "New Town" – present-day Downtown – waterfront location quickly developed, it eclipsed Old Town as the center of San Diego( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery). The development of skyscrapers over 300 feet (91 m) in San Diego is attributed to the construction of the El Cortez Apartment Hotel in 1927, the tallest building in the city from 1927 to 1963.[33] As time went on multiple buildings claimed the title of San Diego's tallest skyscraper, including the Union Bank of California Building and Symphony Towers( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery). Currently the tallest building in San Diego is One America Plaza, standing 500 feet (150 m) tall, which was completed in 1991.[34] The downtown skyline contains no super-talls, as a regulation put in place by the Federal Aviation Administration in the 1970s set a 500 feet (152 m) limit on the height of buildings due to the proximity of San Diego International Airport. An iconic description of the skyline includes its skyscrapers being compared to the tools of a toolbox( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery). San Diego is one of the top-ten best climates in the Farmer’s Almanac and is one of the two best summer climates in America as scored by The Weather Channel.[38] Under the Köppen climate classification system, the San Diego area straddles areas of Mediterranean climate (Csa) to the north and semi-arid climate (BSh) to the south and east. ( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery) As a result, it is often described as “arid Mediterranean” and “Semi-arid Steppe”. San Diego’s climate is characterized by warm, dry summers and mild winters with most of the annual precipitation falling between December and March. The city has mild, mostly dry weather, with an average of 201 days above 70 °F (21 °C) and low rainfall (9–13 inches [23–33 cm] annually) ( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery). The climate in San Diego, like most of Southern California, often varies significantly over short geographical distances resulting in microclimates. In San Diego, this is mostly because of the city’s topography (the Bay, and the numerous hills, mountains, and canyons). Frequently, particularly during the “May gray/June gloom” period( Dell Latitude D400 battery), a thick “marine layer” cloud cover will keep the air cool and damp within a few miles of the coast, but will yield to bright cloudless sunshine approximately 5–10 miles (8.0–16 km) inland.[40] Sometimes the June gloom can last into July, causing cloudy skies over most of San Diego for the entire day.[41][42] Even in the absence of June gloom, inland areas tend to experience much more significant temperature variations than coastal areas( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery), where the ocean serves as a moderating influence. Thus, for example, downtown San Diego averages January lows of 50 °F (10 °C) and August highs of 78 °F (26 °C). The city of El Cajon, just 10 miles (16 km) inland from downtown San Diego, averages January lows of 42 °F (6 °C) and August highs of 88 °F (31 °C). A sign of global warming, scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography say the average surface temperature of the water at Scripps Pier in the California Current has increased by almost 3 degrees since 1950( Dell Vostro 1400 battery). Surfers in Pacific Beach Rainfall along the coast averages about 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation annually. The average (mean) rainfall is 10.65 inches (271 mm) and the median is 9.6 inches (240 mm).[44] Most of the rainfall occurs during the cooler months. The months of December through March supply most of the rain, with February the only month averaging 2 inches (51 mm) or more of rain( Dell Vostro 1500 battery). The months of May through September tend to be almost completely dry. Though there are few wet days per month during the rainy period, rainfall can be heavy when it does fall. Rainfall is usually greater in the higher elevations of San Diego; some of the higher elevation areas of San Diego can receive 11–15 inches (280–380 mm) of rain a year. Variability of rainfall can be extreme( Dell XPS M1210 battery): in the wettest years of 1883/1884 and 1940/1941 more than 24 inches (610 mm) fell in the city, whilst in the driest years as little as 3.2 inches (80 mm) has fallen for a full year. The wettest month on record has been December 1921 with 9.21 inches (234 mm). Snow in the city is so rare that it has been observed only five times in the century-and-a-half that records have been kept( Dell XPS M1330 battery). In 1949 and 1967, snow stayed on the ground for a few hours in higher locations like Point Loma and La Jolla. The other three occasions, in 1882, 1946, and 1987, involved flurries but no accumulation.[45] Official temperature record-keeping began in San Diego in 1872, although other weather records go back further. The city's first official weather station was at Mission San Diego from 1849 to 1858( Dell XPS 1340 battery). From August 1858 until 1940, the official weather station was at a series of downtown buildings, and the station has been at Lindbergh Field since February 1940. Ecology Coastal canyon in Torrey Pines State Reserve Like most of southern California, the majority of San Diego's current area was originally occupied by chaparral, a plant community made up mostly of drought-resistant shrubs. The endangered Torrey Pine has the bulk of its population in San Diego in a stretch of protected chaparral along the coast( Dell XPS M1530 battery). The steep and varied topography and proximity to the ocean create a number of different habitats within the city limits, including tidal marsh and canyons. The chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitats in low elevations along the coast are prone to wildfire, and the rates of fire have increased in the 20th century, due primarily to fires starting near the borders of urban and wild areas( Dell XPS M170 battery). San Diego's broad city limits encompass a number of large nature preserves, including Torrey Pines State Reserve, Los Peñasquitos Canyon Preserve, and Mission Trails Regional Park. Torrey Pines State Reserve and a coastal strip continuing to the north constitute the only location where the rare species of Torrey Pine, P. torreyana torreyana, is found( Dell XPS M1710 battery). San Diego viewed against the Witch Creek Fire smoke Due to the steep topography that prevents or discourages building, along with some efforts for preservation, there are also a large number of canyons within the city limits that serve as nature preserves, including Switzer Canyon, Tecolote Canyon Natural Park, and Marian Bear Memorial Park in the San Clemente Canyon, as well as a number of small parks and preserves( Dell XPS M1730 battery). San Diego County has one of the highest counts of animal and plant species that appear on the endangered species list among counties in the United States.[53] Because of its diversity of habitat and its position on the Pacific Flyway, San Diego County has recorded the presence of 492 bird species, more than any other region in the country. ( Dell XPS M2010 battery) San Diego always scores very high in the number of bird species observed in the annual Christmas Bird Count, sponsored by the Audubon Society, and it is known as one of the "birdiest" areas in the United States. San Diego and its backcountry are subject to periodic wildfires. In October 2003, San Diego was the site of the Cedar Fire, which has been called the largest wildfire in California over the past century.[57] The fire burned 280,000 acres (1,100 km2), killed 15 people( Dell Latitude E5400 battery), and destroyed more than 2,200 homes.[58] In addition to damage caused by the fire, smoke resulted in a significant increase in emergency room visits due to asthma, respiratory problems, eye irritation, and smoke inhalation; the poor air quality caused San Diego County schools to close for a week.[59] Wildfires four years later destroyed some areas, particularly within the communities of Rancho Bernardo, Rancho Santa Fe, and Ramona( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). Demographics The city had a population of 1,307,402 in 2010, according to the census that year, on a land area of 372.1 square miles (963.7 km2). The urban area of San Diego extends beyond the administrative city limits and had a total 2010 population of 2,880,000, making it the third-largest urban area in the state, after Los Angeles metropolitan area and San Francisco metropolitan area( Dell Latitude E6400 battery). As of the Census of 2010, there were 1,307,402 people living in the city of San Diego.[62] That represents a population increase of just under 7% from the 1,223,400 people, 450,691 households, and 271,315 families reported in 2000.[63] The estimated city population in 2009 was 1,306,300. The population density was 3,771.9 people per square mile (1,456.4/km2) ( Dell Latitude E6500 battery). The racial makeup of San Diego was 58.9% White, 6.7% African American, 0.6% Native American, 15.9% Asian (5.9% Filipino, 2.7% Chinese, 2.5% Vietnamese, 1.3% Indian, 1.0% Korean, 0.7% Japanese, 0.4% Laotian, 0.3% Cambodian, 0.1% Thai). 0.5% Pacific Islander, 12.3% from other races, and 5.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 28.8%. Among the Hispanic population( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery), 24.9% are Mexican, and 0.6% are Puerto Rican. A U.S. Navy vice admiral and an intelligence specialist celebrating Hispanic American Heritage Month in San Diego As of January 1, 2008 estimates by the San Diego Association of Governments revealed that the household median income for San Diego rose to $66,715, up from $45,733, and that the city population rose to 1,336,865, up 9.3% from 2000. ( Dell XPS M140 battery) The population was 45.3% non-Hispanic whites, down from 78.9% in 1970,[67] 27.7% Hispanics, 15.6% Asians/Pacific Islanders, 7.1% blacks, 0.4% American Indians, and 3.9% from other races. Median age of Hispanics was 27.5 years, compared to 35.1 years overall and 41.6 years among non-Hispanic whites; Hispanics were the largest group in all ages under 18, and non-Hispanic whites constituted 63.1% of population 55 and older( Dell XPS 13 battery). In 2000 there were 451,126 households out of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.6% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.8% were non-families. Households made up of individuals account for 28.0% and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.30( Dell XPS 16 battery). The U.S. Census Bureau reported that in 2000, 24.0% of San Diego residents were under 18, and 10.5% were 65 and over. The median age was 32; two-thirds of the population was under 35. The San Diego County regional planning agency, SANDAG, provides tables and graphs breaking down the city population into 5-year age groups( Dell XPS 1640 battery). In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $45,733, and the median income for a family was $53,060. Males had a median income of $36,984 versus $31,076 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,609.[71] According to Forbes in 2005, San Diego was the fifth wealthiest U.S. city but about 10.6% of families and 14.6% of the population were below the poverty line( Dell XPS 1645 battery), including 20.0% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over. Nonetheless, San Diego was rated the fifth-best place to live in the United States in 2006 by Money magazine. According to Forbes magazine, San Diego was the ninth-safest city in the top 10 list of safest cities in the U.S. in 2010.[74] Like most major cities, San Diego had a declining crime rate from 1990 to 2000( Dell XPS 1647 battery). Crime in San Diego increased in the early 2000s. In 2004, San Diego had the sixth lowest crime rate of any U.S. city with over half a million residents. From 2002 to 2006, the crime rate overall dropped 0.8%, though not evenly by category. While violent crime decreased 12.4% during this period, property crime increased 1.1%. Total property crimes per 100,000 people were lower than the national average in 2008( Dell Latitude 131L battery). Economy See also: List of companies headquartered in San Diego The largest sectors of San Diego's economy are defense/military, tourism, international trade, and research/manufacturing, respectively. Defense and military Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWAR) The economy of San Diego is influenced by its deepwater port, which includes the only major submarine and shipbuilding yards on the West Coast. Several major national defense contractors were started and are headquartered in San Diego, including General Atomics, Cubic, and NASSCO( Dell Latitude C400 battery).San Diego hosts the largest naval fleet in the world:[84] it was in 2008 was home to 53 ships, over 120 tenant commands, and more than 35,000 sailors, soldiers, Department of Defense civilian employees and contractors.[85] About 5 percent of all civilian jobs in the county are military-related, and 15,000 businesses in San Diego County rely on Department of Defense contracts( Dell Latitude C500 battery). F/A-18 Hornet flying over San Diego and the USS John C. Stennis Military bases in San Diego include US Navy facilities, Marine Corps bases, and Coast Guard stations. Marine Corps institutions in the city of San Diego include Marine Corps Air Station Miramar and Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego. The Navy has several institutions in the city, including Naval Base Point Loma, Naval Base San Diego( Dell Latitude C510 battery) (also known as the 32nd Street Naval Station), Naval Medical Center San Diego (also known as Bob Wilson Naval Hospital), the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San Diego, and Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command ("SPAWAR"). Also near San Diego but not within the city limits are Naval Amphibious Base Coronado and Naval Air Station North Island ( Dell Latitude C540 battery) (which operates Naval Auxiliary Landing Facility San Clemente Island, Silver Strand Training Complex, and the Outlying Field Imperial Beach). San Diego is known as the "birthplace of naval aviation".[86] The city is "home to the majority of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's surface combatants, all of the Navy's West Coast amphibious ships and a variety of Coast Guard and Military Sealift Command vessels". Two Nimitz class supercarriers( Dell Latitude C600 battery), (the USS Carl Vinson, and USS Ronald Reagan), five amphibious assault ships, several Los Angeles-class "fast attack" submarines, the Hospital Ship USNS Mercy, carrier and submarine tenders, destroyers, cruisers, frigates, and many smaller ships are home-ported there.[89] Four Navy vessels have been named USS San Diego. ( Dell Latitude C610 battery) Tourism Tourism is a major industry owing to the city's climate, its beaches, and numerous tourist attractions such as Balboa Park, Belmont amusement park, San Diego Zoo, San Diego Zoo Safari Park, and SeaWorld San Diego. San Diego's Spanish and Mexican heritage is reflected in the many historic sites across the city( Dell Latitude C640 battery), such as Mission San Diego de Alcala and Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. Annual events in San Diego include Comic-Con, the Farmers Insurance Open golf tournament, San Diego Pride, the San Diego Black Film Festival, and Street Scene Music Festival. Also, the local craft brewing industry attracts an increasing number of visitors[94] for "beer tours" and the annual San Diego Beer Week in November;[95] San Diego has been called "America's Craft Beer Capital." ( Dell Latitude C800 battery) San Diego County hosted more than 30 million visitors in 2009, of whom approximately half stayed overnight and half were day visitors; collectively they spent an estimated $15 billion locally.[97] The San Diego Convention Center hosted 68 out-of-town conventions and trade shows in 2009, attracting more than 600,000 visitors.[97] Transient Occupancy Taxes (TOT) have created funding for the City of San Diego Commission for Arts and Culture. ( Dell Latitude C810 battery) San Diego's cruise ship industry used to be the second largest in California. Each cruise ship call injects an estimated $2 million (from the purchase of food, fuel, supplies, and maintenance services, not counting the money spent by the tourists) into the local economy.[99] Numerous cruise lines, including Carnival, Holland America, Celebrity( Dell Latitude C840 battery), Crystal and Princess, operate out of San Diego. However, cruise ship business has been in steady decline since peaking in 2008, when the Port hosted over 250 ship calls and more than 900,000 passengers. By 2011 the number of ship calls had fallen to 103 (estimated).[100] Holland America and Carnival Cruises operated weekly cruises to the Mexican Riviera for many years, but both ended their regular scheduled service in spring 2012( Dell Latitude D410 battery), which was an economic loss to the region of more than $100 million.[100] The decline is blamed on the slumping economy as well as fear of travel to Mexico due to well-publicized violence there.[101] There are local cruises in San Diego Bay and Mission Bay, available through companies such as Hornblower and H&M( Dell Latitude D420 battery). These include sightseeing and "sunset" cruises as well as private-event or "party" cruises. Also available are whale watching cruises to observe the migration of tens of thousands of gray whales that pass by San Diego, peaking in mid-January,[102] and year-round sport fishing expeditions. International trade Downtown of San Diego San Diego's commercial port and its location on the United States-Mexico border make international trade an important factor in the city's economy( Dell Latitude D430 battery). The city is authorized by the United States government to operate as a Foreign Trade Zone.[103] The city shares a 15-mile (24 km) border with Mexico that includes two border crossings. San Diego hosts the busiest international border crossing in the world, in the San Ysidro neighborhood at the San Ysidro Port of Entry. A second, primarily commercial border crossing operates in the Otay Mesa area; it is the largest commercial crossing ( Dell Latitude D500 battery)on the California-Baja California border and handles the third highest volume of trucks and dollar value of trade among all United States-Mexico land crossings.[105] One of the Port of San Diego's two cargo facilities is located in Downtown San Diego at the Tenth Avenue Marine Terminal. This terminal has facilities for containers, bulk cargo, and refrigerated and frozen storage( Dell Latitude D505 battery), so that it can handle the import and export of perishables (including 33 million bananas every month) as well as fertilizer, cement, forest products, and other commodities.[106] In 2009 the Port of San Diego handled 1,137,054 short tons of total trade; foreign trade accounted for 956,637 short tons while domestic trade amounted to 180,417 short tons. ( Dell Latitude D510 battery) Manufacturing and research Qualcomm corporate headquarters In 2010, former Governor Schwarzenegger’s Office of Economic Development designated San Diego as an iHub Innovation Center for collaboration potentially between wireless and life sciences, citing the area's wireless business, pharmaceutical research and start-ups for medical devices and diagnostics. ( Dell Latitude D520 battery) San Diego hosts several major producers of wireless cellular technology. Qualcomm was founded and is headquartered in San Diego, and still is the largest private-sector technology employer (excluding hospitals) in San Diego County.[109] Other wireless industry manufacturers headquartered here include Nokia, LG Electronics,[110] Kyocera International., Cricket Communications and Novatel Wireless. ( Dell Latitude D600 battery) According to the San Diego Business Journal, the largest software company in San Diego is security software company Websense Inc.[113] San Diego also has the U.S. headquarters for the Slovakian security company ESET. The presence of the University of California, San Diego and other research institutions has helped to fuel biotechnology growth. ( Dell Latitude D610 battery) In June 2004, San Diego was ranked the top biotech cluster in the United States by the Milken Institute. There are more than 400 biotechnology companies in the area.[117] In particular, the La Jolla and nearby Sorrento Valley areas are home to offices and research facilities for numerous biotechnology companies.[118] Major biotechnology companies like Neurocrine Biosciences and Nventa Biopharmaceuticals are headquartered in San Diego( Dell Latitude D620 battery), while many biotech and pharmaceutical companies, such as BD Biosciences, Biogen Idec, Integrated DNA Technologies, Merck, Pfizer, Élan, Celgene, and Vertex, have offices or research facilities in San Diego. There are also several non-profit biotech and health care institutes, such as the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, the Scripps Research Institute( Dell Latitude D630 battery), the West Wireless Health Institute and the Sanford-Burnham Institute. San Diego is also home to more than 140 contract research organizations (CROs) that provide a variety of contract services for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.[119] Historically tuna fishing and canning was one of San Diego's major industries,[120] and although the American tuna fishing fleet is no longer based in San Diego, seafood companies Bumble Bee Foods and Chicken of the Sea are still headquartered there( Dell Latitude D800 battery). Real estate Skyline view of the Village of La Jolla in San Diego Prior to 2006, San Diego experienced a dramatic growth of real estate prices, to the extent that the situation was sometimes described as a "housing affordability crisis". Median single family home prices more than tripled between 1998 and 2007. According to the California Association of Realtors, in May 2007 a median house in San Diego cost $612,370. ( Dell Latitude D810 battery) Growth of real estate prices was not accompanied by comparable growth of household incomes: the Housing Affordability Index (percentage of households that can afford to buy a median-priced house) fell below 20 percent in the early 2000s. The San Diego metropolitan area had one of the worst median multiples (ratio of median house price to median household income) of all metropolitan areas in the United States( Dell Latitude D820 battery), a situation sometimes referred to as a Sunshine tax. As a consequence, San Diego experienced negative net migration since 2004. A significant number of people moved to adjacent Riverside County, commuting daily from Temecula and Murrieta to jobs in San Diego. Many of San Diego's home buyers tend to buy homes within the more affordable neighborhoods, while others are leaving the state altogether and moving to more affordable regions of the country. ( Dell Latitude D830 battery) San Diego home prices peaked in 2005, then declined as part of a nationwide trend. As of December 2010, home prices were 60 percent higher than in 2000, but down 36 percent from the peak in 2005.[124] The median home price declined by more than $200,000 between 2005 and 2010, and sales dropped by 50 percent. ( Dell Latitude 2100 battery) Top employers According to the City's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[126] the top employers in the city are: Education Main article: Primary and secondary schools in San Diego Public schools in San Diego are operated by independent school districts. The majority of the public schools in the city are served by the San Diego Unified School District, also the second largest school district in California, which includes 11 K-8 schools, 107 elementary schools, 24 middle schools, 13 atypical and alternative schools, 28 high schools( Dell Latitude 2110 battery), and 45 charter schools.[127] Several adjacent school districts which are headquartered outside the city limits serve some schools within the city; these include the Poway Unified School District, Del Mar Union School District, San Dieguito Union High School District and Sweetwater Union High School District. In addition, there are a number of private schools in the city( Dell Latitude E4300 battery). Colleges and universities San Diego State University's Hepner Hall According to education rankings released by the U.S. Census Bureau, 40.4 percent of San Diegans ages 25 and older hold bachelor's degrees. The census ranks the city as the ninth most educated city in the United States based on these figures.[128] Public colleges and universities in the city include San Diego State University (SDSU), University of California, San Diego (UCSD), and the San Diego Community College District( Dell Vostro 1310 battery), which includes San Diego City College, San Diego Mesa College, and San Diego Miramar College. Private colleges and universities in the city include University of San Diego (USD), Point Loma Nazarene University (PLNU), Alliant International University (AIU), National University, California International Business University (CIBU), San Diego Christian College, John Paul the Great Catholic University( Dell Vostro 1320 battery), California College San Diego, Coleman University, University of Redlands School of Business, Design Institute of San Diego (DISD), Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising's San Diego campus, NewSchool of Architecture and Design, Pacific Oaks College San Diego Campus, Chapman University's San Diego Campus, The Art Institute of California-San Diego, Southern States University (SSU), UEI College, and Woodbury University School of Architecture's satellite campus( Dell Vostro 1510 battery). There is one medical school in the city, the UCSD School of Medicine. There are three ABA accredited law schools in the city, which include California Western School of Law, Thomas Jefferson School of Law, and University of San Diego School of Law. There is also one unaccredited law school, Western Sierra Law School( Dell Vostro 1520 battery). Libraries University of California, San Diego's Geisel Library, named for Theodor Seuss Geisel ("Dr. Seuss") The city-run San Diego Public Library system is headquartered downtown and has 34 branches throughout the city.[129] The libraries have had reduced operating hours since 2003 due to the city's financial problems. In 2006 the city increased spending on libraries by $2.1 million. ( Dell Vostro 2510 battery) A new nine-story Central Library is under construction on Park Boulevard at J Street.[131] In addition to the municipal public library system, there are nearly two dozen libraries open to the public which are run by other governmental agencies and by schools, colleges, and universities.[132] Noteworthy among them are the Malcolm A. Love Library at San Diego State University and the Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego( Dell Vostro 1014 battery). Culture The Museum of Man Main article: Culture of San Diego See also: City of San Diego Commission for Arts and Culture Many popular museums, such as the San Diego Museum of Art, the San Diego Natural History Museum, the San Diego Museum of Man, and the Museum of Photographic Arts are located in Balboa Park. The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego (MCASD) is located in La Jolla and has a branch located at the Santa Fe Depot downtown( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). The Columbia district downtown is home to historic ship exhibits belonging to the San Diego Maritime Museum, headlined by the Star of India, as well as the unrelated San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum featuring the USS Midway aircraft carrier. The San Diego Symphony at Symphony Towers performs on a regular basis and is directed by Jahja Ling. The San Diego Opera at Civic Center Plaza( Dell Vostro 1015 battery), directed by Ian Campbell, was ranked by Opera America as one of the top 10 opera companies in the United States. Old Globe Theatre at Balboa Park produces about 15 plays and musicals annually. The La Jolla Playhouse at UCSD is directed by Christopher Ashley. Both the Old Globe Theatre and the La Jolla Playhouse have produced the world premieres of plays and musicals that have gone on to win Tony Awards[133] or nominations[134] on Broadway( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery). The Joan B. Kroc Theatre at Kroc Center's Performing Arts Center is a 600-seat state-of-the-art theatre that hosts music, dance, and theatre performances. The San Diego Repertory Theatre at the Lyceum Theatres in Horton Plaza produces a variety of plays and musicals. Other professional theatrical production companies include the Lyric Opera San Diego and the Starlight Musical Theatre( Dell Vostro A840 battery). Hundreds of movies and a dozen TV shows have been filmed in San Diego, a tradition going back as far as 1898.[135] Sports Qualcomm Stadium (formerly named "Jack Murphy Stadium" after a sports writer) hosts a San Diego Chargers game with the St. Louis Rams. Main article: Sports in San Diego See also: San Diego sports curse The National Football League's San Diego Chargers play in Qualcomm Stadium. Three NFL Super Bowl championships have been held there. Major League Baseball's San Diego Padres play in Petco Park. Parts of the World Baseball Classic were played there in 2006 and 2009( Dell Vostro A860 battery). NCAA Division I San Diego State Aztecs men's and women's basketball games are played at Viejas Arena at Aztec Bowl on the campus of San Diego State University. College football and soccer, basketball and volleyball are played at the Torero Stadium and the Jenny Craig Pavilion at USD. Petco Park( Dell Inspiron Mini 1012 battery) The San Diego State Aztecs (MWC) and the University of San Diego Toreros (WCC) are NCAA Division I teams. The UCSD Tritons (CCAA) are members of NCAA Division II while the Point Loma Nazarene Sea Lions and San Diego Christian College (GSAC) are members of the NAIA. Qualcomm stadium also houses the NCAA Division I San Diego State Aztecs( SONY PCG-5G2L battery), as well as local high school football championships, international soccer games, and supercross events. Two of college football's annual bowl games are also held there: the Holiday Bowl and the Poinsettia Bowl. Soccer, American football, and track and field are played in Balboa Stadium, the city's first stadium, constructed in 1914( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). Rugby union is a developing sport in the city. The USA Sevens, a major rugby event, was held there from 2007 through 2009. San Diego is one of only 16 cities in the United States included in the Rugby Super League[136] represented by Old Mission Beach Athletic Club RFC, the home club of USA Rugby's Captain Todd Clever who plays rugby professionally in Japan's Top League with Suntory Sungoliath. ( SONY PCG-F305 battery) San Diego will participate in the Western American National Rugby League which starts in 2011.[138] The San Diego Surf of the American Basketball Association is located in the city. The annual Farmers Insurance Open golf tournament (formerly the Buick Invitational) on the PGA Tour occurs at the municipally owned Torrey Pines Golf Course. This course was also the site of the 2008 U.S. Open Golf Championship( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). The San Diego Yacht Club hosted the America's Cup yacht races three times during the period 1988 to 1995. The amateur beach sport Over-the-line was invented in San Diego,[139] and the annual world Over-the-line championships are held at Mission Bay every year.[140] See also: List of media set in San Diego The following are published within the city: the daily newspaper, U-T San Diego and its online portal, of the same name,[141] and the alternative newsweeklies( SONY PCG-5J2L battery), the San Diego CityBeat and San Diego Reader. Another newspaper is the North County Times, which is distributed in San Diego's North County area. Voice of San Diego is a non-profit online-only news outlet covering government, politics, education, neighborhoods, and the arts. The San Diego Daily Transcript is a business-oriented daily newspaper( SONY PCG-5K2L battery). NBC San Diego (left) is outside Horton Plaza on Broadway downtown. San Diego led U.S. local markets with 69.6 percent broadband penetration in 2004 according to Nielsen//NetRatings.[142] San Diego's first television station was KFMB, which began broadcasting on May 16, 1949.[143] Since the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensed seven television stations in Los Angeles( SONY PCG-5L1L battery), two VHF channels were available for San Diego because of its relative proximity to the larger city. In 1952, however, the FCC began licensing UHF channels, making it possible for cities such as San Diego to acquire more stations. Stations based in Mexico (with ITU prefixes of XE and XH) also serve the San Diego market. Television stations today include XHTJB 3 (Once TV), XETV 6 (CW) ( SONY PCG-6S2L battery), KFMB 8 (CBS), KGTV 10 (ABC), XEWT 12 (Televisa Regional), KPBS 15 (PBS), KTCD-CA 17 (Univision), XHTIT 21 (Azteca 7), XHJK 27 (Azteca 13), KSDX-LP 29 (Spanish Independent), XHAS 33 (Telemundo), K35DG 35 (UCSD-TV), KBNT-LD 51 (Telefutura), KNSD 39 (NBC), KZSD-LP 41 (Azteca America), KSEX-CD 42 (Infomercials), XHBJ 45 (Canal 5), XHDTV 49 (MNTV), KUSI 51 (Independent), XHUAA 57 (Canal de las Estrellas), and KSWB-TV 69 (Fox). San Diego has an 80.6 percent cable penetration rate. ( SONY PCG-6S3L battery) Due to the ratio of U.S. and Mexican-licensed stations, San Diego is the largest media market in the United States that is legally unable to support a television station duopoly between two full-power stations under FCC regulations, which disallow duopolies in metropolitan areas with fewer than nine full-power television stations and require that there must be eight unique station owners that remain once a duopoly is formed( SONY PCG-6V1L battery) (there are only seven full-power stations on the California side of the San Diego-Tijuana market).[citation needed] Though the E. W. Scripps Company owns KGTV and KZSD-LP, they are not considered a duopoly under the FCC's legal definition as common ownership between full-power and low-power television stations in the same market is permitted regardless to the number of stations licensed to the area( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). As a whole, the Mexico side of the San Diego-Tijuana market has two duopolies and one triopoly (Entravision Communications owns both XHAS-TV and XHDTV-TV, TV Azteca owns XHJK-TV and XHTIT-TV, and Grupo Televisa owns XHUAA-TV and XHWT-TV along with being the license holder for XETV-TV, which is run by California-based subsidiary Bay City Television) ( SONY PCG-7111L battery). The radio stations in San Diego include nationwide broadcaster, Clear Channel Communications; CBS Radio, Midwest Television, Lincoln Financial Media, Finest City Broadcasting, and many other smaller stations and networks. Stations include: KOGO AM 600, KFMB AM 760, KCEO AM 1000, KCBQ AM 1170, K-Praise, KLSD AM 1360 Air America, KFSD 1450 AM, KPBS-FM 89.5( SONY PCG-71511M battery), Channel 933, Star 94.1, FM 94/9, FM News and Talk 95.7, Q96 96.1, KyXy 96.5, Free Radio San Diego (AKA Pirate Radio San Diego) 96.9FM FRSD, KSON 97.3/92.1, KIFM 98.1, Jack-FM 100.7, 101.5 KGB-FM, KPRI 102.1, Rock 105.3, and another Pirate Radio station at 106.9FM, as well as a number of local Spanish-language radio stations( SONY PCG-6W3L battery). San Diego City Council chambers The city is governed by a mayor and an 8-member city council. In 2006, the city's form of government changed from a "city manager system" to a "strong mayor system". The change was brought about by a citywide vote in 2004. The mayor is in effect the chief executive officer of the city, while the council is the legislative body. ( SONY PCG-7113L battery) The members of the city council are each elected from single member districts within the city. The mayor and city attorney are elected directly by the voters of the entire city. The mayor, city attorney, and council members are elected to four-year terms, with a two-term limit.[146] Elections are held on a non-partisan basis per California state law; nevertheless, most officeholders do identify themselves as either Democrats or Republicans( SONY PCG-7133L battery). Mayor Jerry Sanders Although San Diego has a Republican mayor,[147] in 2007, registered Democrats outnumbered Republicans by about 7 to 6 in the city, and Democrats currently hold a 5–3 majority in the City Council.[148] San Diego is part of San Diego County which is governed by a 5-member Board of Supervisors. The City of San Diego includes all or part of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th supervisorial[149] districts, represented by Republican County Supervisors Greg Cox, Dianne Jacob, Pam Slater-Price and Ron Roberts. ( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery) Areas of the city immediately adjacent to San Diego Bay ("tidelands") are administered by the Port of San Diego, a quasi-governmental agency which owns all the property in the tidelands and is responsible for its land use planning, policing, and similar functions. San Diego is a member of the regional planning agency San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) ( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery). Public schools within the city are managed and funded by independent school districts (see above). State and federal In the state legislature San Diego is located in the 36th, 38th, 39th, and 40th Senate District, represented by Republicans Joel Anderson and Mark Wyland, and Democrats Christine Kehoe and Juan Vargas, and in the 74th, 75th, 76th, 77th, 78th, and 79th Assembly District, represented by Republicans Martin Garrick and Nathan Fletcher, Democrat Toni Atkins( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery), Republican Brian Jones and Democrats Marty Block and Ben Hueso, respectively. Federally, San Diego is located in California's 49th, 50th, 51st, 52nd, and 53rd congressional districts, which have Cook PVIs of R +10, R +5, D +7, R +9, and D +12 respectively[151] and are represented by Republicans Darrell Issa and Brian Bilbray, Democrat Bob Filner, Republican Duncan D. Hunter, and Democrat Susan Davis, respectively( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery). Major scandals In 1916, rainmaker Charles Hatfield was blamed for $4 million in damages and accused of causing San Diego's worst flood, during which about twenty Japanese American farmers died.[152] Then-mayor Roger Hedgecock was forced to resign his post in 1985, after he was found guilty of one count of conspiracy and twelve counts of perjury, related to the alleged failure to report all campaign contributions( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery). After a series of appeals, the twelve perjury counts were dismissed in 1990 based on claims of juror misconduct; the remaining conspiracy count was reduced to a misdemeanor and then dismissed. A 2002 scheme to underfund pensions for city employees led to the San Diego pension scandal. This resulted in the resignation of newly re-elected Mayor Dick Murphy[156] and the criminal indictment of six pension board members. ( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery)Those charges were finally dismissed by a federal judge in 2010.[158] On November 28, 2005, U.S. Congressman Randy "Duke" Cunningham resigned after being convicted on federal bribery charges. He had represented California's 50th congressional district, which includes much of the northern portion of the city of San Diego. In 2006, Cunningham was sentenced to a 100-month prison sentence. ( SONY PCG-7112L battery) In 2005 two city council members, Ralph Inzunza and Deputy Mayor Michael Zucchet — who briefly took over as Acting Mayor when Murphy resigned — were convicted of extortion, wire fraud, and conspiracy to commit wire fraud for taking campaign contributions from a strip club owner and his associates, allegedly in exchange for trying to repeal the city's "no touch"( SONY PCG-6W2L battery) laws at strip clubs.[160] Both subsequently resigned. In 2009, a judge acquitted Zucchet on seven out of the nine counts against him, and granted his petition for a new trial on the other two charges;[161] the remaining charges were eventually dropped. Infrastructure Utilities Water is supplied to residents by the Water Department of the City of San Diego. The city receives its water from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). Gas and electric utilities are provided by San Diego Gas & Electric, a division of Sempra Energy. Transportation Main articles: Transportation in San Diego and Streets and highways of San Diego I-5 looking south toward downtown San Diego With the automobile being the primary means of transportation for over 80 percent of its residents, San Diego is served by a network of freeways and highways. This includes Interstate 5, which runs south to Tijuana and runs north to Los Angeles( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery); Interstate 8, which runs east to Imperial County and the Arizona Sun Corridor; Interstate 15, which runs northeast through the Inland Empire to Las Vegas; and Interstate 805, which splits from I-5 near the Mexican border and rejoins I-5 at Sorrento Valley. Major state highways include SR 94, which connects downtown with I-805, I-15 and East County; SR 163, which connects downtown with the northeast part of the city( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery), intersects I-805 and merges with I-15 at Miramar; SR 52, which connects La Jolla with East County through Santee and SR 125; SR 56, which connects I-5 with I-15 through Carmel Valley and Rancho Peñasquitos; SR 75, which spans San Diego Bay as the San Diego-Coronado Bridge, and also passes through South San Diego as Palm Avenue; and SR 905, which connects I-5 and I-805 to the Otay Mesa Port of Entry( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). The stretch of SR 163 that passes through Balboa Park is San Diego's oldest freeway, and has been called one of America's most beautiful parkways.[163] San Diego's roadway system provides an extensive network of routes for travel by bicycle. The dry and mild climate of San Diego makes cycling a convenient and pleasant year-round option. At the same time, the city's hilly( SONY VGP-BPS9A/B battery), canyon-like terrain and significantly long average trip distances—brought about by strict low-density zoning laws—somewhat restrict cycling for utilitarian purposes. Older and denser neighborhoods around the downtown tend to be utility cycling oriented. This is partly because of the grid street patterns now absent in newer developments farther from the urban core, where suburban style arterial roads are much more common( SONY VGP-BPS9/B battery). As a result, a vast majority of cycling-related activities are recreational. Testament to San Diego's cycling efforts, in 2006, San Diego was rated as the best city for cycling for U.S. cities with a population over 1 million. View of Coronado and San Diego from the air San Diego is served by the trolley, bus, Sprinter, Coaster, and Amtrak. The trolley primarily serves downtown and surrounding urban communities( SONY VGP-BPS9A/S battery), Mission Valley, east county, and coastal south bay. A planned Mid-Coast line will operate from Old Town to University City along the 5 Freeway. The Amtrak and Coaster trains currently run along the coastline and connect San Diego with Los Angeles, Orange County, Riverside, San Bernardino, and Ventura via Metrolink. There are two Amtrak stations in San Diego( SONY VGP-BPL9 battery), in Old Town and Downtown. San Diego transit information about public transportation and commuting is available on the Web and by dialing "511" from any phone in the area. The city's primary commercial airport is the San Diego International Airport (SAN), also known as Lindbergh Field. It is the busiest single-runway airport in the United States.[167] It served over 17 million passengers in 2005, and is dealing with an increasingly larger number every year. ( SONY VGP-BPS10 battery) It is located on San Diego Bay three miles (4.8 km) from downtown. San Diego International Airport maintains scheduled flights to the rest of the United States including Hawaii, as well as to Mexico, Canada and the United Kingdom. It is operated by an independent agency, the San Diego Regional Airport Authority. In addition, the city itself operates two general-aviation airports, Montgomery Field (MYF) and Brown Field (SDM). ( SONY VGP-BPL10 battery) Several regional transportation projects have been undertaken in recent years to deal with congestion in San Diego. Notable efforts are on San Diego freeways, San Diego Airport, and the cruise terminal of the port. Freeway projects included expansion of Interstates 5 and 805 around "The Merge," a rush-hour spot where the two freeways meet( SONY VGP-BPS11 battery). Also, an expansion of Interstate 15 through the North County is underway with the addition of high-occupancy-vehicle (HOV) "managed lanes". There is a tollway (The South Bay Expressway) connecting SR 54 and Otay Mesa, near the Mexican border. According to a 2007 assessment, 37 percent of streets in San Diego were in acceptable driving condition. The proposed budget fell $84.6 million short of bringing the city's streets to an acceptable level. ( SONY VGP-BPL11 battery) Port expansions included a second cruise terminal on Broadway Pier which opened in 2010. Airport projects include expansion of Terminal 2, currently under construction and slated for completion in 2013. Lima /ˈliːmə/ is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao( SONY VGP-BPL12 battery), it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population approaching 9 million, Lima is the most populous metropolitan area of Peru, and the fourth largest city in the Americas (as defined by "city proper"), behind São Paulo, Mexico City, and New York City. Lima is home to one of the largest financial hubs in Latin America. It has been defined as a beta world city by GaWC international ranking( SONY VGP-BPS12 battery). Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535, as la Ciudad de los Reyes, or "the City of Kings". It became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru. Today, around one-third of the Peruvian population lives in the metropolitan area( SONY VGP-BPS13 battery). Lima is home to one of the oldest higher learning institutions in the New World. The National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12, 1551 during Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. According to early Spanish chronicles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century( SONY VGP-BPS13Q battery), a famous oracle in the Rímac valley had come to be known by visitors as Limaq (Limaq, pronounced [ˈli.mɑq], which means "talker" in coastal Quechua). This oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted in the local language, thus the chronicles show "Límac" replacing "Ychma" as the common name for the area. ( SONY VGP-BPS13A/Q battery) Modern scholars speculate that the word "Lima" originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq. Linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. The city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings (Spanish: Ciudad de los Reyes) ( SONY VGP-BPS13B/Q battery) because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. Nevertheless, this name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the city's name of choice; on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru, both Lima and Ciudad de los Reyes can be seen together as names for the city( SONY VGP-BPS13/B battery). The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac, and many people erroneously assume that this is because its original Inca name is "Talking River" (the Incas spoke a highland variety of Quechua where the word for "talker" was pronounced However, the original inhabitants of the valley were not the Incas( SONY VGP-BPS13B/B battery), and this name is actually an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua. Later, as the original inhabitants of the valley died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. In modern times, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river that runs through it( SONY VGP-BPS13A/S battery). They often assume that the valley is named after the river; however, Spanish documents from the colonial period show the opposite to be true.[2] History Main article: History of Lima Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors In the pre-Columbian era, the location of what is now the city of Lima was inhabited by several Amerindian groups under the Ychsma polity, which was incorporated into the Inca Empire in the 15th century. ( SONY VGP-BPS21A/B battery)In 1532, a group of Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated the Inca ruler Atahualpa and took over his Empire. As the Spanish Crown had named Pizarro governor of the lands he conquered,[4] he chose the Rímac valley to found his capital on January 18, 1535 as Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings).[5] In August 1536, rebel Inca troops led by Manco Inca besieged the city but were defeated by the Spaniards and their native allies. ( SONY VGP-BPS21B battery) Lima gained prestige after being designated capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and site of a Real Audiencia in 1543.[7] During the next century it flourished as the centre of an extensive trade network which integrated the Viceroyalty with the rest of the Americas, Europe and the Far East.[8] However, the city was not free from dangers; the presence of pirates and privateers in the Pacific Ocean lead to the building of the Lima City Walls between 1684 and 1687. ( SONY VGP-BPS21 battery) Also in this last year a powerful earthquake destroyed most of the city buildings;[10] the earthquake marked a turning point in the history of Lima as it coincided with a recession in trade and growing economic competition with other cities such as Buenos Aires.[11] Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period( SONY VGP-BPS21/S battery). In 1746, a powerful earthquake severely damaged Lima and destroyed Callao, forcing a massive rebuilding effort under Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco.[12] In the later half of the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas on public health and social control shaped the development of the city.[13] During this period( SONY VGP-BPS13AS battery), Lima was adversely affected by the Bourbon Reforms as it lost its monopoly on overseas trade and its control over the important mining region of Upper Peru.[14] The city's economic decline made its elite dependent on royal and ecclesiastical appointment and thus, reluctant to advocate independence. ( SONY VGP-BPS13S battery) A combined expedition of Argentine and Chilean patriots under General José de San Martín landed south of Lima in 1820 but did not attack the city. Faced with a naval blockade and the action of guerrillas on land, Viceroy José de la Serna evacuated its capital on July 1821 to save the Royalist army.[16] Fearing a popular uprising and lacking any means to impose order( SONY VGP-BPS13B/S battery), the city council invited San Martín to enter Lima and signed a Declaration of Independence at his request.[17] However, the war was not over; in the next two years the city changed hands several times. Lima City Walls were built between 1684 and 1687 by viceroy Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull. After independence, Lima became the capital of the Republic of Peru but economic stagnation and political turmoil brought urban development to a halt( SONY VGP-BPS13B/G battery). This hiatus ended in the 1850s, when increased public and private revenues from guano exports led to a rapid development of the city.[18] The export-led expansion also widened the gap between rich and poor, fostering social unrest.[19] During the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, Chilean troops occupied Lima, looting public museums, libraries and educational institutions. ( SONY VGP-BPS14 battery) At the same time, angry mobs attacked wealthy citizens and the Asian population; sacking their properties and businesses.[21] After the war, the city underwent a process of renewal and expansion from the 1890s up to the 1920s. During this period, the urban layout was modified by the construction of big avenues that crisscrossed the city and connected it with neighboring towns. ( SONY VGP-BPL14 battery) In 1940, an earthquake destroyed most of the city, which at that time was mostly built of adobe and quincha. In the 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth spurred by migration from the Andean regions of Peru, as rural people sought opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 0.6 million in 1940, reached 1.9 million by 1960 and 4.8 ( SONY VGP-BPS14/B battery)million by 1980.[23] At the start of this period, the urban area was confined to a triangular area bounded by the city's historic centre, Callao and Chorrillos; in the following decades settlements spread to the north, beyond the Rímac River, to the east, along the Central Highway, and to the south.[24] The new migrants, at first confined to slums in downtown Lima, ( SONY VGP-BPS14/S battery) led this expansion through large-scale land invasions, which evolved into shanty towns, known as pueblos jóvenes.[25] Geography Lima seen from the SPOT satellite The urban area of Lima covers about 800 km2 (310 sq mi). It is located on mostly flat terrain in the Peruvian coastal plain, within the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers. The city slopes gently from the shores of the Pacific Ocean into valleys and mountain slopes located as high as 500 metres (1,600 ft) above mean sea level( SONY VGP-BPS14B battery). Within the city there are isolated hills which are not connected to the surrounding hill chains, such as El Agustino, San Cosme, El Pino, La Milla, Muleria and Pro hills. The San Cristobal hill in the Rimac district, which lies directly north of the downtown area, is the local extreme of an Andean hill outgrowth. Metropolitan Lima has an area of 2,672.28 km2 (1,031.77 sq mi) ( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery), of which 825.88 km2 (318.87 sq mi) (31%) comprise the actual city and 1,846.40 km2 (712.90 sq mi) (69%) the city outskirts.[citation needed] The urban area extends around 60 km (37 mi) from north to south and around 30 km (19 mi) from west to east. The city center is located 15 km (9.3 mi) inland at the shore of the Rimac river, a vital resource for the city( SONY VGP-BPS22 battery), since it carries what will become drinking water for its inhabitants and fuels the hydroelectric dams that provide electricity to the area. While no official administrative definition for the city exists, it is usually considered to be composed of the central 30 out of the 43 districts of Lima Province, corresponding to an urban area centered around the historic Cercado de Lima district. ( SONY VGP-BPS18 battery) The city is the core of the Lima Metropolitan Area, one of the ten largest metropolitan areas in the Americas. Lima is the second largest city in the world located in a desert, after Cairo, Egypt. Weather averages for Lima International Airport Lima's climate is mild, despite being located in the tropics and in a desert. Although classified as subtropical, Lima's proximity to the cool waters of the Pacific Ocean leads to temperatures much cooler than those expected for a subtropical desert( SONY VGP-BPS22/A battery), and can be classified as a cool desert climate. It is neither cold nor very hot. Temperatures rarely fall below 12 °C (54 °F) or rise above 29 °C (84 °F) throughout the entire year. Two distinct seasons can be identified: summer, from December through April; and winter from June through October. May and November are generally transition months, with the warm-to-cool weather transition being more dramatic( SONY VGP-BPS22A battery). Summers are warm, humid, and sunny. Daily temperatures oscillate between lows of 18 °C (64 °F) to 22 °C (72 °F), and highs of 24 °C (75 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F). Skies are generally cloud free, especially during daytime. Occasional coastal fogs during some mornings and high clouds during some afternoons and evenings can be present. Lima summer sunsets are well known for being colorful( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ battery). As such, they have been labeled by the locals as "cielo de brujas" (Spanish for "sky of witches"), since the sky commonly turns into shades of orange, pink and red around 7 pm. Winter weather is dramatically different. Gray skies, breezy conditions, high humidity and cool temperatures prevail. Long (1-week or more) stretches of dark overcast skies are not uncommon. Persistent morning drizzle occurs occasionally from June through September( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S battery), coating the streets with a thin layer of water that generally dries up by early afternoon. Winter temperatures in Lima do not vary much between day and night. They range from lows of 12 °C (54 °F) to 16 °C (61 °F) and highs of 16 °C (61 °F) to 19 °C (66 °F), rarely exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) except in the easternmost districts.[26] Relative humidity is always very high, particularly in the mornings. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T battery) High humidity produces brief morning fog during the early summer and a usually persistent low cloud deck during the winter (generally developing in May and persisting all the way into late November or even early December). Predominant onshore flow makes the Lima area one of the cloudiest among the entire Peruvian coast. Lima has only 1284 hours of sunshine a year( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G battery), 28.6 hours in July and 179.1 hours in January, exceptionally low values for the latitude.[27] Winter cloudiness prompts locals to seek for sunshine in Andean valleys located at elevations generally above 500 meters above sea level. Although relative humidity levels are high, rainfall is very low due to strong atmospheric stability. The severely low rainfall impacts on water supply in the city( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ4000 battery), which originates from wells and from rivers that flow from the Andes.[28] Inland districts receive anywhere between 1 to 6 cm (2.4 in) of rainfall per year, which accumulates mainly during the winter months. Coastal districts receive only 1 to 3 cm (1.2 in). As previously mentioned, winter precipitation occurs in the form of persistent morning drizzle events. These are locally called 'garúa', 'llovizna' or 'camanchacas'( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ460E battery). Summer rain, on the other hand, is infrequent, and occurs in the form of isolated light and brief showers. These generally occur during afternoons and evenings when leftovers from Andean storms arrive from the east. The lack of heavy rainfall arises from high atmospheric stability caused, in term, by the combination of cool waters from semi-permanent coastal upwelling and the presence of the cold Humboldt Current( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L battery); and warm air aloft associated with the South Pacific anticyclone. The climate of Lima (as that of most of the Peruvian coast) gets severely disrupted during El Niño events. Water temperatures along the coast, which usually average around 17–19 °C (63–66 °F), get much warmer (as in 1998 when the water temperature reached 26 °C (79 °F)). Air temperatures rise accordingly. Such was the case when Lima hit its all-time record high of 34 °C (93 °F).[26] Cooler climate develops during La Niña years( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z battery). The all-time record low in the metropolitan area is 8 °C (46 °F), measured during the winter of 1988. Demographics Slums in the outskirts of Lima. With a municipal population of 7,605,743, and 8,472,935 for the metropolitan area and a population density of 3,008.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (7,793 /sq mi) as of 2007,[1] Lima ranks as the 27th most populous 'agglomeration' in the world.[31] Its population features a very complex mix of racial and ethnic groups( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M battery). Mestizos of mixed Amerindian and European (mostly Spanish and Italians) ancestry are the largest ethnic group. European Peruvians are the second largest group. Many are of Spanish, Italian or German descent; many others are of French, British, or Croatian descent. The minorities in Lima include Amerindians (mostly Aymara and Quechua), Afro-Peruvians( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M battery), whose African ancestors were initially brought to the region as slaves, are yet another part of the city's ethnic diversity. There are also numerous Jews of European descent and Middle Easterners. Asians make up a large number of the metropolitan population, especially of Chinese (Cantonese) and Japanese descent, whose ancestors came mostly in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Lima has, by far, the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 battery) The first settlement in what would become Lima was made up of 117 housing blocks. In 1562, another district was built at the other side of the Rimac River and in 1610, the first stone bridge was built. Lima then had a population of around 26,000; blacks made up around 40% of the population, and whites made up around 38% of the population. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31S battery) By 1748, the white population totaled 16,000–18,000.[36] In 1861, the number of inhabitants surpassed 100,000, and by 1927, this had doubled.[citation needed] During the early twentieth century, thousands of immigrants came to the city, including people of German, French, Italian, and British descent. They organized social clubs, and built their own schools( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31Z battery). Examples are The American-Peruvian school, the Alianza Francesa de Lima, the Lycée Franco-Péruvien and the hospital Maison de Sante; Markham College, the British-Peruvian school in Monterrico, Antonio Raymondi Italian School, the Pestalozzi Swiss School and also several German-Peruvian schools. The immigrants influenced Peruvian cuisine, with Italians in particular exerting a strong influence in the Miraflores and San Isidro areas with their restaurants, called trattorias. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E battery) A great number of Chinese immigrants, and a lesser amount of Japanese, came to Lima and established themselves in the Barrios Altos neighborhood near downtown Lima. Lima residents refer to their Chinatown as Calle Capon, and the city's ubiquitous Chifa restaurants – small, sit-down, usually Chinese-run restaurants serving the Peruvian spin on Chinese cuisine – can be found by the dozen in this Chinese enclave( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J battery). Economy Lima is the industrial and financial center of Peru, and one of the most important financial centers in Latin America.[37] Today it is home to many national companies. It accounts for more than two thirds of Peru's industrial production[38] and most of its tertiary sector. The Metropolitan area, with around 7000 factories,[39] spearheads the industrial development of the country, thanks to the quantity and quality of the available workforce( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M battery), cheap infrastructure and the mostly developed routes and highways in the city. Products include textiles, clothing and food. Chemicals, fish, leather and oil derivatives are also manufactured and/or processed in Lima.[39] The financial district is located in the district of San Isidro, while much of the industrial activity takes place in the area stretching west of downtown Lima to the airport in Callao( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B battery). Lima has the largest export industry in South America, and is a regional hub for the cargo industry. Industrialization began to take hold in Lima in 1930s and by 1950s, through import substitution policies, by 1950 manufacturing made up 14% of the GNP. In the late 1950s, up to 70% of consumer goods were manufactured in factories located in Lima. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S battery) The Callao seaport is one of the main fishing and commerce ports in South America, with 75% of the country's imports and 25% of its exports[41] using it as their entry/departure point. The main export goods leaving the country through Callao are oil, steel, silver, zinc, cotton, sugar and coffee( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M battery). Lima generates 53% of the GDP of Peru. In 2010, GDP per capita in Lima reached $20,000.[42] Most of the foreign companies operating in the country have settled in Lima. In 2007, the Peruvian economy grew 9%, the largest growth rate in all of South America which was spearheaded by economic policies originating in Lima.[43] The Lima Stock Exchange grew 185.24% in 2006[44] and in 2007 grew 168.3%,( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38M battery)making it one of the fastest growing stock exchanges in the world. In 2006, the Lima Stock Exchange was the most profitable in the world.[46] The unemployment rate in the metropolitan area is 7.2%. The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit and the Latin America, the Caribbean and the European Union Summit were hosted by the city of Lima( Sony VGN-NR11S/S Battery). Lima is headquarters to major banks such as Banco de Crédito del Perú, Interbank, Bank of the Nation, Banco Continental, MiBanco, Banco Interamericano de Finanzas, Banco Finaciero, Banco de Comercio, and Credit Scotia. It is a regional headquarters to Standard Chartered. Insurance corporations based in Lima include Rimac Seguros, Mapfre Peru, Interseguro, Pacifico, Protecta, and La Positiva. ( Sony VGN-NR11M/S Battery) Government Palace of Perú Lima is the capital city of the Republic of Peru and the department of Lima. As such, it is home to the three branches of the Government of Peru. The executive branch is headquartered in the Government Palace, located in the Plaza Mayor. The legislative branch is headquartered in the Legislative Palace and is home to the Congress of Peru( Sony VGN-NR11Z/S Battery). The Judicial branch is headquartered in the Palace of Justice and is home to the Supreme Court of Peru. All the ministries are located in the city of Lima. In international government, the city of Lima is home to the headquarters of the Andean Community of Nations and the South American Community of Nations, along with other regional and international organizations( Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Battery). The Palace of Justice in Lima is seat of the Supreme Court of Justice the highest judicial court in Peru with jurisdiction over the entire territory of Peru. Lima is seat of two of the 28 second highest or Superior Courts of Justice. The first and oldest Superior Court in Lima is the Superior Court of Justice of Lima belonging to the Judicial District of Lima( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E battery). Due to the judicial organization of Peru, the highest concentration of courts is located in Lima despite the fact that its judicial district only has jurisdiction over 35 of the 43 districts of Lima.[48] The Superior Court of the Cono Norte is the second Superior Court located in Lima and is part of the Judicial District of North Lima. This judicial district has jurisdiction over the remaining eight districts all located in northern Lima( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z battery). Local government Main article: Metropolitan Municipality of Lima The city is roughly equivalent to the Province of Lima, which is subdivided into 43 districts. The Metropolitan Municipality of Lima is utmost authority of the entire city while each district has its own local government. Unlike the rest of the country, the Metropolitan Municipality, although a provincial municipality, acts as and has functions similar to a regional government, as it does not belong to any of the 25 regions of Peru( Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J battery). Cityscape Lima's architecture is characterized by a mix of styles. Examples of early colonial architecture include the Monastery of San Francisco, the Cathedral of Lima and the Torre Tagle Palace. These constructions are generally influenced by the Spanish baroque,[50] Spanish Neoclassicism,[51] and Spanish Colonial[52] styles. After independence, a gradual shift towards the neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles took place. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11 battery) Many of these constructions were greatly influenced by French architectural styles.[53] Many government buildings as well as major cultural institutions were contracted in this architectural time period. During 1960s, constructions utilizing the brutalist style began appearing in Lima due to the military government of Juan Velasco.[54] Examples of this architecture include the Museum of the Nation and the Ministry of Defense( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M battery). The 21st century has seen the appearance of glass skyscrapers, particularly around the city's financial district.[55] There are new architectural and real estate projects.[56] The largest parks of Lima are located near the downtown area such as the Park of the Reserve, Park of the Exposition,[57] Campo de Marte, and the University Park. The Park of the Reserve is home to the largest fountain complex in the world known as the Magical Circuit of Water. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S battery) A number of large parks lie outside the city center, including Reducto Park, Pantanos de Villa, El Golf (San Isidro), Parque de las Leyendas (Lima Zoo), El Malecon de Miraflores, and the Golf Los Incas.[59] The street grid of the city of Lima, is laid out with a system of plazas of which serve a purpose similar to roundabouts or junctions. In addition to this practical purpose( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21E battery), plazas serve as one of Lima's principal green spaces and contain monuments, statues and water fountains. Society and culture Woman in White Poncho on Horseback. Cantonese watercolor, sold in Lima mid-19th century. These paintings were copies of works of Francisco Fierro, a popular Afro-Peruvian artist of the time. Collections of the Museum of International Folk Art, Santa Fe( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21J battery). Strongly influenced by European, Andean, African and Asian culture, Lima is a melting pot of cultures due to colonization, immigration, and indigenous influences.[61] The Historic Center of Lima was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988. The city is known as the Gastronomical Capital of the Americas. Lima's gastronomy is a mix of Spanish, Andean, and Asian culinary traditions. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21L battery) Lima's beaches, located along the northern and southern ends of the city, are heavily visited during the summer months. Restaurants, clubs and hotels have opened in these places to serve the beachgoers. Lima has a vibrant and active theater scene, including classic theater, cultural presentations, modern theater, experimental theater, dramas, dance performances( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M battery), and theater for children. Lima is home to the Municipal Theater, Segura Theater, Japanese-Peruvian Theater, Marsano Theater, British theater, Theater of the PUCP Cultural Center, and the Yuyachkani Theater.[63] Known as Peruvian Coastal Spanish, Lima's Spanish is characterized by the lack of strong innotations as found in many other regions of the Spanish-speaking world. It is heavily influenced by the historical Spanish spoken in Castile( Sony VAIO VGN-FW41M/H battery). Throughout the colonial era, most of the Spanish colonial nobility based in Lima were originally from Castile.[64] Limean Spanish is also characterized by the lack of voseo, a trait present in the dialects of many other Latin American countries. This is because voseo was primarily used by the lower socioeconomic classes of Spain, a social group that did not begin to appear in Lima until the late colonial era( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21M battery). Limean Spanish is distinguished by its clarity in comparison to other Latin American accents. Limean Spanish has been influenced by immigrant groups including Italians, Andalusians, Chinese and Japanese. It also has been influenced by anglicisms as a result of globalization, as well as by Andean Spanish, due to the migration from the Andean highlands to Lima. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW21Z battery) Museums Main article: Museums in Lima Lima is home to the highest concentration of museums of the country, the most notable of which are the Museo Nacional de Arqueología Antropología e Historia del Perú, Museum of Art of Lima, the Museum of Natural History, the Museum of the Nation, The Sala Museo Oro del Perú Larcomar, the Museum of Italian Art, and the Museum of Gold, and the Larco Museum( Sony VAIO VGN-FW32J battery). These museums focus on art, pre-Columbian cultures, natural history, science and religion.[66] The Museum of Italian Art shows European art. Tourism As the major point of entry to the country, Lima has developed a tourism industry, characterized by its historic center, archeological sites, nightlife, museums, art galleries, festivals, and traditions. Lima is home to restaurants and bars where local and international cuisine is served. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW17W battery) The Historic Center of Lima, made up of the districts of Lima and Rimac, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988.[68] Some examples of colonial architecture include the Monastery of San Francisco, the Plaza Mayor, the Cathedral, Covenant of Santo Domingo, the Palace of Torre Tagle, and much more( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31E battery). A tour of the city's churches is a popular circuit among tourists. A trip through the central district goes through churches dating from as early as the 16th and 17th centuries, the most noteworthy of which are the Cathedral of Lima and the Monastery of San Francisco, said to be connected by their subterrestrial catacombs.[69] Both of these churches contain paintings, Sevilian tile, and sculpted wood furnishings( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E battery). Also notable is the Sanctuary of Las Nazarenas, the point of origin for the Lord of Miracles, whose festivities in the month of October constitute the most important religious event in Lima, and a major one of Peru. Some sections of the Lima City Walls still remain and are frequented by tourists. These examples of medieval Spanish fortifications were built to defend the city from attacks by pirates and privateers. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H battery) Beaches are visited during the summer months, located along the Pan-American Highway, to the south of the city in districts such as Lurin, Punta Hermosa, Santa María del Mar (Peru), San Bartolo and Asia. Restaurants, nightclubs, lounges, bars, clubs, and hotels have developed to cater to beachgoers. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31M battery) The suburban districts of Cieneguilla, Pachacamac, and the city of Chosica, are tourist attractions among locals. Because they are located at a higher elevation than Lima, they receive more sunshine in winter months, something that the city of Lima frequently lacks under seasonal fog. ( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31J battery) Main article: Peruvian cuisine Lima is known as the Gastronomical Capital of the Americas. A center of immigration and the center of the Spanish Viceroyalty, Lima has incorporated dishes brought from the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors and waves of immigrants: African, European, Chinese, and Japanese.[62] Besides international immigration there has been, since the second half of the 20th century( Sony VAIO VGN-FW31Z battery), a strong internal flow from rural areas to cities, in particular to Lima.[73] This has influenced Lima's cuisine with the incorporation of the immigrant's ingredients and techniques (for example, the Chinese extensive use of rice or the Japanese approach to preparing raw fish). The genres of restaurants in Lima include Creole food, Chifas, Cebicherias, and Pollerias. ( Sony VGN-NR11Z Battery) Sports Main article: Sport in Lima The Estadio Monumental "U" during a match of the Peruvian national soccer team The city of Lima has sports venues for football, volleyball and basketball, many of which are located within private clubs. A popular sport among Limenos is fronton, a racquet sport similar to squash invented in Lima. The city is home to seven international-class golf links. Equestrian is popular in Lima with private clubs as well as the Hipódromo de Monterrico horse racing track( Sony VGN-NR11S Battery). The most popular sport in Lima is football with professional club teams being located in the city. The historic Plaza de Acho, located in the Rimac District a few minutes from the Plaza de Armas, holds bullfights yearly. The season runs from late October to December. Subdivisions Lima is made up of thirty densely populated districts, each headed by a local mayor and the Mayor of Lima( Sony VGN-CR11Z Battery), whose authority extends to these and the thirteen outer districts of the Lima province. The city's historic centre is located in the Cercado de Lima district, locally known as simply Lima, or as "El Centro" ("Downtown"), and it is home to most of the vestiges of Lima's colonial past, the Presidential Palace (Spanish: Palacio de Gobierno), the Metropolitan Municipality of Lima (Spanish: Consejo municipal metropolitano de Lima), and dozens of hotels, some operating and some defunct, that used to cater to the national and international elite( Sony VGN-CR11S Battery). The upscale San Isidro district is the city's financial center. It is home to politicians and celebrities and where the main banks of Peru and branch offices of world banks are headquartered. San Isidro has parks, including Parque El Olivar, with has olive trees that were brought from Spain during the seventeenth century( Sony VGN-CR11M Battery). Another upscale district is Miraflores, which has luxury hotels, shops and restaurants. Miraflores has more parks and green areas in the south of Lima than most other districts. Larcomar, a popular shopping mall and entertainment center built on cliffs overlooking the Pacific Ocean, featuring bars, dance clubs, movie theaters, cafes, shops, boutiques and galleries( Sony VGN-CR11E Battery), is also located in this district. Nightlife, shopping and entertainment also center around Parque Kennedy, a park in the heart of Miraflores that is always bustling with people and live performances.[76] La Molina, San Borja and Santiago de Surco, home to the American Embassy and the exclusive Club Polo Lima, are the other three wealthy districts of Lima. The most densely populated districts of Lima lie in the northern and southern ends of the city (Spanish: Cono Norte and Cono Sur, respectively) ( Sony VGN-CR21E Battery), and they are mostly composed of Andean immigrants who arrived during the mid and late twentieth century looking for better living standards and economic opportunities, or as refugees of the country's internal conflict with the Shining Path during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the case of Cono Norte (now called Lima Norte), shopping malls like Megaplaza and Royal Plaza have been built in the Independencia district( Sony VGN-CR21S Battery), on the border with the Los Olivos district, the latter being the most residential neighborhood in the northern part of Lima. Most of the inhabitants of this area belong to the middle class or lower middle class. Barranco, which borders Miraflores by the Pacific Ocean, is known as the city's bohemian district, home or once home of Peruvian writers and intellectuals like Mario Vargas Llosa, Chabuca Granda and Alfredo Bryce Echenique( Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery). This district has acclaimed restaurants, music venues called "peñas" featuring the traditional folk music of coastal Peru (in Spanish, "música criolla"), and beautiful Victorian-style chalets. It along with Miraflores serves as the home to the foreign nightlife scene. Education Lima is home to the oldest higher learning institution in the New World, San Marcos University founded in 1551. Home to universities, institutions, and schools, Lima has the highest concentration of institutions of higher learning in the continent( Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). The National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12, 1551 during Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[77] Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (UNI) was founded in 1876 by Polish engineer Eduardo de Habich and is the most important engineering school in the country. Other public universities also play roles in teaching and research, such as the Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal ( Sony VGN-CR31E Battery) (the second largest in the country), the Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina where ex-president Alberto Fujimori once taught, and the National University of Callao. The Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, established in 1917, is the oldest private university. Other private institutions that are located in the city are Universidad del Pacifico, Universidad de Lima, Universidad San Martín de Porres( Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery), Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Universidad Cientifica del Sur, Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad Privada San Juan Bautista and Universidad Ricardo Palma. Air transport Lima is served by the Jorge Chávez International Airport, located in Callao (LIM). It is the largest airport of the country with the largest amount of domestic and international air traffic. It also serves as a major hub in the Latin American air network( Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery). Lima's Jorge Chavez International Airport is the fourth largest air hub in South America. Additionally, Lima possesses five other airports: the Las Palmas Air Force Base, Collique Airport, and runways in Santa María del Mar, San Bartolo and Chilca. Land transportation For more details on this topic, see Highways in Peru. Lima is a major stop on the Pan-American Highway. Because of its location on the country's central coast, Lima is also an important junction in Peru's highway system. Three of the major highways originate in Lima( Sony VGN-CR41S Battery). The Northern Panamerican Highway, this highway extends more than 1,330 kilometres (830 mi) to the border with Ecuador connecting the northern districts of Lima with many major cities along the northern Peruvian coast. The Central Highway (Spanish: Carretera Central), this highway connects the eastern districts of Lima with many cities in central Peru. The highway extends 860 kilometres (530 mi) with its terminus at the city of Pucallpa near Brazil( Sony VGN-CR41E Battery). The Southern Panamerican Highway, this highway connects the southern districts of Lima to cities on the southern coast. The highway extends 1,450 kilometres (900 mi) to the border with Chile. The city of Lima has one big bus terminus station located next to the mall Plaza norte in the north of the city. This bus station is the point of departure and arrival of a lot of buses with national and international destinations. There are other bus stations for each company around the city( Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery). In addition, there are informals bus stations located in the south, center and north of the city; these bus stations are cheap and confusing, but manageable if you know your destination and have a basic comprehension of Spanish. Maritime transport The proximity of Lima to the port of Callao allows Callao to act as the metropolitan area's foremost port. Callao concentrates nearly all of the maritime transport of the metropolitan area( Sony VGN-CR42S Battery). There is, however, a small port in Lurín whose transit mostly is accounted for by oil tankers due to a refinery being located nearby. Nonetheless, maritime transport inside Lima's city limits is relatively insignificant compared to that of Callao, the nation's leading port and one of Latin America's largest( Sony VGN-CR42E Battery). Rail transport Lima is connected to the Central Andean region by the Ferrocarril Central Andino which runs from Lima through the departments of Junin, Huancavelica, Pasco, and Huanuco.[80] Major cities along this line include Huancayo, La Oroya, Huancavelica, and Cerro de Pasco. Another inactive line runs from Lima northwards to the city of Huacho. ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery) Public transport Eighty percent of the city's history having occurred during the pre-automobile era, Lima's road network is based mostly on large divided avenues rather than freeways. Lima has developed a freeway network of nine freeways - the Via Expresa Paseo de la Republica, Via Expresa Javier Prado, Via Expresa Grau, Panamericana Norte, Panamericana Sur, Carretera Central, Via Expresa Callao, Autopista Chillon Trapiche, and the Autopista Ramiro Priale( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). The urban transport system is composed of over 652 transit routes[46] which are served by buses, microbuses, and combis. The system is unorganized and is characterized by the lack of formality. The service is run by 464 private companies which are poorly regulated by the local government. Fares average one sol or $0.40 USD. The city of Lima has more than 100 km of cycle paths( Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery). Taxis in the city are mostly informal; they are cheap but can be dangerous because of the way the "taxistas" drive. There are no meters, so drivers are told the desired destination and the fare is agreed upon before the passenger enters the taxi. Taxis vary in sizes from small four-door compacts to large vans. They are everywhere, accounting for a large part of the car stock. In many cases they are just a private car with a taxi sticker on the windshield( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery). Additionally, there are several companies that provide taxi service on-call.[83] Automobiles, known as colectivos, render express service on some major roads of the Lima Metropolitan Area. The colectivos signal their specific destination with a sign on the their windshield. Their routes are not generally publicitized but are understood by frequent users. The cost is generally higher than public transport however they cover greater distances at greater speeds due to the lack of stops( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery). This service is informal and is illegal in the city.[84] Some people in the periphery of the city use the so-called "mototaxi" for short distances Main article: El Metropolitano Metropolitano articulated buses run on an exclusive lane The Metropolitan Transportation System or El Metropolitano is a public Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system which integrates the Independent Corridor of Mass-Transit Buses known by its Spanish initials as (COSAC 1) ( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). This system links the principal points of the Lima Metropolitan Area. The first phase of this project has thirty three kilometres of line from the north of the city to Chorrillos in the south of the city. It began commercial operations on July 28th, 2010. Main article: Lima Metro Metro train at Villa el Salvador station The Lima Metro is an above ground mass transit system. The section to the city's center was opened in July 2011, decades after construction was first initiated and significant cost overruns, linking Villa el Salvador with downtown Lima( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery). The Lima Metro has sixteen passenger stations, located at an average distance of 1.2 km (0.7 mi). It starts its path in the Industrial Park of Villa El Salvador, south of the city, continuing on to Av. Pachacútec in Villa María del Triunfo and then to Av. Los Héroes in San Juan de Miraflores. Afterwards, it continues through Av. Tomás Marsano in Surco to reach Ov. Los Cabitos and then on to Av. Aviación to finish in Av. Grau in the city center( Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery).
Montevideo (Spanish pronunciation: [mo̞n̪t̪e̞β̞iˈð̞e̞.o̞]) is the largest city, the capital, and the chief port of Uruguay. The settlement was established in 1726 by Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst a Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region Sony PCG-71313M battery, and as a counter to the Portuguese colony at Colonia del Sacramento. According to the census of 2011, Montevideo has a population of 1,319,108 (about half of Uruguay's population). It has an area of 530 square kilometres (200 sq mi) and extends 20 kilometres (12 mi) from west to east. The southernmost cosmopolitan capital city in the Americas and third most southern in the world Sony PCG-71212M battery, it is situated in the southern coast of the country, on the northeastern bank of the Río de la Plata (Spanish: "Silver River") — which is often referred to in English-speaking countries as the River Plate. The city was under brief British rule in 1807 and was involved in the first major naval battle in the Second World War: the Battle of the River Plate. It is also the place where the Montevideo convention was signed Sony PCG-71311M battery, in 1933, by nineteen nations of the Americas. The city hosted all of the matches during the first FIFA World Cup in 1930. Montevideo has a rich architectural and cultural heritage, the latter including tango and candombe. According to Mercer Human Resource Consulting, in 2007 Montevideo provided the highest quality of life in Latin America Sony PCG-71213M battery. Described as a "vibrant, eclectic place with a rich cultural life", it is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay: its first university, the Universidad de la República, was founded in 1849. The architecture of Montevideo reflects its history, ranging from colonial to Art Deco, and influenced by Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French and British immigrants Sony PCG-61211M battery. Etymology There exist various explanations about the word Montevideo. All agree that "Monte" refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the term "video".[10] Cerro de Montevideo as seen from the city, in 1865. Monte Vidi – This hypothesis comes from the "Diario de Navegación" (Navigational Calendar) of boatswain Francisco de Albo, member of the expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, Sony VAIO PCG-31114M battery who wrote, "Tuesday of the said (month of January 1520) we were on the straits of Cape Santa María (now Punta del Este), from where the coast runs East to West, and the terrain is sandy, and at the right of the cape there is a mountain like a hat to which we gave the name "Montevidi"." This is the oldest Spanish document which mentions the promontory with a name similar to the one that designates the city, but which doesn't contain any mention of the alleged cry "Monte vide eu" Sony VAIO PCG-31113M battery. Monte vide eu ("I saw a mount") – is the most widespread belief,[11][12] but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of different dialects. The name would come from a Portuguese expression which means "I saw a mount", wrongly pronounced by an anonymous sailor belonging to the expedition of Fernando de Magallanes on catching sight of the Cerro de Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-31112M battery. "Monte-VI-D-E-O". (Monte VI De Este a Oeste) – according to Rolando Laguarda Trías, professor of History, the Spaniards annotated the geographic location on a map or Portolan chart, so that the mount/hill is the VI (6th) mount observable on the coast, navigating Río de la Plata from East to West. With the passing of time, these words were unified to "Montevideo" Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. No conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis, nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro. Monte Ovidio (Monte Santo Ovidio), a less widespread hypothesis of a religious origin.,[11] stems from an interpolation in the aforementioned Diario de Navegación of Fernando de Albo, where it is asserted "corruptly now called Santo Vidio" when they refer to the hat-like mount which they named Monte Vidi Sony VAIO PCG-41112M battery (that is, the Cerro de Montevideo). Ovidio (Saint Ovidius) was the third bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered; a monument to him was erected there in 1505. Given the relationship that the Portuguese had with the discovery and foundation of Montevideo, and despite the fact that this hypothesis, like the previous ones, lacks conclusive documentation Sony VAIO PCG-41111M battery, there have been those who linked the name of Santo Ovidio or Vidio (appearing on some maps of the time) with the subsequent derivation of the name "Montevideo" given to the region since the early years of the 16th century. Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata at the beginning of the 17th century. Early history Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires. This city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay SONY VAIO PCG-21212M battery. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort. A Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. On 22 January 1724, the Spanish forced the Portuguese to abandon the location and started populating the city SONY VAIO PCG-21211M battery, initially with six families moving in from Buenos Aires and soon thereafter by families arriving from the Canary Islands who were called by the locals "guanches", "guanchos" or "canarios". There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues.[16] A census of the city's inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo SONY VAIO PCG-51212M battery, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous, mostly Guaraní and a number of Africans of Bantú origin as slaves.[15] A few years after its foundation, Montevideo became the main city of the region north of the Río de la Plata and east of the Uruguay River, competing with Buenos Aires for dominance in maritime commerce. SONY VAIO PCG-51211M battery The importance of Montevideo as the main port of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata brought it in confrontations with the city of Buenos Aires in various occasions, including several times when it was taken over to be used as a base to defend the eastern province of the Viceroyalty from Portuguese incursions SONY VAIO PCG-51112M battery. In 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base (Real Apostadero de Marina) for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands.[18] Until the end of the 18th century, Montevideo remained a fortified area, today known as Ciudad Vieja. SONY VAIO PCG-51111M battery19th century On 3 February 1807, British troops under the command of General Samuel Auchmuty and Admiral Charles Stirling occupied the city during the Battle of Montevideo (1807), but it was recaptured by the Spanish in the same year on 2 September when John Whitelocke was forced to surrender to troops formed by forces of the Banda Oriental—roughly the same area as modern Uruguay—and of Buenos Aires. SONY VAIO PCG-81212M battery After this conflict, the governor of Montevideo Francisco Javier de Elío opposed the new viceroy Santiago de Liniers, and created a government Junta when the Peninsular War started in Spain, in defiance of Liniers. Elío disestablished the Junta when Liniers was replaced by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros. During the May Revolution of 1810 and the subsequent uprising of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, the Spanish colonial government moved to Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-81112M battery. During that year and the next, Uruguayan revolutionary José Gervasio Artigas united with others from Buenos Aires against Spain.[20] In 1811, the forces deployed by the Junta Grande of Buenos Aires and the gaucho forces led by Artigas started a siege of Montevideo, which had refused to obey the directives of the new authorities of the May Revolution SONY VAIO PCG-71111M battery. The siege was lifted at the end of that year, when the military situation started deteriorating in the Upper Peru region.[17] The Spanish governor was expelled in 1814. In 1816, Portugal invaded the recently liberated territory and in 1821, it was annexed to the Banda Oriental of Brazil.[20] Juan Antonio Lavalleja and his band called the Treinta y Tres Orientales SONY VAIO PCG-7196M battery ("Thirty-Three Orientals") re-established the independence of the region in 1825. Uruguay was consolidated as an independent state in 1828, with Montevideo as the nation's capital.[12] In 1829, the demolition of the city's fortifications began and plans were made for an extension beyond the Ciudad Vieja, referred to as the "Ciudad Nueva" ("new city"). Urban expansion, however, moved very slowly because of the events that followed. SONY VAIO PCG-7195M batteryMap of Montevideo during the Guerra Grande (1843–1851). Uruguay's 1830s were dominated by the confrontation between Manuel Oribe and Fructuoso Rivera, the two revolutionary leaders who had fought against the Empire of Brazil under the command of Lavalleja, each of whom had become the cacique of their respective faction.[22] Politics were divided between Oribe's Blancos ("whites"), represented by the National Party SONY VAIO PCG-7194M battery, and Rivera's Colorados ("reds"), represented by the Colorado Party, with each party's name taken from the colour of its emblems. In 1838, Oribe was forced to resign the presidency; he established a rebel army and began a long civil war, the Guerra Grande, which lasted until 1851. The city of Montevideo suffered a siege of eight years between 1843 and 1851, during which it was supplied by sea with English and French support. SONY VAIO PCG-7192M battery Oribe, with the support of the then conservative Governor of Buenos Aires Province Juan Manuel de Rosas, besieged the Colorados in Montevideo, where the latter were supported by the French Legion, the Italian Legion, the Basque Legion and battalions from Brazil. Finally, in 1851, with the additional support of Argentine rebels who opposed Rosas, the Colorados defeated Oribe. SONY PCG-8113M battery The fighting, however, resumed in 1855, when the Blancos came to power, which they maintained until 1865. Thereafter, the Colorado Party regained power, which they retained until past the middle of the 20th century. After the end of hostilities, a period of growth and expansion started for the city. In 1853 a stagecoach bus line was established joining Montevideo with the newly formed settlement of Unión and the first natural gas street lights were inaugurated SONY PCG-8112M battery . From 1854 to 1861 the first public sanitation facilities were constructed. In 1856 the Teatro Solís was inaugurated, 15 years after the beginning of its construction. By Decree, on December 1861 the areas of Aguada and Cordón were incorporated to the growing Ciudad Nueva (New City).[23] In 1866, an underwater telegraph line connected the city with Buenos Aires. The statue of Peace SONY PCG-7134M battery , La Paz, was erected on a column in Plaza Cagancha and the building of the Postal Service as well as the bridge of Paso Molino were inaugurated in 1867.[24] In 1868, the horse-drawn tram company Compañía de Tranvías al Paso del Molino y Cerro created the first lines connecting Montevideo with Unión, the beach resort of Capurro and the industrialized and economically independent Villa del Cerro SONY PCG-7131M battery , at the time called Cosmopolis. In the same year, the Mercado del Puerto was inaugurated. In 1869, the first railway line of the company Ferrocarril Central del Uruguay was inaugurated connecting Bella Vista with the town of Las Piedras. During the same year and the next, the neighbourhoods Colón, Nuevo París and La Comercial were founded. The famous to our days Sunday market of Tristán Narvaja Street was established in Cordón in 1870 SONY PCG-7122M battery . Public water supply was etsablished in 1871. In 1878, Bulevar Circunvalación was constructed, a boulevard starting from Punta Carretas, going up to the north end of the city and then turning east to end at the beach of Capurro. It was renamed to Artigas Boulevard (its actual name) in 1885.[24] By Decree, on 8 January 1881, the area Los Pocitos was incorporated to the Novísima Ciuda (Most New City). SONY PCG-7121M batteryThe first telephone lines were installed in 1882 and electric street lights took the place of the gas operated ones in 1886. The Hipódromo de Maroñas started operating in 1888, and the neighbourhoods of Reus del Sur, Reus del Norte and Conciliación were inaugurated in 1889. The new building of the School of Arts and Trades, as well as Zabala Square in Ciudad Vieja were inaugurated in 1890 SONY PCG-7113M battery, followed by the Italian Hospital in 1891. In the same year, the village of Peñarol was founded in 1891. Other neighbourhoods that were founded were Belgrano and Belvedere in 1892, Jacinto Vera in 1895 and Trouville in 1897. In 1894 the new port was constructed, and in 1897, the Central Railway Station of Montevideo was inaugurated. SONY PCG-7112M battery20th century Plaza Independencia around 1900. In the early 20th century, many Europeans (particularly Spaniards and Italians but also thousands from Central Europe) immigrated to the city. In 1908, 30% of the city's population of 300,000 was foreign-born. In that decade the city expanded quickly: new neighbourhoods were created and many separate settlements were annexed to the city SONY PCG-8Z3M battery, among which were the Villa del Cerro, Pocitos, the Prado and Villa Colón. The Rodó Park and the Estadio Gran Parque Central were also established, which served as poles of urban development. During the early 20th century, Uruguay saw huge social changes with repercussions primarily in urban areas. Among these changes were the right of divorce (1907) and women's right to vote SONY PCG-8Z2M battery. The 1910s saw the construction of Montevideo's Rambla; strikes by tram workers, bakers and port workers; the inauguration of electric trams; the creation of the Municipal Intendencias; and the inauguration of the new port.[27] In 1913, the city limits were extended around the entire gulf. The previously independent localities of the Villa del Cerro and La Teja were annexed to Montevideo, becoming two of its neighborhoods. SONY PCG-8Z1M batteryDuring the 1920s, the equestrian statue of Artigas was installed in Plaza Independencia; the Palacio Legislativo was built; the Spanish Plus Ultra flying boat arrived (the first airplane to fly from Spain to Latin America, 1926); prominent politician and former president José Batlle y Ordóñez died (1929); and ground was broken (1929) for the Estadio Centenario (completed 1930). SONY PCG-8Y3M batteryDuring World War II, a famous incident involving the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee took place in Punta del Este, 200 kilometers (120 mi) from Montevideo. After the Battle of the River Plate with the Royal Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy on 13 December 1939, the Graf Spee retreated to Montevideo's port, which was considered neutral at the time SONY PCG-8Y2M battery . To avoid risking the crew in what he thought would be a losing battle, Captain Hans Langsdorff scuttled the ship on 17 December. Langsdorff committed suicide two days later.[citation needed] The eagle figurehead of the Graf Spee was salvaged on 10 February 2006;[29] to protect the feelings of those still sensitive to Nazi Germany, the swastika on the figurehead was covered as it was pulled from the water. SONY PCG-7Z1M batteryAn old colonial feel to a street in Montevideo's Ciudad Vieja. Uruguay began to stagnate economically in the mid-1950s; Montevideo began a decline, later exacerbated widespread social and political violence beginning in 1968 (including the emergence of the guerrilla Movimiento de Liberación Nacional-Tupamaros[27]) and by the Civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay (1973-1985) SONY PCG-6W2M battery. There were major problems with supply; the immigration cycle was reversed. From the 1960s to the end of the dictatorship in 1985, around one hundred people died or disappeared because of the political violence. From 1974 another hundred Uruguayans disappeared also in Argentina.[31] In 1980, the dictatorship proposed a new constitution. The project was submitted to referendum and rejected in the first polls since 1971 SONY PCG-5J5M battery, with 58% of the votes against and 42% in favour. The result weakened the military and triggered its fall, allowing the return of democracy.[32] In the 1980s, Pope John Paul II visited the city twice. In April 1987, while head of state of Vatican, he signed a mediation agreement for the conflict of the Beagle Channel.[33] He also held a large mass in Tres Cruces, declaring the cross located behind the altar as a monument SONY PCG-5K2M battery . In 1988, he returned to the country, visiting Montevideo, Florida, Salto and Melo.[33] 21st century In 2002, Uruguay suffered one of the worst banking crises in its history, which affected all sectors of Montevideo. Recently, economic improvement and stronger commercial links with neighbouring countries has contributed to economic development SONY PCG-5K1M battery. In April 2006, Montevideo was named by Mercer Human Resource Consulting as the Latin American city with the best quality of life, in 76th place overall among 350 cities worldwide.[34] Montevideo is situated on the north shore of the Río de la Plata, the arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates the south coast of Uruguay from the north coast of Argentina SONY PCG-5J4M battery ; Buenos Aires lies 230 kilometres (140 mi) west on the Argentine side. The Santa Lucía River forms a natural border between Montevideo and San José Department to its west. To the city's north and east is Canelones Department, with the stream of Carrasco forming the eastern natural border. The coastline forming the city's southern border is interspersed with rocky protrusions and sandy beaches. SONY PCG-5J1M battery The Bay of Montevideo forms a natural harbour, the nation's largest and one of the largest in the Southern Cone, and the finest natural port in the region, functioning as a crucial component of the Uruguayan economy and foreign trade. Various streams criss-cross the town and empty into the Bay of Montevideo. The coastline and rivers are heavily polluted and of high salinity SONY PCG-5G2M battery. The city has an average elevation of 43 metres (141 ft). Its highest elevations are two hills: the Cerro de Montevideo and the Cerro de la Victoria, with the highest point, the peak of Cerro de Montevideo, crowned by a fortress, the Fortaleza del Cerro at a height of 134 metres (440 ft).[37] Closest cities by road are Las Piedras to the north and the so called Ciudad de la Costa Sony VAIO PCG-8131M battery (a conglomeration of coastal towns) to the east, both in the range of 20 to 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the city center. The approximate distances to the neighbouring department capitals by road are, 90 kilometres (56 mi) to San Jose de Mayo (San Jose Department) and 46 kilometres (29 mi) to Canelones (Canelones Department) Sony VAIO PCG-8152M battery. Astronaut View of Montevideo Sunset in Montevideo. Montevideo enjoys a mild humid subtropical climate (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification) and it borders on an oceanic climate (Cfb). The city has cool winters, warm summers and volatile springs; there are numerous thunderstorms but no tropical cyclones. Due to its location in the southern hemisphere Sony VAIO PCG-31311M battery, its seasons are opposite to those of the Northern hemisphere; summer runs from December to March, followed by autumn in April and May; winter lasts from June to September, and spring is in October and November.[38] Rainfall is regular and evenly spread throughout the year, reaching around a 950 millimetres (37 in) Sony VAIO PCG-31111M battery. Winters are generally wet, windy and overcast, while summers are hot and humid with relatively little wind. In winter there are bursts of icy and relatively dry winds and continental polar air masses, giving an unpleasant chilly feeling to the everyday life of the city. In the summer, a moderate wind often blows from the sea in the evenings which has a pleasant cooling effect on the city, in contrast to the unbearable summer heat of Buenos Aires. Sony VAIO PCG-8112M batteryMontevideo has an annual average temperature of 16 °C (61 °F). The lowest recorded temperature is −5.6 °C (21.9 °F) while the highest is 42.8 °C (109.0 °F). Sleet is a frequent winter occurrence. Snowfall is extremely rare: flurries have been recorded only four times but with no accumulation, the last one on 13 July 1930 during the inaugural match of the World Cup, Sony VAIO PCG-7186M batteryalthough many meteorologists believe it was hail (the other three snowfalls were in 1850, 1853 & 1917); the alleged 1980 Carrasco snowfall was actually a hailstorm. Administration Intendencia de Montevideo Intendencia The Municipality of Montevideo was first created by a legal act of 18 December 1908.[43] The municipality's first mayor (1909–1911) was Daniel Muñoz. Municipalities were abolished by the Uruguayan Constitution of 1918 Sony VAIO PCG-7171M battery, effectively restored during the 1933 military coup of Gabriel Terra, and formally restored by the 1934 Constitution. The 1952 Constitution again decided to abolish the municipalities; it came into effect in February 1955. Municipalities were replaced by departmental councils, which was consisted of a collegiate executive board with 7 members from Montevideo and 5 from the interior region Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M battery. However, municipalities were revived under the 1967 Constitution and have operated continuously since that time. Since 1990, Montevideo has been partially decentralized into 18 areas; administration and services for each area is provided by its Zonal Community Center (Centro Comunal Zonal, CCZ), which is subordinate to the Municipality of Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M battery. The boundaries of the municipal districts of Montevideo were created on 12 July 1993, and successively amended on 19 October 1993, 6 June 1994 and 10 November 1994. The city government of Montevideo performs several functions, including maintaining communications with the public, promoting culture, organizing society, caring for the environment and regulating traffic Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M battery. Its headquarters is the Palacio Municipal on 18 de Julio Avenue in the Centro area of Montevideo.[46] Another body, the Junta Departamental, or the Parliament of Montevideo, governs the Department of Montevideo. The Junta, composed of 31 unsalaried elected members, is responsible for such things as the freedom of the citizens Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M battery, the regulation of cultural activities, the naming of streets and public places, and the placement of monuments; it also responds to proposals of the Intendant in various circumstances.[47] Its seat is the architecturally remarkable Casa de Francisco Gómez in Ciudad Vieja. Administrative divisions and barrios Map of the barrios of Montevideo As of 2010, the city of Montevideo has been divided into 8 political municipalities (Municipios), referred to with the letters from A to G, including CH Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M battery, each presided over by a mayor elected by the citizens registered in the constituency. This division, according to the Municipality of Montevideo, "aims to advance political and administrative decentralization in the department of Montevideo, with the aim of deepening the democratic participation of citizens in governance."[48] The head of each Municipio is called an alcalde or (if female) alcaldesa. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M batteryOf much greater importance is the division of the city into 62 barrios: neighbourhoods or wards. Many of the city's barrios—such as Sayago, Ituzaingó and Pocitos—were previously geographically separate settlements, later absorbed by the growth of the city. Others grew up around certain industrial sites Sony VAIO PCG-8141M battery, including the salt-curing works of Villa del Cerro and the tanneries in Nuevo París. Each barrio has its own identity, geographic location and socio-cultural activities. A neighbourhood of great significance is Ciudad Vieja, that was surrounded by a protective wall until 1829. This area contains most important buildings of the colonial era and early decades of independence Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M battery. Demographics In 1860, Montevideo had 57,913 inhabitants including a number of people of African origin who had been brought as slaves and had gained their freedom around the middle of the century. By 1880, the population had quadrupled, mainly because of the great European immigration. In 1908, its population had grown massively to 309,331 inhabitants. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M battery In the course of the 20th century the city continued to receive large numbers of European immigrants, especially Spanish and Italian, followed by French, Germans or Dutch, English or Irish, Polish, Greek, Hungarians, Russians, Croats, Lebanese, Armenians, and Jews of various origins.[52] The last wave of immigrants occurred between 1945 and 1955. Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M batteryAccording to the census survey carried out between 15 June and 31 July 2004, Montevideo had a population of 1,325,968 persons, as against Uruguay's population of 3,241,003. The female population was 707,697 (53.4%) while the male population accounted for 618,271 (46.6%). The population had declined since the previous census carried out in 1996 Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M battery, with an average annual growth rate of −1.5 per thousand. Continual decline has been documented since the census period of 1975–1985, which showed a rate of −5.6 per thousand. The decrease is due in large part to lowered fertility, partly offset by mortality, and to a smaller degree in migration. The birth rate declined by 19% from 1996 (17 per thousand) to 2004 (13.8 per thousand) Sony VAIO PCG-9Z2L battery. Similarly, the total fertility rate (TFR) declined from 2.24 in 1996 to 1.79 in 2004. However, mortality continued to fall with life expectancy at birth for both sexes increasing by 1.73 years.[53] In the census of 2011, Montevideo had a population of 1,319,108. Economy Port of Montevideo As the capital of Uruguay, Montevideo is the economic and political centre of the country. Most of the largest and wealthiest businesses in Uruguay have their headquarters in the city Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1L battery. Since the 1990s the city has undergone rapid economic development and modernization, including two of Uruguay's most important buildings—the World Trade Center Montevideo (1998), and Telecommunications Tower (2000), the headquarters of Uruguay's government-owned telecommunications company ANTEL, increasing the city's integration into the global marketplace Sony VAIO PCG-9131L battery. The Port of Montevideo, in the northern part of Ciudad Vieja, is one of the major ports of South America and plays a very important role in the city's economy. The port has been growing rapidly and consistently at an average annual rate of 14 percent due to an increase in foreign trade. The city has received a US$20 million loan from the Inter-American Development Bank to modernize the port, increase its size and efficiency Sony VAIO PCG-8161L battery, and enable lower maritime and river transportation costs. The most important state-owned companies headquartered in Montevideo are: AFE (railways),[59] ANCAP (Energy),[60] Administracion Nacional de Puertos (Ports), ANTEL, ANCEL and ANTELDATA (telecommunications), BHU (savings and loan), BROU (bank), BSE (insurance),[64] OSE (water & sewage), UTE (electricity). These companies operate under public law Sony VAIO PCG-8152L battery, using a legal entity defined in the Uruguayan Constitution called Ente Autonomo ("autonomous entity"). The government also owns part of other companies operating under private law, such as the national airline carrier PLUNA[67] and others owned wholly or partially by the CND (National Development Corporation) Sony VAIO PCG-8141L battery. Banking has traditionally been one of the strongest service export sectors in Uruguay: the country was once dubbed "the Switzerland of America",[68] mainly for its banking sector and stability, although that stability has been threatened in the 21st century by the recent global economic climate.[69] The largest bank in Uruguay is Banco Republica (BROU) Sony VAIO PCG-8131L battery, based in Montevideo.[70] Almost 20 private banks, most of them branches of international banks, operate in the country (Banco Santander, ABN AMRO, Citibank, Lloyds TSB, among others). There are also a myriad of brokers and financial-services bureaus, among them Ficus Capital, Galfin Sociedad de Bolsa, Europa Sociedad de Bolsa, Darío Cukier, GBU, Hordeñana & Asociados Sociedad de Bolsa, etc Sony VAIO PCG-81312L battery. Montevideo's beach on the River Plate Tourism accounts for much of Uruguay's economy. Tourism in Montevideo is centered in the Ciudad Vieja area, which includes the city's oldest buildings, several museums, art galleries, and nightclubs, with Sarandí Street and the Mercado del Puerto being the most frequented venues of the old city.[71] On the edge of Ciudad Vieja, Plaza Independencia is surrounded by many sights Sony VAIO PCG-81214L battery, including the Solís Theatre and the Palacio Salvo; the plaza also constitutes one end of 18 de Julio Avenue, the city's most important tourist destination outside of Ciudad Vieja. Apart from being a shopping street, the avenue is noted for its Art Deco buildings,[72] three important public squares, the Gaucho Museum, the Palacio Municipal and many other sights Sony VAIO PCG-81115L battery. The avenue leads to the Obelisk of Montevideo; beyond that is Parque Batlle, which along with the Parque Prado is another important tourist destination.[73] Along the coast, the Fortaleza del Cerro, the Rambla (the coastal avenue), 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) of sandy beaches,[74] and Punta Gorda attract many tourists, as do the Barrio Sur and Palermo barrios. Sony VAIO PCG-81114L batteryThe Ministry of Tourism offers a two-and-a-half-hour city tour[76] and the Montevideo Tourist Guide Association offers guided tours in English, Italian, Portuguese and German.[77] Apart from these, many private companies offer organized city tours. Most tourists to the city come from Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Europe, with the number of visitors from elsewhere in Latin America and from the United States growing every year Sony VAIO PCG-81113L battery, thanks to increasing international airline arrivals at Carrasco International Airport and luxury cruises into the port of Montevideo. Radisson Montevideo Victoria Plaza Hotel Montevideo has over 50 hotels, mostly located within the downtown area or along the beachfront of the Rambla de Montevideo. Many of the hotels are in the modern, western style, such as the Sheraton Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-7142L battery, the Radisson Montevideo Victoria Plaza Hotel located on the central Plaza Independencia, and the Plaza Fuerte Hotel on the waterfront. The Sheraton has 207 guest rooms and 10 suites and is luxuriously furnished with imported furniture. The Radisson Montevideo has 232 rooms and contains a casino and is served by the Restaurante Arcadia. Sony VAIO PCG-7141L batteryOther hotels are located in colonial buildings, such as the Hotel Palacio and boutique hotels, especially away from the downtown area, retain a colonial feel. One such hotel is Belmont House (established 1995), located on the Avenida Rivera in Carrasco.[79] It is set amidst gardens and has 24 rooms and suites and is served by the Restaurant Allegro. Sony VAIO PCG-71111L batteryMontevideo is the heartland of retailing in Uruguay. The city has become the principal centre of business and real estate, including many expensive buildings and modern towers for residences and offices, surrounded by extensive green spaces. In 1985, the first shopping centre in Rio de la Plata, Montevideo Shopping was built.[81] In 1994 Sony VAIO PCG-61411L battery, with building of three more shopping complexes such as the Shopping Tres Cruces, Portones Shopping, and Punta Carretas Shopping, the business map of the city changed dramatically. The creation of shopping complexes brought a major change in the habits of the people of Montevideo. Global firms such as McDonald's and Burger King etc. are firmly established in Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-61112L battery. Apart from the big shopping complexes, the main retailing venues of the city are: most of 18 de Julio Avenue in the Centro and Cordón barrios, a length of Agraciada Avenue in the Paso de Molino area of Belvedere, a length of Arenal Grande St. and the surrounding streets in Villa Muñoz and a length of 8 de Octubre Avenue in Unión Sony VAIO PCG-61111L battery. Landmarks and architecture Residences at Pocitos The architecture of Montevideo ranges from Neoclassical buildings such as the Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral to the Postmodern style of the World Trade Center Montevideo or the 158-metre (518 ft) ANTEL Telecommunication Tower, the tallest skyscraper in the country.[82] The Along with the Telecommunications Tower Sony VAIO PCG-5T4L battery, the Palacio Salvo dominates the skyline of the Bay of Montevideo. The building façades in the Old Town reflect the city's extensive European immigration, displaying the influence of old European architecture. Notable government buildings include the Legislative Palace, the City Hall, Estévez Palace and the Executive Tower Sony VAIO PCG-5T3L battery. The most notable sports stadium is the Estadio Centenario within Parque Batlle. Parque Batlle, Parque Rodó and Parque Prado are Montevideo's three great parks.[83] The Pocitos district, near the beach of the same name, has many homes built by Bello and Reboratti between 1920 and 1940, with a mixture of styles. Other landmarks in Pocitos are the "Edificio Panamericano" designed by Raul Sichero, Sony VAIO PCG-5T2L battery and the "Positano" and "El Pilar" designed by Adolfo Sommer Smith and Luis García Pardo in the 1950s and 1960s. However, the construction boom of the 1970s and 1980s transformed the face of this neighbourhood, with a cluster of modern apartment buildings for upper and upper middle class residents Sony VAIO PCG-5S3L battery. The Legislative Palace The Palacio Legislativo in Aguada, the north of the city centre, is currently the seat of the Uruguayan Parliament. Construction started in 1904 and was sponsored by the government of President José Batlle y Ordóñez.[85] It was designed by Italian architects Vittorio Meano and Gaetano Moretti, who planned the building's interior Sony VAIO PCG-5S2L battery. Among the notable contributors to the project was sculptor José Belloni, who contributed numerous reliefs and allegorical sculptures.[85] World Trade Center Montevideo World Trade Center Montevideo Main article: World Trade Center Montevideo World Trade Center Montevideo officially opened in 1998, although work is still ongoing as of 2010. The complex is composed of three towers, two three-story buildings called World Trade Center Plaza and World Trade Center Avenue and a large central square called Towers Square Sony VAIO PCG-5S1L battery. World Trade Center 1 was the first building to inaugurated, in 1998.[citation needed] It has 22 floors and 17,100 square metres of space. That same year the avenue and the auditorium were raised. World Trade Center 2 was inaugurated in 2002, a twin tower of World Trade Center 1. Finally, in 2009, World Trade Center 3 and the World Trade Center Plaza and the Towers Square were inaugurated Sony VAIO PCG-5R2L battery. It is located between the avenues Luis Alberto de Herrera and 26 de Marzo and has 19 floors and 27,000 square metres (290,000 sq ft) of space. The 6,300-square-metre (68,000 sq ft)[citation needed] World Trade Center Plaza is designed to be a centre of gastronomy opposite Towers Square and Bonavita St. Among the establishments on the plaza are Burger King Sony VAIO PCG-5R1L battery, Walrus, Bamboo, Asia de Cuba, Gardenia Mvd, and La Claraboya Cafe. The Towers Square, is an area of remarkable aesthetic design, intended to be a platform for the development of business activities, art exhibitions, dance and music performances and social place. This square connects the different buildings and towers which comprise the WTC Complex and it is the main access to the complex Sony VAIO PCG-5P4L battery. The square contains various works of art, notably a sculpture by renowned Uruguayan sculptor Pablo Atchugarry. World Trade Center 4, with 40 floors and 53,500 square metres (576,000 sq ft) of space is under construction as of 2010. Telecommunication Tower. Telecommunications Tower Main article: Telecommunications Tower Torre de las Telecomunicaciones (Telecommunications Tower) or Torre Antel (Antel Tower) is the 158 metres (518 ft), 37 floor headquarters of Uruguay's government-owned telecommunications company, ANTEL, and is the tallest building in the country. Sony VAIO PCG-5P2L battery It was designed by architect Carlos Ott.[82] It is situated by the side of the Bay of Montevideo. The tower was completed by American Bridge and other design/build consortium team members on 15 March 2000. When its construction was announced, many politicians complained about its cost (US$40 million, plus US$25 million for the construction of the other 5 buildings of the Telecommunications Complex) Sony VAIO PCG-5N4L battery. Problems during its construction turned the original US$65 million price into US$102 million. Today, the tower is seen by many political opponents as a frivolous waste of money and a monument to Julio María Sanguinetti's vanity.[86] Ciudad Vieja (Old City) Main article: Ciudad Vieja, Montevideo Palacio Salvo Ciudad Vieja was the earliest part of the city to be developed and today it constitutes a prominent barrio of southwest Montevideo Sony VAIO PCG-5N2L battery. It contains many colonial buildings and national heritage sites, but also many banks, administrative offices, museums, art galleries, cultural institutions, restaurants and night-clubs, making it vibrant with life. Its northern coast is the main port of Uruguay, one of the few deep-draft ports in the Southern Cone of South America Sony VAIO PCG-51513L battery. Montevideo's most important plaza is Plaza Independencia, located between Ciudad Vieja and downtown Montevideo. It starts with the Gateway of The Citadel at one end and ends at the beginning of 18 de Julio Avenue. It is the remaining part of the wall that surrounded the oldest part of the city. Several notable buildings are located here Sony VAIO PCG-51511L battery. Solís Theatre The Solís Theatre is Uruguay's oldest theatre. It was built in 1856 and is currently owned by the government of Montevideo. In 1998, the government of Montevideo started a major reconstruction of the theatre, which included two US$110,000 columns designed by Philippe Starck. The reconstruction was completed in 2004 Sony VAIO PCG-51412L battery, and the theatre reopened in August of that year.[88] The plaza is also the site of the offices of the President of Uruguay (both the Estévez Palace and the Executive Tower). The Artigas Mausoleum is located at the centre of the plaza. Statues include that of José Gervasio Artigas, hero of Uruguay's independence movement; an honour guard keeps vigil at the Mausoleum. Sony VAIO PCG-51411L batteryPlaza de la Constitución Palacio Salvo, at the intersection of 18 de Julio Avenue and Plaza Independencia, was designed by the architect Mario Palanti and completed in 1925. Palanti, an Italian immigrant living in Buenos Aires, used a similar design for his Palacio Barolo in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Palacio Salvo stands 100 metres (330 ft) high, including its antenna Sony VAIO PCG-51312L battery. It is built on the former site of the Confitería La Giralda, renowned for being where Gerardo Matos Rodríguez wrote his tango "La Cumparsita" (1917.)[90] Palacio Salvo was originally intended to function as a hotel but is now a mixture of offices and private residences.[91] Also of major note in Ciudad Vieja is the Plaza de la Constitución (or Plaza Matriz). During the first decades of Uruguayan independence this square was the main hub of city life Sony VAIO PCG-51311L battery. On the square are the Cabildo—the seat of colonial government—and the Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral. The cathedral is the burial place of Fructuoso Rivera, Juan Antonio Lavalleja and Venancio Flores. Another notable square is Plaza Zabala with the equestrian statue of Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. On its south side, Palacio Taranco, once residence of the Ortiz Taranco brothers Sony VAIO PCG-51211L battery, is now the Museum of Decorative Arts. A few blocks northwest of Plaza Zabala is the Mercado del Puerto, another major tourist destination. Monumento La Carreta Parque Batlle[92] (formerly: Parque de los Aliados,[93] translation: "Park of the Allies") is a major public central park, located south of Avenida Italia and north of Avenue Rivera. Along with Parque Prado and Parque Rodó it is one of three large parks that dominate Montevideo. Sony VAIO PCG-41112L battery The park and surrounding area constitute one of the 62 neighbourhoods (barrios) of the city. The barrio of Parque Batlle is one of seven coastal barrios, the others being Buceo, Carrasco, Malvin, Pocitos, Punta Carretas, and Punta Gorda.[95] The current barrio of Parque Battle includes four former districts: Belgrano Sony VAIO PCG-3A4L battery, Italiano, Villa Dolores and Batlle Park itself and borders the neighbourhoods of La Blanqueada, Tres Cruces, Pocitos and Buceo. It has a high population density and most of its households are of medium-high- or high-income.[96] Villa Dolores, a subdistrict of Parque Batlle, took its name from the original villa of Don Alejo Rossell y Rius and of Doña Dolores Pereira de Rossel Sony VAIO PCG-3A3L battery. On their grounds, they started a private collection of animals that became a zoological garden and was passed to the city in 1919;[97] in 1955 the Planetarium of Montevideo was built within its premises.[98] Obelisk of Montevideo in the Parque Batlle Parque Batlle is named in honour of José Batlle y Ordóñez, President of Uruguay from 1911–1915.[99] The park was originally proposed by an Act of March 1907, which also projected wide boulevards and avenues. Sony VAIO PCG-3A2L battery French landscape architect, Carlos Thays, began the plantings in 1911. In 1918, the park was named Parque de los Aliados, following the victory of the Allies of World War I. On 5 May 1930, after significant expansion, it was again renamed as Parque Batlle y Ordóñez, in memory of the prominent politician and president, who had died in 1929. Sony VAIO PCG-3A1L battery The park was designated a National Historic Monument Park in 1975. As of 2010, the park covers an area of 60 hectares (150 acres) and is considered the "lung" of the Montevideo city due to the large variety of trees planted here. The Estadio Centenario, the national football stadium, opened in 1930 for the first World Cup, and later hosted several other sporting grounds of note (see Sports) Sony VAIO PCG-394L battery. In 1934, sculptor José Belloni's "La Carreta", a bronze monument on granite base,[102] was installed on Avenida Lorenzo Merola near Estadio Centenario. One of several statues in the park, it depicts yoked oxen pulling a loaded wagon.[103] It was designated a national monument in 1976. Sony VAIO PCG-393L battery Another statue on the same side of the park is a bronze copy of the Discobolus of Myron. On the west side of Parque Batlle, on Artigas Boulevard, the 1938 Obelisk of Montevideo is a monument dedicated to those who created the first Constitution. The work of sculptor José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín (1891–1975), it is a three-sided granite obelisk, 40 metres (130 ft) tall, with bronze statues on its three sides, representing "Law", "Liberty" Sony VAIO PCG-391L battery, and "Force", respectively. It has been a National Heritage Site since 1976. Main article: Parque Prado The Botanic Gardens of Parque Prado Established in 1873, the largest of Montevideo's six main public parks is the 1.06-square-kilometre (260-acre) Parque Prado.[105] Located in the northern part of the city, the Miguelete Creek flows through the park and the neighbourhood and of the same name. It is surrounded by the avenues Agraciada, Obes Lucas, Joaquín Suárez Sony VAIO PCG-384L battery, Luis Alberto de Herrera and by the streets Castro and José María Reyes. The most frequented areas of the park are the Rosedal, a public rose garden with pergolas, the Botanical Garden, the area around the Hotel del Prado, as well as the Rural del Prado, a seasonal cattle and farm animal fairground. The Rosedal contains four pergolas, eight domes, and a fountain; its 12,000 roses were imported from France in 1910.[106] There are several jogging paths along the Miguelete river Sony VAIO PCG-383L battery. The Presidential Residence is located behind the Botanical Gardens. Established in 1930, Juan Manuel Blanes Museum is situated in the Palladian villa, a National Heritage Site since 1975, and includes a Japanese garden.[107] The Professor Atilio Lombardo Museum and Botanical Gardens were established in 1902. The National Institute of Physical Climatology and its observatory are also in the Prado. Sony VAIO PCG-382L batteryMain article: Parque Rodó Parque Rodó is both a barrio (neighbourhood) of Montevideo and a park which lies mostly outside the limits of the neighbourhood itself and belongs to Punta Carretas. The name "Rodó" commemorates José Enrique Rodó, an important Uruguayan writer whose monument is in the southern side of the main park. The park was conceived as a French-style city park. Sony VAIO PCG-381L battery Apart from the main park area which is delimited by Sarmiento Avenue to the south, Parque Rodó includes an amusement park; the Estadio Luis Franzini, belonging to Defensor Sporting; the front lawn of the Faculty of Engineering and a strip west of the Club de Golf Punta Carretas that includes the Canteras ("quarry") del Parque Rodó, the Teatro de Verano ("summer theatre") and the Lago ("lake") del Parque Rodó. Sony VAIO PCG-7185L batteryOn the east side of the main park area is the National Museum of Visual Arts. On this side, a very popular street market takes place every Sunday. On the north side is an artificial lake with a little castle housing a municipal library for children. An area to its west is used as an open air exhibition of photography. West of the park, across the coastal avenue Rambla Presidente Wilson Sony VAIO PCG-7184L battery, stretches Ramirez Beach. Directly west of the main park are, and belonging to Parque Rodó barrio, is the former Parque Hotel, now called Edifício Mercosur, seat of the parliament of the members countries of the Mercosur.[111] During the guerilla war the Tupamaros frequently attacked buildings in this area, including the old hotel. Sony VAIO PCG-7183L batteryThe first set of subsidiary forts were planned by the Portuguese at Montevideo in 1701 to establish a front line base to stop frequent insurrections by the Spaniards emanating from Buenos Aires. These fortifications were planned within the River Plate estuary at Colonia del Sacramento. However, this plan came to fruition only in November 1723 Sony VAIO PCG-7182L battery, when Captain Manuel Henriques de Noronha reached the shores of Montevideo with soldiers, guns and colonists on his warship Nossa Senhora de Oliveara. They built a small square fortification. However, under siege from forces from Buenos Aires, the Portuguese withdrew from Montevideo Bay in January 1724, after signing an agreement with the Spaniards Sony VAIO PCG-7181L battery. Fortaleza del Cerro (Fortress del Cerro) Main article: Fortaleza del Cerro Fortaleza del Cerro overlooks the bay of Montevideo. An observation post at this location was first built by the Spanish in the late 18th century. In 1802, a beacon replaced the observation post; construction of the fortress began in 1809 and was completed in 1839.[37] It has been involved in many historical developments and has been repeatedly taken over by various sides Sony VAIO PCG-7174L battery. In 1907, the old beacon was replaced with a stronger electric one. It has been a National Monument since 1931[114] and has housed a military museum since 1916.[37] Today it is one of the tourist attractions of Montevideo. Punta Brava lighthouse. Punta Brava Lighthouse (Faro Punta Brava), also known as Punta Carretas Lighthouse, was erected in 1876 Sony VAIO PCG-7173L battery. The lighthouse is 21 metres (69 ft) high and its light reaches 15 miles (24 km) away, with a flash every ten seconds.[115] In 1962, the lighthouse became electric. The lighthouse is important for guiding boats into the Banco Inglés Buceo Port or the entrance of the Santa Lucía River. Rambla of Montevideo Main article: Rambla of Montevideo The rambla of Montevideo near Avenida Brasil in autumn. The Rambla is an avenue that goes along the entire coastline of Montevideo. The literal meaning of the Spanish word rambla is "avenue" or "watercourse" Sony VAIO PCG-7172L battery, but in the Americas it is mostly used as "coastal avenue", and since all the southern departments of Uruguay border either the Río de la Plata or the Atlantic Ocean, they all have ramblas as well. As an integral part of Montevidean identity, the Rambla has been included by Uruguay in the Indicative List of World Heritage sites,[116] though it has not received this status Sony VAIO PCG-7171L battery. Previously, the entire Rambla was called Rambla Naciones Unidas ("United Nations"), but in recent times different names have been given to specific parts of it. Playa de los Pocitos The Rambla is a very important site for recreation and leisure in Montevideo. Every day, a large number of people go there to take long strolls, jog, roller skate, fish and even—in a special area—skateboard. Its 27-kilometre (17 mi) length makes it one of the longest esplanades in the world. Sony VAIO PCG-7162L batteryMontevideo is noted for its beaches, which are particularly important because 60% of the population spends the summer in the city.[117] Its best known beaches are Ramírez, Pocitos, Carrasco, Buceo and Malvín. Further east and west are other beaches including the Colorada, Punta Espinillo, Punta Yeguas, Zabala and Santa Catarina Sony VAIO PCG-7161L battery. There are five large cemeteries in Montevideo, all administered by the "Fúnebre y Necrópolis" annex of the Intendencia of Montevideo.[118] The largest cemetery is the Cementerio del Norte, located in the northern-central part of the city. The Central Cemetery (Spanish: Cementerio central), located in Barrio Sur in the southern area of the city, is one of Uruguay's main cemeteries. It was one of the first cemeteries Sony VAIO PCG-7154L battery (as against church graveyards) in the country, founded in 1835 in a time where burials were still carried out by the Catholic Church. It is the burial place of many of the most famous Uruguayans, such as Eduardo Acevedo, Delmira Agustini, Luis Batlle Berres, José Batlle y Ordóñez, Juan Manuel Blanes, François Ducasse, father of Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse), Sony VAIO PCG-7153L battery Luis Alberto de Herrera, Benito Nardone, José Enrique Rodó, and Juan Zorrilla de San Martín. The other large cemeteries are the Cementerio Buceo, Cementerio Del Cerro, and Cementerio Paso Molino. British Ambassador Hugh Salvesen at The British Cemetery. The British Cemetery Montevideo (Cementerio Británico) is another of the oldest cemeteries in Uruguay, located in the Buceo neighbourhood. Many noblemen and eminent persons are buried there Sony VAIO PCG-7152L battery. The cemetery originated when the Englishman Mr. Thomas Samuel Hood purchased a plot of land in the name of the English residents in 1828. However, in 1884 the government compensated the British by moving the cemetery to Buceo to accommodate city growth. A section of the cemetery, known as British Cemetery Montevideo Soldiers and Sailors, contains the graves of quite a number of sailors of different nationalities, although the majority are of British descent. One United States Marine Sony VAIO PCG-7151L battery, Henry de Costa, is buried here.[120] Montevideo has a very rich architectural heritage and an impressive number of writers, artists, and musicians. Uruguayan tango is a unique form of dance that originated in the neighbourhoods of Montevideo towards the end of the 1800s. Tango, candombe and murga are the three main styles of music in this city Sony VAIO PCG-7148L battery. The city is also the centre of the cinema of Uruguay, which includes commercial, documentary and experimental films. There are two movie theatre companies running seven cinemas, around ten independent ones[123] and four art film cinemas in the city. The theatre of Uruguay is admired inside and outside Uruguayan borders. The Solís Theatre is the most prominent theatre in Uruguay and the oldest in South America. Sony VPCW21M2E/WI batteryThere are several notable theatrical companies and thousands of professional actors and amateurs. Montevideo playwrights produce dozens of works each year; of major note are Mauricio Rosencof, Ana Magnabosco and Ricardo Prieto. Montevideo skyline at night. In recent years Montevideo nightlife has moved to Ciudad Vieja, where a large concentration of buildings cater for the recreational interests of young people during the night time Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery. Under a presidential decree of 1 March 2006 smoking is prohibited in any public place with roofing, and there is a prohibition on the sale of alcohol in certain businesses from 21.00 to 9.00. A Cultural Centre of Spain, as well as Asturian and cultural centres, testify to Montevideo's considerable Spanish heritage. Montevideo also has important museums including Museo Torres García Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery, Museo José Gurvich, Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales and Museo Juan Manuel Blanes etc., as mentioned above. Literature The first public library in Montevideo was formed by the initial donation of the private library of Father José Manuel Pérez Castellano, who died in 1815. Its promoter, director and organizer was Father Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga, who also made a considerable donation along with donations from José Raimundo Guerra Sony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery, as well as others from the Convent of San Francisco in Salta.[127] In 1816 its stock was 5,000 volumes.[citation needed] The current building of the National Library of Uruguay (Biblioteca Pública de Uruguay) was designed by Luis Crespi in the Neoclassical style and occupies an area of 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft). Construction began in 1926 and it was finally inaugurated in 1964 Sony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. Its current collection amounts to roughly 900,000 volumes.[128][129] The poet Delmira Agustini. The city has a long and rich literary tradition. Although Uruguayan literature is not limited to the authors of the capital (Horacio Quiroga was born in Salto and Mario Benedetti in Paso de los Toros, for instance), Montevideo has been and is the centre of the editorial and creative activity of literature Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery. In 1900, the city had a remarkable group of writers, including José Enrique Rodó, Carlos Vaz Ferreira, Julio Herrera y Reissig, Delmira Agustini and Felisberto Hernández. Montevideo was then called the "Atenas del Plata" or the "Athens of the Rio de la Plata".[130] The writer Eduardo Galeano Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. Among the outstanding authors of Montevideo of the second half of the twentieth century are Juan Carlos Onetti, Antonio Larreta, Eduardo Galeano, Marosa di Giorgio and Cristina Peri Rossi. A new generation of writers have become known internationally in recent years. These include Eduardo Espina (essayist and poet), Fernando Butazzoni (novelist), Rafael Courtoisie (poet) and Hugo Burel (short story writer and novelist) Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery. Montevideo's Kutxi Romero In Montevideo, as throughout the Rio de Plata region, the most popular forms of music are tango, milonga and vals criollo. Many notable songs originated in Montevideo including "El Tango supremo", La Cumparsita", La Milonga", "La Puñalada" and "Desde el Alma", composed by notable Montevideo musicians such as Gerardo Matos Rodríguez Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery, Pintín Castellanos and Rosita Melo.[132] Tango is deeply ingrained in the cultural life of the city and is the theme for many of the bars and restaurants in the city. Fun Fun' Bar, established in 1935, is one of the most important places for tango in Uruguay as is El Farolito, located in the old part of the city and Joventango Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery, Café Las Musas, Garufa and Vieja Viola.[132] Many contemporary tango performers hail from Montevideo, such as Kutxi Romero. The city is also home to the Montevideo Jazz Festival and has the Bancaria Jazz Club bar catering for jazz enthusiasts. Painter shop in Montevideo The daily newspaper El País sponsors the Virtual Museum of contemporary Uruguayan art. The director and curator of the Museum presents exhibitions in "virtual spaces, supplemented by information, biographies, texts in English and Spanish". Sony VAIO VGN-CS28 batteryIn the early 1970s (1973, to be particular) when the military junta took over power in Uruguay, art suffered in Montevideo. The art studios went into protest mode, with Rimer Cardillo, one of the country's leading artists, making the National Institute of Fine Arts, Montevideo a "hotbed of resistance". This resulted in the military junta coming down heavily on artists by closing Sony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery the Fine Art Institute and carting away all the presses and other studio equipment. Consequently, the learning of fine arts was only in private studios run by people who had been let out of jail, in works of printing and on paper and also painting and sculpture. It resumed much later. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 batteryMuseums Main article: List of museums in Montevideo Fountain in the entry of the Cabildo The Montevideo Cabildo was the seat of government during the colonial times of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. It is located in front of Constitution Square, in Ciudad Vieja.[85] Built between 1804 and 1869 in Neoclassical style, with a series of Doric and Ionic columns, it became a National Heritage Site in 1975 Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. In l958, the Municipal Historic Museum and Archive was inaugurated here. It features three permanent city museum exhibitions, as well as temporary art exhibitions, cultural events, seminars, symposiums and forums.[135] Uruguayan officials conversing at a meeting at the Palacio Taranco, 6 November 2010 The Palacio Taranco is located in front of the Plaza Zabala, in the heart of Ciudad Vieja Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. It was erected in the early 20th century as the residence of the Ortiz Taranco brothers on the ruins of Montevideo's first theatre (of 1793), during a period in which the architectural style was influenced by French architecture. The palace was designed by French architects Charles Louis Girault and Jules Chifflot León who also designed the Petit Palais and the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. It passed to the city from the heirs of the Tarancos in 1943 Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery, along with its precious collection of Uruguayan furniture and draperies and was deemed by the city as an ideal place for a museum; in 1972 it became the Museum of Decorative Arts of Montevideo and in 1975 it became a National Heritage Site. The Decorative Arts Museum has an important collection of European paintings and decorative arts, ancient Greek and Roman art and Islamic ceramics of the 10th–18th century from the area of present-day Iran. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27/C batteryThe palace is often used as a meeting place by the Uruguayan government. Museo Historico Nacional de Montevideo The National History Museum of Montevideo is located in the historical residence of General Fructuoso Rivera. It exhibits artifacts related to the history of Uruguay.[85] In a process begun in 1998, the National Museum of Natural History (1837) and the National Museum of Anthropology (1981), merged in 2001, becoming the National Museum of Natural History and Anthropology Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. In July 2009, the two institutions again became independent.[137] The Historical Museum has annexed eight historical houses in the city, five of which are located in the Ciudad Vieja. One of them, on the same block with the main building, is the historic residence of Antonio Montero, which houses the Museo Romantico.[138] Museo Torres García Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q batteryThe Museo Torres García is located in the Old Town, and exhibits Joaquín Torres García's unusual portraits of historical icons and cubist paintings akin to those of Picasso and Braque.[2] The museum was established by Manolita Piña Torres, the widow of Torres Garcia, after his death in 1949. She also set up the García Torres Foundation, a private non-profit organization that organizes the paintings, drawings, original writings, archives Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery, objects and furniture designed by the painter as well as the photographs, magazines and publications related to him.[139] Museo Naval de Montevideo There are several other important art museums in Montevideo. The National Museum of Visual Arts in Parque Rodó has Uruguay's largest collection of paintings.[89][133] The Juan Manuel Blanes Museum was founded in 1930 Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery, the 100th anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay, significant with regard to the fact that Juan Manuel Blanes painted Uruguayan patriotic themes. In back of the museum is a beautiful Japanese Garden with a pond where there are over a hundred carp.[140] The Museo de Historia del Arte, located in the Palacio Municipal Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery, features replicas of ancient monuments and exhibits a varied collection of artifacts from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, Rome and Native American cultures including local finds of the pre-Columbian period.[141] The Museo Municipal Precolombino y Colonial, in the Ciudad Vieja, has preserved collections of the archaeological finds from excavations carried out by Uruguayan archaeologist Antonio Taddei Sony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery. These antiquaries are exhibits of pre-Columbian art of Latin America, painting and sculpture from the 17th and 18th century mostly from Mexico, Peru and Brazil.[133] The Museo de Arte Contempo has small but impressive exhibits of modern Uruguayan painting and sculpture.[89] There are also other types of museums in the city. The Museo del Gaucho y de la Moneda Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery, located in the Centro, has distinctive displays of the historical culture of Uruguay's gauchos, their horse gear, silver work and mate (tea), gourds, and bombillas (drinking straws) in odd designs.[89] The Museo Naval, is located on the eastern waterfront in Buceo and offers exhibits depicting the maritime history of Uruguay.[89] The Museo del Automóvil, belonging to the Automobile Club of Uruguay Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery, has a rich collection of vintage cars which includes a 1910 Hupmobile.[142] The Museo y Parque Fernando García in Carrasco, a transport and automobile museum, includes old horse carriages and some early automobiles.[143] The Castillo Pittamiglio, with an unusual façade, highlights the eccentric legacy of Humberto Pittamiglio, local alchemist and architect. Sony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B batteryLeft:Arcadia. Right:El Fogon Main article: Cuisine of Montevideo The center of traditional Uruguayan food and beverage in Montevideo is the Mercado del Puerto ("Port Market"). A torta frita is a pan-fried cake consumed in Montevideo and throughout Uruguay. It is generally circular, with a small cut in the centre for cooking, and is made from wheat flour, yeast, water and sugar or salt. Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G batteryBeef is very important in Uruguayan cuisine and an essential part of many dishes. Montevideo has a variety of restaurants, from traditional Uruguayan cuisine to Japanese cuisine such as sushi. Notable restaurants in Montevideo include Arcadia atop the Plaza Victoria, widely regarded to be the finest restaurant in the city. Arcadia is set in a classic Italian-inspired dining room Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q batteryand serves lavish dishes such as terrine of pheasant marinated in cognac, grilled lamb glazed with mint and garlic, and duck confit on thin strudel pastry with red cabbage.[80] El Fogon is more popular with the late-night diners of the city. Its interior is brightly lit and the walls covered with big mirrors.[80] Officially a barbecue and seafood restaurant, it serves grilled meat dishes Sony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery, as well as salmon, shrimp and calamari.[80] Also of note is the Cru. Numerous restaurants are located along the Rambla of Montevideo. There is an Irish pub in the eastern part of the Old District named Shannon Irish pub, another testament to the European heritage of the city. Montevideo Carnival: male musicians "Zonal queens" As the capital of Uruguay, Montevideo is home to a number of festivals and carnivals including a Gaucho festival when people ride through the streets on horseback in traditional gaucho gear Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. The major annual festival is the annual Montevideo Carnaval which is part of the national festival of Carnival Week, celebrated throughout Uruguay, with central activities in the capital, Montevideo. Officially, the public holiday lasts for two days on Carnival Monday and Shrove Tuesday preceding Ash Wednesday, but due to the prominence of the festival, most shops and businesses close for the entire week. Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery During carnival there are many open-air stage performances and competitions and the streets and houses are vibrantly decorated. "Tablados" or popular scenes, both fixed and movable, are erected in the whole city.[145] Notable displays include "Desfile de las Llamadas" ("Parade of the Calls"), which is a grand united parade held on the south part of downtown Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery, where it used to be a common ritual back in the early 20 century.[145] Due to the scale of the festival, preparation begins as early as December with an election of the "zonal beauty queens" to appear in the carnival.[145] The main religion in Uruguay is Roman Catholicism and has been since the foundation of the city. The city is part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Montevideo which was created as the Apostolic Vicariate of Montevideo in 1830 Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery. The vicariate was promoted to the Diocese of Montevideo on 13 July 1878.[146] Pope Leo XIII elevated it to the rank of a metropolitan archdiocese on 14 April 1897. The new archdiocese became the Metropolitan of the suffragan sees of Canelones, Florida, Maldonado–Punta del Este, Melo, Mercedes, Minas, Salto, San José de Mayo, Tacuarembó Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery. Montevideo is the only archdiocese in Uruguay and, as its Ordinary, the archbishop is also Primate of the Uruguayan Church. The archdiocese's mother church and thus seat of its archbishop is Catedral Inmaculada Concepción y San Felipe y Santiago. As of 2010, the current Archbishop of Montevideo is His Excellency Nicolás Cotugno Fanizzi Sony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery, SDB, since his appointment on 4 December 1998. Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral Cathedral Interior Main article: Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral The Montevideo Metropolitan Cathedral is the main Roman Catholic church of Montevideo. It is located in Ciudad Vieja, immediately across Constitution Square from the Cabildo. In 1740 a brick church was built on the site. In 1790, the foundation was laid for the current neoclassical structure. The church was consecrated in 1804. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery Bicentennial celebrations were held in 2004. In 1897, Pope Leo XIII elevated the church to Metropolitan Cathedral status. Important ceremonies are conducted under the direction of the Archbishop of Montevideo. Weddings and choral concerts are held here and the parish priest conducts the routine functions of the cathedral. In the 19th century Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery, its precincts were also used as a burial place of famous people who died in the city. For decades, the prison and the nearby parish church were the only major buildings in the neighbourhood. Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazón Punta Carretas Church Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazón ("Our Lady of the Sacred Heart"), also known as Iglesia Punta Carretas ("Punta Carretas Church"), was built between 1917 and 1927 in the Romanesque Revival style Sony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery. The church was originally part of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, but is presently in the parish of the Ecclesiastic Curia. Its location is at the corner of Solano García and José Ellauri. It has a nave and aisles. The roof has many vaults. During the construction of the Punta Carretas Shopping complex, major cracks developed in the structure of the church as a result of differential foundation settlement Sony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. The University of the Republic is the country's largest and most important university, with a student body of 81,774, according to the census of 2007.[149] It was founded on 18 July 1849 in Montevideo, where most of its buildings and facilities are still located. Its current Rector is Dr. Rodrigo Arocena. The university houses 14 faculties (departments) Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T batteryand various institutes and schools. Many eminent Uruguayans have graduated from this university, including Carlos Vaz Ferreira, José Luis Massera, Gabriel Paternain, Mario Wschebor, Roman Fresnedo Siri, Carlos Ott and Eladio Dieste The process of founding the country's public university began on 11 June 1833 with the passage of a law proposed by Senator Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga. It called for the creation of nine academic departments Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery; the President of the Republic would pass a decree formally creating the departments once the majority of them were in operation. In 1836, the House of General Studies was formed, housing the departments of Latin, philosophy, mathematics, theology and jurisprudence. On 27 May 1838, Manuel Oribe passed a decree establishing the Greater University of the Republic. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery That decree had few practical effects, given the institutional instability of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay at that time. Kindergarten kids at a public school in Montevideo Private education The largest private university in Uruguay,[151] is also located in Montevideo. ORT Uruguay was first established as a non-profit organization in 1942, and was officially certified as a private university in September 1996, becoming the first private educational institution in the country to achieve that status.[citation needed] It is a member of World ORT Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery, an international educational network founded in 1880 by the Jewish community in Saint Petersburg, Russia.[152] The university has about 8,000 students, distributed among 5 faculties and institutes, mainly geared towards the sciences and technology/engineering. Its current rector as of 2010 is Dr. Jorge A. Grünberg Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery. The Montevideo Crandon Institute is an American School of missionary origin and the main Methodist educational institution in Uruguay. Founded in 1879 and supported by the Women's Society of the Methodist Church of the United States, it is one of the most traditional and emblematic institutions in the city inculcating John Wesley's values (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery). Its alumni include presidents, senators, ambassadors and Nobel Prize winners, along with musicians, scientists, and others. The Montevideo Crandon Institute boasts of being the first academic institution in South America where a home economics course was taught. A laundress girl in a school play in Montevideo The Christian Brothers of Ireland Stella Maris College is a private, co-educational, not-for-profit Catholic school located in the wealthy residential southeastern neighbourhood of Carrasco. Established in 1955 (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery), it is regarded as one of the best high schools in the country, blending a rigorous curriculum with strong extracurricular activities.[155] The school's headmaster, history professor Juan Pedro Toni, is a member of the Stella Maris Board of Governors and the school is a member of the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO). Its long list of distinguished former pupils includes economists (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery), engineers, architects, lawyers, politicians and even F1 champions. The school has also played an important part in the development of rugby union in Uruguay, with the creation of Old Christians Club, the school's alumni club. Also in Carrasco is The British Schools of Montevideo, one of the oldest educational institutions in the country, established in 1908. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery) It has the reputation of being one of the best schools in the country.[citation needed] Its original purpose was to give Uruguayan children a complete education, on par with the best schools of the United Kingdom and to establish strong bonds between the British and Uruguayan children living in the country. The School is governed by the Board of Governors (Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery), elected by the British Schools Society in Uruguay, whose honorary president is the British Ambassador to Uruguay. Prominent alumni include former government ministers Pedro Bordaberry Herrán and Gabriel Gurméndez Armand-Ugon. Other educational institutions of note include Instituto Alfredo Vásquez Acevedo, Instituto Preuniversitario Juan XXIII, Lycée Français de Montevideo, Escuela Brasil (Montevideo), Liceo Joaquín Suárez and Colegio Preuniversitario Ciudad de San Felipe. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery)Estadio Centenario Montevideo is a strong centre of professional sport, and by far the most prominent in Uruguay. Estadio Centenario, the national football stadium in Parque Batlle, was opened in 1930 for the first World Cup, as well as to commemorate the centennial of Uruguay's first constitution. In this World Cup, Uruguay won the title game against Argentina by 4 goals to 2. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery)The stadium has 70,000 seats.[103] It is listed by FIFA as one of the football world's classic stadiums, along with Maracanã, Wembley Stadium, San Siro, Estadio Azteca, and Santiago Bernabéu Stadium.[159] A museum located within the football stadium has exhibits of memorabilia from of Uruguay's 1930 and 1950 World Cup championships. Museum tickets give access to the stadium, stands( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery), locker rooms and playing field.[89] Between 1935 and 1938, the athletics track and the municipal velodrome were completed within Parque Batlle. The Tabaré Athletic Club is occasionally made over as a carnival theatre using impermanent materials. Rugby in Montevideo Today the vast majority of teams in the Uruguayan Premier League and First Division come from Montevideo, including Nacional, Peñarol, Central Español, Cerrito, Cerro, Danubio, Defensor Sporting, Atlético Fénix, Liverpool, Wanderers( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery), Racing, River Plate and Rampla Juniors. Besides Estadio Centenario, other stadiums include Belvedere, Complejo Rentistas, Gran Parque Central, Jardines del Hipódromo, José Pedro Damiani, "La Bombonera", Luis Franzini, Luis Tróccoli and the park stadiums of Abraham Paladino, Alfredo Víctor Viera, Omar Saroldi, José Nasazzi, Osvaldo Roberto, Maracaná and Palermo( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery). The Uruguayan Basketball League is headquartered in Montevideo and most of its teams are from the city, including Defensor Sporting, Trouville, Unión Atlética, Capitol, Malvín and Biguá. Montevideo is also a centre of rugby; equestrianism, which regained importance in Montevideo after the Maroñas Racecourse reopened; golf, with the Club de Punta Carretas( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery); and yachting, with the Puerto del Buceo, an ideal place to moor yachts. The Golf Club of Punta Carretas was founded in 1894 covers all the area encircled by the west side of Bulevar Artigas, the Rambla (Montevideo's promenade) and the Parque Rodó (Fun Fair).[115] The Dirección Nacional de Transporte (DNT), part of the national Ministry of Transport and Public Works, is responsible for the organization and development of Montevideo's transport infrastructure( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery). A very good bus service network covers the entire city. An international bus station, the Tres Cruces Bus Terminal, is located on the lower level of the Tres Cruces Shopping Center, on the side of Artigas Boulevard. This terminal, along with the Baltazar Brum Bus Terminal (or Rio Branco Terminal) by the Port of Montevideo, handles the long distance and intercity bus routes connecting to destinations within Uruguay( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery). Estación Central General Artigas. The State Railways Administration of Uruguay (AFE) operates three commuter rail lines, namely the Empalme Olmos, San Jose and Florida. These lines operate to major suburban areas of Canelones, San José and Florida. Within the Montevideo city limits, local trains stop at Lorenzo Carnelli, Yatai (Step Mill), Sayago, Columbus (line to San Jose and Florida) ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery), Peñarol and Manga (line Empalme Olmos) stations. The historic 19th century General Artigas Central Station located in the neighbourhood of Aguada, six blocks from the central business district, was abandoned 1 March 2003 and remains closed.[164][165] A new station, 500 metres (1,600 ft) north of the old one and part of the Tower of Communications modern complex, has taken over the rail traffic( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). Aeropuerto Internacional de Carrasco The Aeropuerto Internacional de Carrasco, which serves Montevideo, is located 12 miles (19 km) from the city centre. Pluna, the Uruguayan national carrier, operates domestic and international flights. American and Aerolíneas Argentinas also operate International flights to Montevideo from their respective countries. The airport serves over 1,500,000 passenger annually. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery)Ángel S. Adami Airport is a private airport operated by minor charter companies. Main article: Port of Montevideo Port of Montevideo The port on Montevideo Bay is one of the reasons the city was founded. It gives natural protection to ships, although two jetties now further protect the harbour entrance from waves. This natural port is competitive with the other great port of Río de la Plata, Buenos Aires. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery) The main engineering work on the port occurred between the years 1870 and 1930. These six decades saw the construction of the port's first wooden pier, several warehouses in La Aguada, the north and south Rambla, a river port, a new pier, the dredged river basin and the La Teja refinery. A major storm in 1923 necessitated repairs to many of the city's engineering works. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery) Since the second half of the 20th century, physical changes have ceased, and since that time the area has degraded due to national economic stagnation.[28] The port's proximity has contributed to the installation of various industries in the area surrounding the bay, particularly import/export businesses and other business related to port and naval activity. The density of industrial development in the area surrounding the port has kept its popularity as a residential area relatively low despite its centrality( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery). The main environmental problems are subaquatic sedimentation and air and water contamination.[28] Now, every year arrives more than one hundred of cruises with a lot of tourists that can visit the city by regular or private tours.[169] Left: Hospital Italiano de Montevideo. Right: Dr. Manuel Quintela Clinics Hospital In Montevideo, as elsewhere in the country, there are both public and private health services. In both sectors, medical services are provided by polyclinics and hospitals or sanatoria( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery). The term hospital is used here for both outpatient and inpatient facilities, while sanatorio is used for private short- and long-term facilities for the treatment of illnesses. Public hospitals Hospital de Clínicas "Dr. Manuel Quintela" is a University Hospital attached to the University of the Republic, and is located on Avenida Italia. It functions as an adult general polyclinic and hospital. The building was designed by architect Carlos Surraco in 1928–1929 and has a surface area of 110,000 square metres (1,200,000 sq ft) on 23 floors( SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery). The hospital was inaugurated 21 September 1953. For many years it was led by Dr. Hugo Villar, who was a considerable influence on the institution. Hospital Maciel is one of the oldest hospitals in Uruguay and stands on the block bounded by the streets Maciel, 25 de Mayo, Guaraní and Washington, with the main entrance at 25 de Mayo, 172. The land was originally donated in Spanish colonial times by philanthropist Francisco Antonio Maciel, who teamed up with Mateo Vidal to establish a hospital and charity( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). The first building was constructed between 1781 and 1788 and later expanded upon. The present building stems from the 1825 plans of José Toribio (son of Tomás Toribio) and later Bernardo Poncini (wing on the Guaraní street, 1859), Eduardo Canstatt (corner of Guaraní and 25 de Mayo) and Julián Masquelez (1889). The hospital has a chapel built in the Greek style by Miguel Estévez in 1798( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Hospital Pereira Rossell was founded in 1908 and was built on land donated in late 1900 by Alexis Rossell y Rius and Dolores Pereira de Rossell.[172] It was the city's first pediatric hospital, and shortly afterwards the addition of an obstetric and gynaecological clinic in 1915 made it the first maternity hospital as well. Later, the hospital received a donation from Dr. Enrique Pouey for a radiotherapy unit( SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery). Hospital Vilardebó is the only psychiatric hospital in Montevideo. Named after the physician and naturalist Teodoro Vilardebó Matuliche, it opened 21 May 1880.[173] The hospital was originally one the best of Latin America and in 1915 grew to 1,500 inpatients. Today the hospital is very deteriorated, with broken walls and floors, lack of medicines, beds, and rooms for the personnel.[174] It has an emergency service, outpatient( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery), clinic and inpatient rooms and employs approximately 610 staff, psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, administrators, guards, among others.[175] The average patient age is 30 years; more than half of the patients arrive by court order; 42% suffer from schizophrenia, 18% from depression and mania,[176] and there are also a high percentage of drug addicted patients( SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery). Other public polyclinics and hospitals of note include the Hospital Saint Bois, founded 18 November 1928, which consists of a General Hospital and Eye Hospital; the Pasteur Hospital in La Unión neighbourhood; the Hospital Español, which was founded in 1886, passed to the private sector in the 20th century, closed in 2004 and was restored and reinaugurated in 2007( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery) as the municipal Juan Jose Crottogini Polyclinic; the National Cancer Institute; and the National Institute of Trauma and Orthopedics. Private healthcare Private healthcare is offered by many private health insurance companies, each of which has one or more polyclinics and owns or is associated with one or more hospitals. Private medical facilities of note include the Hospital Británico, the Italian Hospital of Montevideo, Mutualista CASMU's Sanatoria I, II, III and IV, the Evangelical Hospital( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery), Médica Uruguaya, Sanatorio de la Asociación Española, Sanatorios del Círculo Católico, Sanatorio Casa de Galicia and Sanatorio GREMCA. TV reporter in Montevideo Out of the 100 radio stations found in Uruguay, 40 of them are in Montevideo. The city has a vibrant artistic and literary community. The press enjoyed full freedom until the advent of the Civic-military dictatorship (1973–1985); this freedom returned on 1 March 1985, as part of the restoration of democracy( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery). Some of the important newspapers published in the city are: Brecha, La Republica, El Observador,[179] El País, Gaceta Commercial and La Diaria.[180] El Día was the most prestigious paper in Uruguay, founded in 1886 by José Batlle, who would later go on to become President of Uruguay. The paper ceased production in the early 1990s. ( SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery) All television stations have their headquarters in Montevideo, for example: Saeta Canal 10, La Tele, Montecarlo Televisión (Channel 4) and Televisión Nacional (Channel 5)
Caracas, officially Santiago de León de Caracas, is the capital and largest city of Venezuela; natives or residents are known as Caraquenians in English (Spanish: Caraqueños). Caracas is located in the northern part of the country, following the contours of the narrow Caracas Valley on the Venezuelan coastal mountain range (Cordillera de la Costa) sony vgp-bps2 battery. Terrain suitable for building lies between 760 and 910 m (2,493.44 and 2,985.56 ft) above sea level. The valley is close to the Caribbean Sea, separated from the coast by a steep 2200 m (7400 ft) high mountain range, Cerro Ávila; to the south there are more hills and mountains. El Distrito Metropolitano de Caracas (Metropolitan District of Caracas) includes the Distrito Capital (the capital city proper) and four other municipalities in Miranda State sony vgp-bps3 battery: Chacao, Baruta, Sucre, and El Hatillo. The Distrito Capital had a population of 2,097,350 as of 2009, while that of Distrito Metropolitano was estimated at 4,196,514 as of (2008). At the time of its founding, more than four hundred years ago, the valley of Caracas was populated by indigenous peoples. Francisco Fajardo, the son of a Spanish captain and a Guaiqueri cacica, attempted to establish a plantation in the valley in 1562 after founding a series of coastal towns. sony vgp-bps4 battery Fajardo's settlement did not last long. It was destroyed by natives of the region led by Terepaima and Guaicaipuro. This was the last rebellion on the part of the natives. On 25 July 1567, Captain Diego de Losada laid the foundations of the city of Santiago de León de Caracas.The foundation −1567 – “I take possession of this land in the name of God and the King” These were the words of Don Diego de Losada in founding the city of Caracas on 25 July 1567 sony vgp-bps5 battery. In 1577 Caracas became the capital of the Spanish Empire's Venezuela Province under Governor Juan de Pimentel (1576–1583). During the 17th century, the coast of Venezuela was frequently raided by pirates. With the coastal mountains as a barrier, Caracas was relatively immune to such attacks – one of the reasons it became the principal city of the region sony vgp-bps7 battery. However, in the 1680s, buccaneers crossed the mountains through a little-used pass while the town's defenders were guarding the more often-used one, and, encountering little resistance, sacked and set fire to the town. The cultivation of cocoa under the Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas stimulated the development of the city, which in 1777 became the capital of the Captaincy General of Venezuela sony vgp-bpl7 battery. An attempt at revolution to gain independence organized by José María España and Manuel Gual was put down on 13 July 1797. But the ideas of the French Revolution and the American Wars of Independence inspired the people, and on 5 July 1811, a Declaration of Independence was signed in Caracas. This city was also the birthplace of two of Latin America's most important figures of the Venezuelan War of Independence sony vgp-bps8 battery: Francisco de Miranda and "El Libertador" Simón Bolívar. An earthquake destroyed Caracas on 26 March 1812, which was portrayed by authorities as a divine punishment for the rebellion against the Spanish Crown. The war continued until 24 June 1821, when Bolívar gained a decisive victory over the royalists at the Battle of Carabobo sony vgp-bps8a battery. As the economy of oil-rich Venezuela grew steadily during the first part of the 20th century, Caracas became one of Latin America's economic centers, and is also known as the preferred travel hub between Europe and South America. During the 1950s, Caracas began an intensive modernization program which continued throughout the 1960s and early 1970s sony vgp-bps8b battery. The Universidad Central de Venezuela, designed by modernist architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and declared World Heritage by UNESCO, was built. New working- and middle-class residential districts sprouted in the valley, extending the urban area towards the east and southeast. Joining El Silencio, also designed by Villanueva, were several workers' housing districts, 23 de Enero and Simon Rodriguez sony vgp-bpl8 battery. Middle class developments include Bello Monte, Los Palos Grandes, Chuao, and El Cafetal. On 17 October 2004, one of the Parque Central towers caught fire. The dramatic change in the economic structure of the country, which went from being primarily agricultural to dependent on oil production, stimulated the fast development of Caracas, and made it a magnet for people in rural communities sony vgp-bps9 batterywho migrated to the capital city in an unplanned fashion searching for greater economic opportunity. This migration created the rancho (slum) belt of the valley of Caracas Colonial painting of Our Lady of Caracas, Patroness of the city View of Caracas in 1839; once a colonial city of red-tiled roofs, the city now has many skyscrapers The flag of Caracas consists of a burgundy red field with the version of the Coat of Arms of the City (effective since the 1980s) sony vgp-bps9/s battery. The red field symbolises the blood spilt by Caraquenian people in favour of independence and the highest ideals of the Venezuelan Nation. Later, in the year 1994, presumably as a result of the change of municipal authorities, it was decided to increase the size of the Caracas coat of arms and move it to the centre of the field. This version of the flag is still in use today sony vgp-bps9a/s battery. The coat of arms of the City of Caracas was adopted by the Libertador Municipality to identify itself. Later, the Metropolitan Mayor Office assumed the lion, the scallop and Saint James' Cross for the same purpose. The anthem of the city is the Marcha a Caracas, written by the composer Tiero Pezzuti de Matteis with the lyrics by José Enrique Sarabia. The lyrics are said to be inspired by the heroism of the Caraquenian people, and the memory of the City of Red Roofs sony vgp-bps9/b battery. Incidentally, the National Anthem of Venezuela, Gloria al Bravo Pueblo, includes the lines "...y si el despotismo levanta la voz, seguid el ejemplo que Caracas dio" ("...and if despotism raises its voice, follow the example that Caracas gave"), reflecting the fact that, in addition to generously providing many heroic fighters to the War of Independence, the junta established in Caracas (19 April 1810) sony vgp-bps9a/b battery served as inspiration for other regions to do the same—as did its declaration of independence a year later. Partial view of Libertador municipality Caracas has five municipalities: Baruta, El Hatillo, Chacao, Libertador and Sucre. The constitution of Venezuela specifies that municipal governments be divided into executive and legislative branches. The executive government of the municipality is governed by the mayor sony vgp-bps9a battery, while the legislative government is managed by the Municipal council. In 8 March 2000, the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela, it was decreed in Gaceta Official N° 36,906 that the Metropolitan District of Caracas would be created, and that some of the powers of these municipalities would be delegated to the Alcaldía Mayor, physically located in the large Libertador municipality, in the center of the city sony vgp-bps9b battery. In recent years the city has experienced the deterioration of buildings and the growth of shanty towns Venezuelan stock exchange building in El Rosal district Businesses located here include service companies, banks, and malls, among others. Most economic activity is in services, except some industries established in its metropolitan area.[5] The Caracas Stock Exchange and Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) are headquartered here sony vgp-bpl9c battery. The PDVSA is the largest company in Venezuela,[6] and negotiates all the international agreements for the distribution and export of petroleum.[7] When the company existed, the airline Viasa had its headquarters in the Torre Viasa. Caracas' central business district is Milla de Oro, located in the north of the Baruta municipality and the south of the Chacao municipality sony vgp-bpl9 battery, it is one of largest financial districts of Latin America, it is home to many companies and is dominated by numerous high-rises. Other important business districts include Plaza Venezuela, Parque Central Complex and El Recreo. Small and medium-size industry contributes to the Caracas economy. The city provides communication and transportation infrastructure between the metropolitan area and the rest of the country sony vgp-bps10 battery. Important industries in Caracas include chemicals, textiles, leather, food, iron and wood products. There are also rubber and cement factories. Millennium Mall at night A 2009 United Nations survey reported that the cost of living in Caracas was 89% of that of its baseline city: New York. However, this statistic is based upon a fixed currency-exchange-rate of 2003 and might not be completely realistic, due to the elevated inflation rates of the last several years Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery. Caracas is contained entirely within a valley of the Venezuelan central range, and separated from the Caribbean coast by a roughly 15 km expanse of El Ávila National Park. The valley is relatively small and quite irregular, the altitude with respect to sea level varies from between 870 and 1,043 meters (2,854–3,422 ft), with 900 meters (2,953 ft) in the historic zone. This, along with the rapid population growth Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery, has profoundly influenced the urban development of the city. The most elevated point of the Capital District, wherein the city is located, is the Pico El Ávila, which rises to 2,159 meters (7,083 ft). The main body of water in Caracas is the Guaire River, which flows across the city and empties into the Tuy River, which is also fed by the El Valle and San Pedro rivers, in addition to numerous streams which descend from El Ávila Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery. The La Mariposa and Camatagua reservoirs provide water to the city. Aerial view toward Caracas downtown. Under the Köppen climate classification, Caracas has a Tropical savanna climate. Caracas is also intertropical, with precipitation that varies between 900 and 1,300 millimeters (35–51 in) (annual), in the city proper, and up to 2,000 millimeters (79 in) in some parts of the Mountain range Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery. While Caracas is within the tropics, due to its altitude temperatures are generally not nearly as high as other tropical locations at sea level. The annual average temperature is approximately 23.1 °C (74 °F), with the average of the coldest month (January) 21.1 °C (70 °F) and the average of the warmest month (May) 25.0 °C (77 °F), which gives a small annual thermal amplitude of 3.9 °C (7.02 °F) Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery. In the months of December and January abundant fog may appear, in addition to a sudden nightly drop in temperature, until reaching 7 °C (45 °F) [12] or less. This peculiar weather is known by the natives of Caracas as the Pacheco. In addition, nightly temperatures at any time of the year are much (12 to 16 °C) lower than daytime highs and usually do not remain above 20 °C (68 °F) Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery, resulting in very pleasant evening temperatures. Hail storms appear in Caracas, although only on rare occasions. Electrical storms are much more frequent, especially between June and October, due to the city being in a closed valley and the orographic action of Cerro El Ávila. La trinidad neighborhood in the green belt The population of Caracas proper (Distrito Capital) is estimated to be 5,994,002 as of 2010, while that of the Metropolitan District of Caracas is estimated at 7,001,874 as of 2011 Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery. The conurbation including the surrounding suburbs has an estimated population of 8.3 million as of 2012. Caracas is often named in the alleged megalopolis of northern Venezuela including cities such as Valencia, Maracay, Miranda, Los Teques, San Antonio de los Altos, Petare, Guarenas, Puerto Cabello, with an estimated population of 18.2 million, representing about 64% of the country's population Sony VGP-BPS13/B batteryThe periphery of the city is overcrowded of massive slums which often lack of basic amenities and suffer of high poverty and crime rates such as Petare Venezuela and its capital, Caracas, are reported to both have among the highest per capita murder rates in the world. Most murders and other violent crimes go unsolved. The poor neighborhoods that cover the hills around Caracas are dangerous at all times. Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery More recent research, however, has called these purportedly astronomic crime rates into question. For years, the government misreported the actual population of Caracas, consistently skewing crime figures higher. Bolivarian museum Federal Capitol Located at the southwest corner of Plaza Bolívar is the edifice that belonged from 1637 to 1874 to the Conceptions Nuns monastery, and that from 19 April 1810 was the seat of the first congress Sony VGP-BPS13A battery. The southern part is the present seat of the National Assembly, and the northern part was formerly the Elliptic room, Triptic room and Shields room. It was built during the government of Antonio Guzmán Blanco. East Park The Caracas East Park (Parque del Este, now officially Parque Generalísimo Francisco de Miranda) was designed by Brazilian architect Roberto Burle Marx Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery. It is a green paradise in the middle of the city, and it contains a small zoo. A replica of the ship led by Francisco de Miranda, the Leander, is being built in the southern part of the park. Before there used to exist a replica of the Santa Maria ship, used by Christopher Colombus in his voyages to America Sony VGP-BPS13S battery. Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex Main article: Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex The Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex (Complejo Cultural Teresa Carreño), or more commonly the Teresa Carreño Theatre (Teatro Teresa Carreño), is by far the most important theater of Caracas and Venezuela, where symphonic and popular concerts imagine frequently, operas, ballet and theatre. It is the second largest theater in South America, after the Teatro Colón of Buenos Aires, Argentina Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery. Simon Bolivar birthplace house Skyscrapers may loom overhead, but there is more than a hint of original colonial flavor in this neatly proportioned reconstruction of the house where Simon Bolivar was born on 24 July 1783. The museum's exhibits include period weapons, banners and uniforms. Much of the original colonial interior has been replaced by monumental paintings of battle scenes Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery, but more personal relics can be seen in the nearby Bolivian museum. Pride of place goes to the coffin in which Bolivar's remains were brought from Colombia; his ashes now rest in the National Pantheon. National Pantheon Main article: National Pantheon of Venezuela Venezuela's most venerated building is five blocks north of Plaza Bolívar, on the northern edge of the old town Sony VGP-BPS13B battery. Formerly a church, the building was given its new purpose as the final resting place for eminent Venezuelans by Antonio Guzmán Blanco in 1874. Parque Central Complex Main article: Parque Central Complex At a short distance east of Plaza Bolívar is Parque Central, a concrete complex of five high-rise residential slabs of somewhat apocalyptic-appearing architecture, crowned by two 56-storey octagonal towers, one of them is under repair due to the fire which burnt the building on 17 October 2004 Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery. Parque Central is Caracas' art and culture hub, with museums, cinemas and the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex. The West Tower balcony, on the 52nd floor, gives a 360° bird's-eye view of Caracas. Public squares Plaza Bolívar is the focus of the old town with the monument to El Libertador, Simon Bolívar, at its heart. Modern high-rise buildings have overpowered much of the colonial flavor of Caracas' founding neighbourhood Sony VGP-BPL21 battery. Plaza Venezuela is the geographic center of Caracas. It is a large urban plaza at the entrance of the Central University of Venezuela. Kinetic artists have displayed their works there, including Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Jesus Soto. East of the Plaza is the Plaza Venezuela Fountain, a large computerized display of water, music and colored light refurbished in 2009 to include the latest available technology Sony VGP-BPS21 battery. Plaza Caracas was constructed in 1983. It is in the Simón Bolívar Center, at the foot of the 30-story towers, dominating El Silencio District and forming a unique testimony to the early days of the modernization of the city. It has various levels for pedestrian and motorised traffic, and contains the business, shops, restaurants, services of a zone in which are concentrated public and private institutions Sony VGP-BPS21A battery. Plaza San Jacinto is situated among the San Jacinto, San Pablo, El Chorro and Trapos's corners. Its history dates from 1603 and there used to be the market of the city. In the middle of the square, there was an Antonio Leocadio Guzmán statue and after which this place is called now "The Venezuelan". In the northwest part of the square is found the Sun's clock Sony VGP-BPS21B battery, made by Alexander Humboldt when he was in Caracas. In 1983, as part of the bycentenarial anniversary of Simón Bolívar, was built a black chambre. In 2010, as part of the celebration of the Bicentenary of the events of 19 April 1810, was inaugurated a steel obelisk. El Hatillo Main article: El Hatillo Municipality El Hatillo is a colonial town located at the south-east suburbs of Caracas in the municipal area of the same name. This small town, which is one of Venezuela's few well-preserved typical colonial areas, gives an idea of what Caracas was like in centuries past Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery. Cerro El Ávila Main article: Cerro El Ávila Cerro El Ávila (Mountain El Ávila) (Indigenous name: Guaraira Repano), is a mountain in the mid-North of Venezuela. It rises next to Caracas and separates the city from the Caribbean Sea. It is considered the lungs of Caracas because there is a lot of vegetation on it. Las Mercedes Main article: Las Mercedes This zone contains restaurants with varied gastronomical specialties, along with pubs, bars, pools and art galleries Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery. Altamira neighborhood Main article: Altamira (Caracas) Altamira is a neighborhood located in the Chacao municipality of Caracas. It has its own Metro Station, many hotels, malls and restaurants, and is an important business and cultural centre. The Francisco de Miranda avenue (a major avenue in Caracas) and the Distibuidor Altamira (a congested highway exit) are both located in Altamira Sony VGP-BPS13 battery(without CD). Religious buildings The Iglesia de San Francisco is of historical value. Bolívar's funeral was held here twelve years after his death. Here he was proclaimed Libertador in 1813 by the people of Caracas. The church has gilded baroque altarpieces, and retains much of its original colonial interior, despite being given a treatment in the 19th century under the auspices of Antonio Guzmán Blanco Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q battery(without CD), which was intended to be modernizing. It contains some 17th century masterpieces of art, carvings, sculptures and oil paintings. The Central University of Venezuela, established during the reign of Philip V, was lodged for centuries in the church cloisters next door, which today are the seat of the Language Academy, and the Academies of History, Physics, and Mathematics Sony VGP-BPS13/Q battery(without CD). The Caracas Cathedral is seat of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Caracas. The Mosque of Sheikh Ibrahim Al-Ibrahim is the second largest mosque in Latin America. For many years it was the biggest.[20] The Union Israelita de Caracas is the biggest Synagogue for the Jewish Ashkenazi community in Caracas. Its mission is to host the religious services and preserve the memory of the Jewish heritage in Venezuela. Similarly, Mariperez is the biggest Synagogue for the Jewish Sephardic community in Caracas Sony VGP-BPS13A/B battery(without CD). Colleges, universities and international schools Central University of Venezuela Main article: Central University of Venezuela The Central University of Venezuela (Universidad Central de Venezuela in Spanish) is a public University. Founded in 1721, it is the oldest university in Venezuela and one of the first in Latin America.[citation needed] The university campus was designed by architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and it was declared World Heritage by UNESCO in 2000 Sony VGP-BPS13/S battery(without CD). The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas, as the main Campus is also known, is considered a masterpiece of architecture and urban planning and it is the only university campus designed in the 20th century that has received such recognition by UNESCO. UCV Olympic Stadium Simón Bolívar University Main article: Simón Bolívar University The Simón Bolívar University (Universidad Simón Bolívar, in Spanish, or USB) is a public institution located in Caracas, Venezuela Sony VGP-BPS13/B battery(without CD), with scientific and technological orientation. Its motto is "La Universidad de la Excelencia" ("University of Excellence"). Nationally, Simón Bolívar University is a well known school with a high reputation in scientific and engineering careers. Sports There are professional Association Football, baseball and several other sports. Professional teams include Deportivo Italia, Caracas Fútbol Club, SD Centro Italo Venezolano, Estrella Roja FC and Real Esppor Club. The Deportivo Italia has reached the semifinals of international tournaments such as the Copa Libertadores de America Sony VGP-BPS13B/S battery(without CD), while the Caracas Fútbol Club has reached the quarterfinals. Baseball teams Tiburones de La Guaira and Leones del Caracas play in the Estadio Universitario de la UCV, of the Central University of Venezuela, with a capacity of 26,000 spectators. Another baseball team started in Caracas: the Navegantes del Magallanes. It was moved to Valencia, Carabobo in the 1970s Sony VGP-BPS13A battery(without CD). Association Football stadiums include: Estadio Olímpico de la UCV, with capacity of 30 000 spectators is seat of the Deportivo Italia and Caracas Fútbol Club. Brígido Iriarte stadium, with a capacity of 12 000 spectators (old seat of the Deportivo Italia and Caracas Fútbol Club, and seat of the Estrella Roja FC). The Caracas Fútbol Club opened its own stadium in 2005, Campo Deportivo Cocodrilos Sony VGP-BPS13A/S battery(without CD). Cocodrilos de Caracas plays in the Venezuelan professional basketball league. They play their games in the "Gimnasio José Beracasa" in the neighbourhood of El Paraíso. Caracas is the seat of the National Institute of Sports and of the Venezuelan Olympic Committee. Caracas hosted the 1983 Pan American Games. Association Football: Caracas Fútbol Club, Deportivo Petare, Atletico Venezuela, Estrella Roja Futbol club, Real Esppor Club Sony VGP-BPS13AS battery(without CD). Baseball: Tiburones de la Guaira, Leones del Caracas. Basketball: Cocodrilos de Caracas. Cloud Shepherd, by Hans Arp, UCV National Library of Venezuela View from UCV grounds towards the east Caracas is Venezuela's cultural capital, with many restaurants, theaters, museums, and shopping centers. The city is home to an array of immigrants from but not limited to: Spain, Italy, Portugal, the Middle East, Germany, China, and Latin American countries. Museums, libraries and cultural centres Caracas, has been a city with great cultural aspirations throughout the course of its history. Institutions such as the old Atheneum bear witness to this awareness Sony VGP-BPS13S battery(without CD). The National library holds a great amount of volumes, and affords abundant bibliographic information for the student of the discovery and independence of Venezuela. The museum of Colonial Art has on show an interesting exhibition of Venezuelan art from the periods previous to its independence with fountains, furniture, colonial courtyards etc. In the Fine Arts Museum are kept some archaeological finds with some good examples of precolombine pottery Sony VGP-BPS13A/Q battery(without CD). Since 1974, Caracas has had a Contemporary Art Museum, containing works representing the most important tendencies in contemporary art, and since 1982, counts with a Children's Museum, a privately managed museum foundation, with the purpose of teaching children about science, technology, culture and arts. The Natural Science Museum Sony VGP-BPS13A/R battery(without CD), has a rich collection of archaeological pieces from the native cultures, in these collections and in other no less important galleries (Raúl Santana Creole Museum, Transport Museum, the Coin Museum, Bolivarian Museum, Jacobo Borges Museum, Carlos Cruz-Diez Museum, Alejandro Otero Museum, Sacred Museum, etc.) the cultural aspirations of Caracas are more than evident Sony VGP-BPS13B battery(without CD). Gastronomy Caracas has a gastronomical heritage due to the influence of immigrants, leading to a choice of regional and international cuisine. There is a variety of international restaurants including American, French, Arabic, Italian, Spanish, Indian, Chinese, Peruvian, Japanese, Mediterranean and Mexican. The district of La Candelaria contains Spanish restaurants Sony VGP-BPS13B/B battery(without CD), resulting from Galician and Canarian immigrants that came to this area in the mid-20th century. Transportation Inside Plaza Venezuela station of the Caracas Metro Boyacá Avenue (Cota Mil) Cable Cars are connected to metro stations for transportation in slums which lack in their mejority of roads and proper streets The Caracas Metro has been in operation since 27 March 1983. With 4 lines, 47 stations and about 10 more to be constructed. It covers a great part of the city and also has an integrated ticket system that combines the route of the Metro with those offered by the Metrobús, a bus service of the Caracas Metro Sony VGP-BPL21 battery(without CD). Buses are the main means of mass transportation. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the Metrobús. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues: Autobus; large buses. Camioneta; medium size buses. microbus or camionetica; vans or minivans. IFE; train services to and from Tuy Valley cities of Charallave and Cúa. Simón Bolívar International Airport, the biggest and most important in the country is located outside the city, roughly 20 miles (32 km) from the downtown area Sony VGP-BPS21 battery(without CD). Caracas Aerial Tramway In March 2009 four of the five Caracas districts launched Plan Vía Libre to reduce traffic (the pro-Chavez Jorge Rodríguez' Libertador District is currently not cooperating as the other districts are in the hands of the opposition[25]). On each weekday, cars with certain number plates are banned from entering key parts of the city centre; the numbers rotate so that any particular car is banned one day a week Sony VGP-BPS21A battery(without CD). Quito, formally San Francisco de Quito, is the capital city of Ecuador, and at an elevation of 9,350 feet (2,850 meters above sea level), it is the highest capital city in the world housing the administrative, legislative and judicial functions.[1] It is located in north-central Ecuador in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha,[2] an active stratovolcano in the Andes mountains Sony VGP-BPS21B battery(without CD). With a population of 2,197,698 according to the last census (2001), and, as estimated by the municipality, approximately 2,504,991 in 2005,[3] Quito is the second most populous city in Ecuador, after Guayaquil. It is also the capital of the Pichincha province and the seat of Metropolitan District of Quito. The canton recorded a population of 1,842,201 residents in the 2001 national census. In 2008, the city was designated as the headquarters of the Union of South American Nations. Sony VGP-BPS14/B BatteryThe Historic Center of Quito has one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas.[5] Quito, along with Kraków, were the first World Cultural Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO in 1978.[5]. The central square of Quito is located about 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of the equator; the city itself extends to within about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of zero latitude Sony VGP-BPS14B Battery. A monument and museum marking the general location of the equator is known locally as la mitad del mundo (the middle of the world), to avoid confusion, as the word ecuador is Spanish for equator. Quito's origins date back to the first millennium, when the Quitu tribe occupied the area and eventually formed a commercial center. According to Juan de Velasco's 1767 book Historia del Reino de Quito, the Quitu were conquered by the Caras tribe, who founded the Kingdom of Quito about 980 AD. For more than four centuries, Quito was ruled under the kings (shyris) Sony VGP-BPS14/S Battery. Caras and their allies were narrowly defeated in the epic battles of Tiocajas and Tixán in 1462, by an army of 250,000 led by Túpac Inca, the son of the Emperor of the Incas. After several decades of consolidation, the Kingdom of Quito became integrated into the Incan Empire. In 1534, the Caras/Quitu people were conquered by the Spanish Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery. Colonial Period Artwork that shows the city in the mid-18th century. Map dated 1786, showing the city of Quito in the late 18th century. North is to the right. Indigenous resistance to the Spanish invasion continued during 1534, with Diego de Almagro founding Santiago de Quito (in present day Colta, near Riobamba) on August 15, 1534, later to be renamed San Francisco de Quito on August 28, 1534. The city was later moved to its present location and was refounded on 6 December 1534 by 204 settlers led by Sebastián de Benalcázar Sony VGP-BPL14 Battery, who captured Rumiñahui and effectively ended any organized resistance.[6] Rumiñahui was then executed on January 10, 1535. On March 14, 1541, Quito was declared a city and on February 14, 1556, was given the title Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de San Francisco de Quito ("Very Noble and Loyal City of San Francisco of Quito"). In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital in Lima (see Real Audiencia de Quito) Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery. As with other places colonized by the Christian Spanish invaders, the colonizers promptly established Roman Catholicism in Quito. The first church (El Belén) was in fact built even before the city had been officially founded. In January 1535, the San Francisco Convent was constructed, the first of about 20 churches and convents built during the colonial period Sony VGP-BPL14/S Battery. The Spanish forcibly converted the indigenous population to Christianity and used them as slave labor for construction. The Diocese of Quito was established in 1545 and was elevated to the Archdiocese of Quito in 1849. In 1809, after nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants. On August 10, 1809, a movement was started in Quito that aimed for political independence from Spain Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery. On that date, a plan for government was established that placed Juan Pío Montúfar as president with various other prominent figures in other positions of government. However, this initial movement was ultimately defeated on August 2, 1810, when Imperial troops came from Lima, Peru, and killed the leaders of the uprising along with about 200 inhabitants of the city Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery. A chain of conflicts concluded on May 24, 1822, when Antonio José de Sucre, under the command of Simón Bolívar, led troops into the Battle of Pichincha. Their victory marked the independence of Quito and the surrounding areas. The State Of Ecuador became part of the Republic of Great Colombia after the Battle of Pichincha Republican era Sony VGP-BPS15/B BatteryIn 1833, members of the Society of Free Inhabitants of Quito were assassinated by the government after they conspired against it, and on March 6, 1845, the Marcist Revolution began. Later, in 1875, the country's president, Gabriel García Moreno, was assassinated in Quito. Two years later, in 1877, Archbishop José Ignacio Checa y Barba was killed by poisoning while he was giving mass Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery. In 1882, insurgents arose against the regime of dictator Ignacio de Veintemilla. However, this did not end the violence that was occurring throughout the country. On July 9, 1883, the liberal commander Eloy Alfaro participated in the Battle of Guayaquil, and later, after more conflict, became the president of Ecuador on September 4, 1895. Upon completing his second term in 1911, he moved to Europe Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery. When he returned to Ecuador in 1912 and attempted a return to power, he was arrested on January 28, 1912; thrown in prison; and assassinated by a mob that had stormed the prison. His body was dragged through the streets of Quito to a city park, where it was burned. In 1932, the Four Days' War broke out. This was a civil war that followed the election of Neptalí Bonifaz and the subsequent realization that he carried a Peruvian passport. Workers at a major textile factory went on strike in 1934 Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery, and similar unrest continues to the present day. On February 12, 1949, a realistic broadcast of H. G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds led to citywide panic and the deaths of more than twenty people who died in fires set by mobs.[7] 21st century In 2011, the city's population was 2,239,191 people, concentrated mostly in the southern part of the city. Since 2002, the city has begun renewing its historical center and also remodeled the Mariscal Sucre International Airport Sony VGP-BPS18 battery. Between 2003 and 2004, the ecologically friendly bus lines of the Metrobus (Ecovia) were constructed, traversing the city from the north to the south. Many avenues and roads were extended and enlarged, depressed passages were constructed, and roads were restructured geometrically to increase the flow of traffic Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery. Geography Quito is located in the northern highlands of Ecuador in the Guayllabamba river basin. The city has been built on a long plateau lying on the east flanks of the Pichincha volcano. The valley of Guayllabamba River where Quito lies is flanked by volcanoes, some of them snow-capped, that can be visible from the city on a clear day. Some of the volcanoes on the Central Cordillera Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B battery (Royal Cordillera), east of Quito, surrounding the Guayllabamba valley are Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, Antisana, and Cayambe. Some of the volcanoes of the Western Cordillera, to the west of the Guayllabamba valley, are Illiniza, Atacazo, Pichincha, and Pululahua (which has the Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve). Interestingly, Quito is the closest capital city of a Country to the Equator Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L battery. The double peak of the Illinizas (5248 m and 5126 m) Quito's closest volcano is Pichincha, looming over the western side of the city. Quito is also the only capital in the world to be directly menaced by an active volcano.[8] Pichincha volcano has several summits, among them Rucu Pichincha at 4,700 metres above sea level and Guagua Pichincha at 4,794 metres. Guagua Pichincha is active and being monitored by volcanologists at the geophysical institute of the national polytechnic university Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P battery. The largest eruption occurred in 1660 when more than 25 centimetres (10 in) of ash covered the city.[9] There were three minor eruptions in the 19th century. The latest eruption was recorded on August 23, 2006, when a few puffs of smoke and a large amount of ash were deposited on the city Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W battery. Activity in other nearby volcanoes also can affect the city. In November 2002, after an eruption in the volcano Reventador, the city was showered with a layer of fine ash particles to a depth of several centimeters.[10] Under the Köppen climate classification, Quito has a subtropical highland climate. Because of its elevation and its proximity to the equator, Quito has a fairly constant cool climate Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R battery, with spring-like weather year-round. The average temperature at noon is 18.7 °C (65.7 °F) with a normal night-time low of 9.3 °C (48.7 °F).[11] The annual average temperature is 14.0 °C (57.2 °F).[12] The city experiences only two seasons: dry and wet. The dry season, June through September (4 months), is referred to as summer; the wet season, October through May (8 months), is referred to as winter. Annual precipitation, depending on location, is approximately 1,010 mm (40 in) Sony VAIO VGN-CR131E/L batteryTopographical zones Quito is divided into three areas, separated by hills: Central: houses the colonial old city. Southern: is mainly industrial and residential, and a working-class housing area. Northern: is the modern Quito, with high-rise buildings, shopping centers, the financial district, and upper-class residential areas and some working-class housing areas. It is the location of Mariscal Sucre International Airport. Quito is the second largest city in terms of contribution to national GDP after Guayaquil, and the second highest per capita income after Cuenca. Quito is the highest level of tax collection in Ecuador for tax Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/B battery, exceeding the national 57% per year 2009, currently being the most important economic region of the country, 63 as the latest "study" conducted by the Central Bank of Ecuador. In 2006, the contribution was 18.6% of GDP, generating 4.106 billion dollars, but its value adjudication allows this even bigger GDP reaching gain in real terms 27% 64 of Pib country thanks to contributions from oil production and predial.65 Updated Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G battery: by 2009 the GDP of Quito was approximately $ 10.65 billion by way of production (19% contribution), 4112 millions of dollars in award (8% of award) and 14.762 billion dollars for total GDP (27% from 8% contract, 19% produced)[citation needed] TAME, an airline of Ecuador, has its headquarters in Quito.[16] Quito is governed by a mayor and a 15-member city council. The mayor is elected to a four-year term and can be re-elected. The position also doubles as Mayor of the Metropolitan District of Quito (the canton). The current mayor is Augusto Barrera Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B batteryDowntown Quito In Ecuador, cantons are subdivided into parishes. These subdivisions are called parishes because they were originally used by the Catholic Church, but, along with the secularization and liberalization of the Ecuadorian state, the political parishes were spun off the ones used by the church. Parishes are called urban if they are within the boundaries of the seat (capital) of their corresponding canton, and rural if they are outside of those boundaries Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L battery. Inside Quito (the city proper), the way in which the city is subdivided into urban parishes depends on the organizations which use those parishes (e.g., the municipality, the electoral tribunals, the postal service, the Ecuadorian statistics institute). The urban parishes of different types are not necessarily coterminous nor the same in number or name Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P battery. Historic Center of Quito As of 2008, the municipality of Quito divided the city into 32 urban parishes. These parishes, which are used by the municipality for administrative purposes, are also known as cabildos[17] since 2001. Since the times of the Metropolitan District of Quito, parishes of this type are also grouped into larger divisions known as municipal zones (zonas municipales). These parishes are as follows Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R battery: Electoral urban parishes (CNE/TEP) Rep. del Salvador Avenue Skyline Quito Electoral urban parishes are used by the Consejo Nacional Electoral (CNE) (until the 2008 Ecuadorian constitution known as Tribunal Supremo Electoral (TSE)) and by the Tribunal Electoral de Pichincha (TEP) in order to distribute vote ballots and count electoral votes. Unlike rural parishes, urban parishes do not have and do not elect a junta parroquial (parochial committee/junta) Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W battery. Within each of these parishes, there are one or more schools in which elections take place, typically on Sundays. As of the 2009 Ecuadorian referendum, there were 19 urban parishes of this type, as follows: Ecclesiastical parishes The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quito divides the city into 167 parishes, which are grouped into 17 zones. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L batteryThe MetrobusQ network, also known as "Red Integrada de Transporte Público", is the bus rapid transit system running in Quito, and it goes through the city from south to north. It's divided into three sections—the green line (the central trolleybus, known as El Trole), the red line (the north-east Ecovía), and the blue line (the north-west Corridor Central). In addition to the bus rapid transit system, there are many buses running in the city Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P battery. The buses have both a name and a number, and they have a fixed route. Taxi cabs are all yellow, and they have meters that show the fare. There are nearly 8,800 registered taxicabs. Bici Q station in northern Quito. Bici Q is the Bicycle sharing system started by the municipal government of the city In August 2012 the Municipality of Quito government established a municipal bicycle sharing system called Bici Q Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R battery. Road transport Although public transportation is the primary form of travel in the city, including fleets of taxis that constantly cruise the roadways, the use of private vehicles has increased substantially during the past decade.[25] Because of growing road congestion in many areas, there were plans to construct a light rail system, which were conceived to replace the northern portion of the Trole. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L battery This plans have been ruled out and replaced by the construction of the first metro line (subway) in 2012. It is expected to be operational by 2016 joining to the existing public transportation network. Roads, avenues and streets Accordion player in a street in the historic centre of Quito Because Quito is about 40 km (25 mi) long and 5 km (3.1 mi) at its widest, most of the important avenues of the city extend from north to south. The two main motorways that go from the northern part of the city to the southern are Avenue Oriental Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P battery (Corridor Periférico Oriental) on the eastern hills that border the city, and Avenue Occidental on the western side of the city on the Pichincha volcano. The street 10 de Agosto also runs north to south through most of the city, running down the middle of it. The historic centre of the city is based on a grid pattern, despite the hills, with the streets Venezuela, Chile, García Moreno, and Guayaquil being the most important Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B battery. There is a railroad that goes through the southern part of Quito and passes through the Estación de Chimbacalle. It is managed by the Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos (EFE). This form of transport is nowadays used mostly for tourism. Mariscal Sucre International Airport Mariscal Sucre International Airport (IATA airport code: UIO) serves as the city's principal airport for passenger travel and freight. The airport is located 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) north of the city's centre Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L battery, within driving distance to the main business center. Because of tall buildings and fog at night, landing from the south is not as easy as at many other airports. The construction of a new airport in the rural parish of Tababela, in the adjacent valley outside the city limits, began in 2006 and will be finished by 2012. The Mariscal Sucre International Airport will then become a big park Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P battery. Quito has one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas.[5] This center was, together with the historic centre of Kraków in Poland, the first to be declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 18 September 1978. The Historic Centre of Quito is located in the center south of the capital on an area of 320 hectares (790 acres) Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W battery, and is considered one of the most important historic areas in Latin America.There are about 130 monumental buildings (which hosts a variety of pictorial art and sculpture, mostly of religious inspired in a multi-faceted range of schools and styles) and 5,000 properties registered in the municipal inventory of heritage properties. Unfortunately, for several years, some of this has been somewhat neglected Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L battery, which contributed to the deterioration of many of the buildings and surrounding streets. This not only diminished beauty but also contributed to safety concerns. The Corporation of Development of the Historic Center's program is helping to restore the area. Carondelet Palace Main article: Carondelet Palace Carondelet Palace (Spanish: Palacio de Carondelet) is the seat of government of the Republic of Ecuador, located in the historical center of Quito. Axis is the nerve of the public space known as Independence Square or Plaza Grande (colonial name) Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P battery, around which were built in addition the Archbishop's Palace, the Municipal Palace, the Hotel Plaza Grande and the Metropolitan Cathedral. Carondelet Palace, office and house of the Presidents of Ecuador During the Republican era, almost all the presidents (constitutional, internees and dictators) have dispatched from this building, which is the seat of Government of the Republic of Ecuador. In addition to the administrative units in the third level of the Palace is the presidential residence Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W battery, a luxurious colonial-style apartment in which they live the President and his family. Rafael Correa, president since 2007, considering that Carondelet Palace and its agencies are Ecuadoran heritages, convert the presidential compound into a museum accessible to all who wish to visit it. To this end, areas were organized to locate objects within their cultural contexts, to make them accessible to the world, which used several rooms and spaces within the palace Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N battery. Basilica del Voto Nacional Basílica del Voto Nacional Main article: Basilica del Voto Nacional This monumental basilica is the most important neo-Gothic architecture in Ecuador and one of the most representative of the American continent. It was once the largest in the New World. The Metropolitan Cathedral Metropolitan Cathedral of Quito The Metropolitan Cathedral (Primate of Ecuador), due to its location in the heart of the historic city and its status as the main church of the city Sony PCG-5G2L battery, is one of the largest religious symbols of spiritual value for the Catholic community in the city. This church began its construction in 1562, seventeen years after the diocese of Quito was created (1545). The church building was completed in 1806, during the administration of President of the Real Audiencia Baron Héctor de Carondelet. Sony PCG-5G3L batteryOne of the events that took place in this cathedral was the murder of the Bishop of Quito, José Ignacio Checa y Barba, who during the mass of Good Friday on 30 March 1877 was poisoned with strychnine dissolved in the consecrate wine. The cathedral is also the burial place of the remains of the Grand Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and also of several presidents of the Republic Sony PCG-5J1L battery, as well as of bishops and priests who died in the diocese. The cathedral is located on the south side of the Plaza de La Independencia. Church of La Compañía de Jesús Main article: Church of the Society of Jesus Church of Quito The Church of La Compañía began construction in 1605; it took 160 years to be built. By 1765 the work was completed with the construction of the facade. This was done by Native Americans who carefully shaped the Baroque style in one of the most complete examples of this art in the Americas Sony PCG-5J2L battery. Church of San Francisco Main article: Church and Convent of St. Francis Church of San Francisco San Francisco is the largest of the existing architectural ensembles in the historic centers of cities in Latin America. The construction of the church began in 1550, on land adjacent to the plaza where the Native Americans engaged in the barter of products. Church of El Sagrario View of the Church of Santo Domingo In colonial times, the Church of El Sagrario was one of the largest architectural marvels of Quito. The construction is of the Italian Renaissance style and was built in the late 17th century Sony PCG-5K1L battery. It has a screen that supports its sculptures and decorations. This structure was built by Bernardo de Legarda. Its central arch leads to a dome decorated with frescoes of biblical scenes featuring archangels, work by Francisco Albán. The altarpiece was gilded by Legarda. It is located on Calle García Moreno, near the Cathedral. Sony PCG-5K2L batteryChurch of Santo Domingo This section does not cite any references or sources. (August 2011) Although they arrived in Quito in 1541, in 1580 the Dominicans started to build their temple, using the plans and direction of Francisco Becerra. The work was completed in the first half of the 17th century. Inside the church are valuable structures, such as the neo-Gothic main altar. This was placed in the late 19th century by Italian Dominicans Sony PCG-5L1L battery. The roof of the Mudéjar style church features paintings of martyrs of the Order of Saint Dominic. The roof of the nave is composed of a pair and knuckle frame, coated inside by pieces of tracery. In the museum located on the north side of the lower cloister are wonderful pieces of great Quito sculptors such as the Saint Dominic de Guzmán by Father Carlos Sony PCG-6S2L battery, the Saint John of God by Caspicara, and the Saint Thomas Aquinas by Legarda. Another Baroque piece that stands is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Rosario, which is a recognizable feature of the architecture of Quito. This chapel was built beside the church, in the gospel side. In this was founded the largest fraternity in the city of Quito Sony PCG-6S3L battery. El Panecillo is a hill located in the middle west of the city at an altitude of about 3,016 metres (9,895 ft) above sea level. A monument to the Virgin Mary is located on top of El Panecillo and is visible from most of the city of Quito. In 1976, the Spanish artist Agustín de la Herrán Matorras was commissioned by the religious order of the Oblates to build a 41 metres (135 ft)–tall aluminum monument of a madonna Sony PCG-6V1L battery, which was assembled on a high pedestal on the top of Panecillo. La Mariscal Sucre in Quito has earned the nickname "Gringolandia" because of its popularity with western tourists. While lacking in major tourist attractions, it is home to a number of clubs, bars and restaurants that cater to visitors. There are also many travel agents that specialize in western travel Sony PCG-6W1L battery. Metropolitano Parque Metropolitano Guanguiltagua[27] is the largest urban park in South America at 1,376 acres (5.57 km2) (as reference, New York's Central Park is 843 acres (341 ha). The park is located in northern Quito, on the hill of Bellavista behind Estadio Olímpico Atahualpa. The park is suited for mountain biking, walking, and running. Most of it is eucalyptus forest with trails, but there also are numerous sculptures on display Sony PCG-6W2L battery. The park has four sites that can be used for picnics or barbecues, and the eastern section has a view of Cotopaxi, Antisana, and the Guayllabamba river basin. La Carolina park next to Amazonas Avenue La Carolina[28] is a 165.5-acre (670,000 m²) park in the centre of the Quito main business area, bordered by the avenues Río Amazonas, de los Shyris, Naciones Unidas, Eloy Alfaro, and de la República. This park started from the expropriation of the farm La Carolina in 1939 Sony PCG-6W3L battery. The design of the park was made by the Dirección Metropolitana de Planificación Territorial (DMPT). Pope John Paul II headed a great mass in the park during his visit to Ecuador in 1985. A giant cross has been built in this place. Main article: Parque El Ejido El Ejido is the third-largest park of Quito (after Metropolitan and La Carolina), and it divides the old part of the city from the modern one. This park is known for handicrafts available for sale every Saturday and Sunday, with all pricing subject to negotiation (that is, haggling) Sony PCG-7111L battery. Local painters sell copies of paintings by Oswaldo Guayasamín,[30] Eduardo Kingman, and Gonzalo Endara Crow. Otavaleños sell traditional sweaters, ponchos, carpets, and jewelry. La Alameda The long triangular La Alameda is located at the beginning of street Guayaquil, where the historic centre begins. It has an impressive monument of Simón Bolívar at the apex. There are several other interesting monuments in this park. In the centre of the park is the Quito Observatory Sony PCG-7112L battery, which was opened by President García Moreno in 1873 and is the oldest observatory in Latin America.[citation needed] It is used for both meteorology and astronomy. At the north end of the park are two ornamental lakes, where rowboats can be rented. The Aerial tramway Station at Cruz Loma (part of the Pichincha mountain complex at about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft)) Sony PCG-7113L battery. Since July 2005, Quito has had an aerial tramway, known as the "Telefériqo", from the city centre to the hill known as Cruz Loma on the east side of the Pichincha volcano. The ride takes visitors to an altitude of about 4,100 metres (13,500 ft). There are also trails for hiking and areas where pictures can be taken of Quito. Because of the increased altitude and the wind on the mountain, it is considerably cooler Sony PCG-7133L battery. Besides the aerial tramway to Cruz Loma, the Telefériqo as a whole is a visitor centre that includes an amusement park (Vulqano Park), fine-dining restaurants, Go Karts, Paint Ball, shopping malls, an extensive food court, and other attractions. The monument at La Mitad del Mundo La Mitad del Mundo[31] (the middle of the world) is a small village administered by the prefecture of the province of Pichincha Sony PCG-7Z1L battery, 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of Quito. It has since been determined, with the use of Global Positioning System technology, that the actual equator is some 240 metres (790 ft) north of the monument area. Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve, located a few miles northwest from La Mitad del Mundo, contains the Pululahua volcano, whose caldera (crater) is visible from a spot easily accessible by car. It is believed to be one of only a few in the world with human inhabitants Sony PCG-7Z2L battery. Quito Zoo,[32] located near the rural parish of Guayllabamba, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) outside Quito, has the biggest collection of native fauna in Ecuador, including several kinds of animals that are sometimes targeted in Ecuador in the illegal fur trade. The Zoo works in conservation and education in Ecuador and has successfully bred the endangered Andean condor Sony PCG-8Y1L battery. Some of the other nearby natural attractions are: Museums Museo de Arte Contemporaneo - Located north of Basilica del Voto Nacional, this museum has permanent and temporary exhibitions. The historic building used to be a big military hospital and was renewed for its new purpose. Casa del Alabado Located just south of Plaza San Francisco, this is the Old Town's newest museum and houses a collection of pre-colonial art. The building is one of the oldest houses in the city Sony PCG-8Y2L battery. Museo de la Ciudad - A museum dedicated to the history of Quito. Located just east of the Plaza de Santo Domingo.[34] Ecuador National Museum of Medicine - A museum dedicated to the history of Medicine[35] in Quito, founded by Dr.Eduardo Estrella Aguirre. Dr. Estrella was in the Archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Madrid Spain in 1985 and uncovered the lost papers and paintings documenting one of the first expeditions to South America. In Madrid Spain Sony PCG-8Z1L battery, Dr. Estrella worked for many years and documented his observations in the archive and was able to publish the hard work and giving the credit to the expedition of Juan Tafalla, a book called Flora Huayaquilensis. Museo Casa de Sucre - This museum is dedicated to life of Mariscal Antonio José de Sucre, a hero of Ecuadorian independence. The ground floor has an array of weapons and military relics, many of which belonged to Sucre himself. The second floor has been restored to what it might have looked like in Sucre's time. Sony PCG-8Z2L batteryMuseo Nacional del Banco Central del Ecuador - This art museum houses 5 displays. Each one covers a different time period, ranging from prehistory to modern Ecuador.[37] Estadio Casa Blanca, the largest stadium in Quito and home of LDU Quito Quito is home to six prominent football clubs in the country. The city's top three clubs (El Nacional, Deportivo Quito and LDU Quito) have won a total of 28 national championships Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery, over half of all championships played. Deportivo Quito and Aucas were the first home teams to play in the national league (since 1957, 3 years before LDU and 7 years before El Nacional), Deportivo Quito was also the first out of the three home teams to win the title. El Nacional have won the most "Series A" titles with a total of 13 ( a tie with Barcelona Sporting Club of Guayaquil). LDU Quito is the only Ecuadorian club to have won 4 continental titles Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery.
Brasília is the federal capital of Brazil and the seat of government of the Federal District. The name is commonly spelled Brasilia in English. The city is located in the Federal District, and is in the Central-West region of the country, along a plateau known as Planalto Central( Dell N3010 battery). It has a population of about 2,562,963 (3,716,996 in the metropolitan area) as of the 2008 IBGE estimate, making it the fourth largest city in Brazil. However, as a metropolitan area, it ranks lower at sixth. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Brasilia is the largest city in the world that did not exist at the beginning of the 20th century( Dell Inspiron N4010 battery). Brasília has the 5th GDP among Latin American cities, and the 3rd in Brazil. Its GDP per capita is by far the highest among the larger Latin American cities, at a high - for Latin American standards - average of around USD$25,500.00 (almost three times the Brazilian national average). As the national capital, Brasília is the seat of all three branches of the Brazilian government. The city also hosts the headquarters of many Brazilian companies( Dell Inspiron 1420 battery). Planning policies such as the location of residential buildings around expansive urban areas, as well as building the city around large avenues and dividing it into sectors, have sparked a debate and reflection on life in big cities in the 20th century. The city's design divides it into numbered blocks as well as sectors for specified activities, such as the Hotel Sector, the Banking Sector or the Embassy Sector. Brasília hosts 124 foreign embassies( Dell Inspiron 1464 battery). The city was planned and developed in 1956 with Lúcio Costa as the principal urban planner and Oscar Niemeyer as the principal architect. On April 22 of 1960, it formally became Brazil's national capital. Viewed from above, the main portion of the city resembles an airplane or a butterfly. The city is commonly referred to as Capital Federal, or simply BSB. ( Dell Inspiron 1564 battery) Residents of Brasília are known as brasilienses or candangos (the latter referring to those not born in the city, but migrated there when the city was established). In local usage, the word "Brasília" usually refers only to the First Administrative Region within the Distrito Federal (Federal District), where the most important government buildings are located. Brasília has a unique status in Brazil( Dell Inspiron 1764 battery), as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like nearly all cities in Brazil. Nationally, the term is almost always used synonymously with the Federal District, which constitutes an indivisible Federative Unit, analogous to a state. There are several "satellite cities," which are also part of the Federal District( Dell Inspiron 1520 battery). Brasília International Airport is the main airport in Brasília, connecting the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many international destinations. It is the third most important airport in Brazil, in terms of passengers and aircraft movements. History Main articles: History of Brasília and History of Brazil Brasília under construction in 1959. Juscelino Kubitschek, President of Brazil from 1956 to 1961, ordered the construction of Brasília, fulfilling an article of the country's first republican constitution dating back to 1891 stating( Dell Inspiron 1521 battery) that the capital should be moved from Rio de Janeiro to a place close to the center of the country. The plan was originally conceived in 1827 by José Bonifácio, an advisor to Emperor Pedro I. He presented a plan to the General Assembly of Brazil for a new city called Brasilia, with the idea of moving the capital westward from the heavily populated southeastern corridor. The bill was not enacted because Pedro I dissolved the Assembly( Dell inspiron 1525 battery). Lúcio Costa won a contest and was the main urban planner in 1957, with 5550 people competing. Oscar Niemeyer, a close friend, was the chief architect of most public buildings and Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer. Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to April 21, 1960, when it was officially inaugurated. From 1763 to 1960( Dell inspiron 1526 battery), Rio de Janeiro was the capital of Brazil. At this time, resources tended to be centered in Brazil's southeast region near Rio de Janeiro. Brasília's geographically central location fostered a more regionally neutral federal capital. The idea of locating the capital in the center of Brazil was first suggested in 1891, but not defined until 1922( Dell Inspiron 1720 battery). Until the 1980s, the governor of the Distrito Federal was appointed by the Federal Government, and the laws of Brasília were issued by the Brazilian Federal Senate. With the Constitution of 1988 Brasília gained the right to elect its Governor, and a District Assembly (Câmara Legislativa) was elected to exercise legislative power( Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery). According to legend, Italian saint Don Bosco in 1883 had a dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location.[6] In Brasília today, there are many references to Bosco who founded the Salesian order, and one church in the city bears his name( Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery). Aerial view of Brasilia See also: Climate of Brazil The national capital's climate is Tropical savanna climate (Aw) according to many of Köppen's classifications. Brasilia's climate closely borders a subtropical highland climate (Cwa/Cwb), showing many of the "eternal spring" features of that climate. The individual seasons are defined according to the degree of humidity of the air: one season is dry( Dell Inspiron 5000 battery), while the other one is comparatively humid. The average temperature is 20.5 °C (68.9 °F).[7] September, at the end of the dry season, has the highest average maximum temperature, 28 °C (82 °F), and July has the lowest average maximum temperature, 26 °C (79 °F). The lowest average minimum temperature is in June and July 11 °C (52 °F). Average temperatures from September through April are a consistent 22 °C (72 °F). Those, however, are monthly averages( Dell INSPIRON 500M battery); temperatures sometimes fall outside of this range. The absolute minimum temperature recorded was 0 °C (32 °F), and the absolute maximum was 37 °C (99 °F). The dry season lasts from late March or early April to late September or early October, though there is commonly some rain also in late May. Humidity averages about 50% during the dry season, but often falls below 30% around noon( Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery). Demographics See also: Demographics of Brazil Cultural Complex of Brasília. According to the 2010 IBGE Census, there were 2,469,489 people residing in the city of Brasília.[11] The census revealed the following numbers: 1,239,882 Brown (Multiracial) people (48.2%), 1,084,418 White people (42.2%), 198,072 Black people (7.7%), 41,522 Asian people (1.6%), 6,128 Amerindian people (0.2%).( Dell INSPIRON 510M battery) In 2010, the city of Brasília was the 4th most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Salvador.[13] In 2010, the city had 474,871 opposite-sex couples and 1,241 same-sex couples (see more at LGBT rights in Brazil). The population of Brasília was 52.2% female and 47.8% male. ( Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery) In the 1960 census there were almost 140,000 residents in the new Federal District. By 1970 this figure had grown to more than 537,000. In 2000 the population of the Federal District was over 2,000,000. Planned for only 500,000 inhabitants, Brasília has seen its population grow much more than expected. Several satellite cities have been created over the years to house the extra inhabitants( Dell INSPIRON 600M battery). From the beginning, the growth of Brasília was greater than original estimates. According to the original plans, Brasília would be a city for government authorities and staff. However, during the construction period, Brazilians from all over the country migrated to Brasília, seeking public and private jobs. ( Dell Inspiron 6400 battery) This makes it the largest city (by population) in the world at the close of the 20th century that did not exist at the beginning of the century (a distinction held by Chicago in the 19th century). Brasília has one of the highest growth rates in Brazil, with its population increasing by 2.82% each year, mostly because of internal migration( Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery). Brasília's inhabitants include a foreign population of mostly embassy workers as well as large numbers of Brazilian migrants. Today, the city has important communities of immigrants and refugees. The Human Development Index in the city is at 0.936 in the year 2000, (developed nation level), and the illiteracy rate is around 4.35%( Dell INSPIRON 700M battery). Cityscape Brazilian National Flag. At the northwestern end of the Monumental Axis are federal district and municipal buildings, while at the southeastern end, near the middle shore of Lake Paranoá, stand the executive, judicial, and legislative buildings around the Square of Three Powers, the conceptual heart of the city( Dell Inspiron 710m battery). These and other major structures were designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer. In the Square of Three Powers, he created as a focal point the dramatic Congressional Palace, which is composed of five parts: twin administrative towers flanked by a large, white concrete dome (the meeting place of the Senate) and by an equally massive concrete bowl (the Chamber of Deputies), which is joined to the dome by an underlying, flat-roofed building( Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). A series of low-lying annexes (largely hidden) flank both ends. Also in the square are the glass-faced Planalto Palace housing the presidential offices, and the Palace of the Supreme Court. Farther east, on a triangle of land jutting into the lake, is the Palace of the Dawn (Palácio da Alvorada; the presidential residence) ( Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery). Between the federal and civic buildings on the Monumental Axis is the city's cathedral, considered by many to be Niemeyer's finest achievement (see photographs of the and interior). The parabolically shaped structure is characterized by its 16 gracefully curving supports, which join in a circle 115 feet (35 meters) above the floor of the nave; stretched between the supports are translucent walls of tinted glass( Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery). The nave is entered via a subterranean passage rather than conventional doorways. Other notable buildings are Buriti Palace, Itamaraty Palace, the National Theater, and several foreign embassies that creatively embody features of their national architecture. The Brazilian landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx designed landmark modernist gardens for some of the principal buildings( Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery). Both low-cost and luxury housing were built by the government in the central city. The residential zones of the inner city are arranged into superquadras ("superblocks"): groups of apartment buildings along with a prescribed number and type of schools, retail stores, and open spaces. At the northern end of Lake Paranoá, separated from the inner city, is a peninsula with many fashionable homes( Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery), and a similar neighbourhood exists on the southern lakeshore. Originally the city planners envisioned extensive public areas along the shores of the artificial lake, but during early development private clubs, hotels, and upscale residences and restaurants gained footholds around the water. Set well apart from the city are suburban satellite cities, including Gama, Ceilândia, Taguatinga, Núcleo Bandeirante, Sobradinho, and Planaltina( Dell Inspiron 9400 battery). These towns, with the exception of Gama and Sobradinho were not planned. Monumental civic scale The city has been acclaimed for its use of modernist architecture on a grand scale and for its somewhat utopian city plan. It has been criticized for the same reasons. After a visit to Brasília, the French writer Simone de Beauvoir complained that all of its superquadras exuded "the same air of elegant monotony," and other observers have equated the city's large open lawns, plazas and fields to wastelands( Dell Inspiron E1505 battery). As the city has matured, some of these have gained adornments, and many have been improved by landscaping, giving some observers a sense of "humanized" spaciousness. Although not fully accomplished, the "Brazilian utopia" has produced a city of relatively high quality of life, in which the citizens live in forested areas with sporting and leisure structure (the superquadras) flanked by small commercial areas, bookstores and cafes( Dell Inspiron E1705 battery); the city is famous for its cuisine and efficiency of transit. Even these positive features have sparked controversy, expressed in the nickname "ilha da fantasia" ("fantasy island"), indicating the sharp contrast between the city and surrounding regions, marked by poverty and disorganization in the cities of the state of Goiás, around Brasília. Critics of Brasília's grand scale have characterized it as a modernist platonic fantasy about the future( Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery): Nothing dates faster than people's fantasies about the future. This is what you get when perfectly decent, intelligent, and talented men start thinking in terms of space rather than place; and single rather than multiple meanings. It's what you get when you design for political aspirations rather than real human needs. You get miles of jerry-built platonic nowhere infested with Volkswagens( Dell Latitude D400 battery). This, one may fervently hope, is the last experiment of its kind. The utopian buck stops here. — Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New, Episode 4: Trouble in Utopia, (1980) World Heritage Site The Brazilian capital is the only city in the world built in the 20th century to be awarded (in 1987) the status of Historical and Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO, an agency of the UN. It also holds the distinction of waiting the shortest amount of time to be designated a World Heritage Site of any UNESCO entry, which occurred just 27 years after its completion in 1960( Dell STUDIO 1450 battery). Economy See also: Economy of Brazil Shopping streets of Brasilia. The major roles of construction and of services (government, communications, banking and finance, food production, entertainment, and legal services) in Brasília's economy reflect the city's status as a governmental rather than an industrial centre. Industries connected with construction, food processing, and furnishings are important( Dell Vostro 1400 battery), as are those associated with publishing, printing, and computer software. GDP is divided in Public Administration 54.8%, Services 28.7%, Industry 10.2%, Commerce 6.1%, Agribusiness 0.2%.[17] Besides being the political center, Brasília is an important economic center. The city is the 3rd richest of Brazil, showing a gross domestic product (GDP) from 99.5 billion reais( Dell Vostro 1500 battery), representing 3.76% of the total Brazilian GDP. The main economic activity of the federal capital results from its administrative function. Its industrial planning is studied carefully by the Government of the Federal District. Being a town registered by UNESCO, the government in Brasilia has opted to encourage the development of non-polluting industries such as software, film, video( Dell XPS M1210 battery), and gemology among others, with emphasis on environmental preservation and maintaining ecological balance, preserving the city property. According to Mercer's city rankings of cost of living for expatriate employees, Brasília ranks 45th among the most expensive cities in the world in 2012, up from the 70th position in 2010, ranking behind São Paulo (12th) and Rio de Janeiro (13th) ( Dell XPS M1330 battery). Central Bank of Brazil. (91% of local GDP, according to the IBGE): Government – the public sector is by far the largest employer, accounting for around 40% of the city jobs. Government jobs include all levels, from the federal police to diplomacy, from the transportation bureau to the armed forces; Communications – the telephony used to be a state monopoly, and Brasilia held the HQ of Telebrás, the central state company; one of the enterprises that resulted from the privatization of the system in the 90's, Brasil Telecom, keeps it HQ in the city( Dell XPS 1340 battery); the official Postal Service (Correios) HQ is located in the city as well; as it is the main place of Federal Government news, it is also notable the activities of TV stations, including the main offices of four public networks (TV Brasil/Agência Brasil, TV Câmara, TV Senado and TV Justiça), the regional offices of four major private television networks (Globo, SBT, Rede Bandeirantes and Rede Record) and a main affiliate of RedeTV! ( Dell XPS M1530 battery); Banking and finance – headquarters of the Banco do Brasil and the Caixa Econômica Federal, both controlled by the Federal Government, and the Banco de Brasília, controlled by the city local government; it is also the site of the headquarters of the Central Bank, the main government regulatory agency of the financial sector( Dell XPS M170 battery); Entertainment – the shopping malls Conjunto Nacional, ParkShopping, Pátio Brasil Shopping, Brasília Shopping, Boulevard Shopping, Taguatinga Shopping and Iguatemi Brasília. Information technology (Politec, Poliedro, CTIS, among others), and legal services. The main agricultural products produced in the city are coffee, guavas, strawberries, orange, lemons, papayas, soy beans and mangoes. It has over 110,000 cows and it exports wood products worldwide( Dell XPS M1710 battery). The Federal District, where Brasília is located, has a GDP of R$ 220,630,109 (about US$ 110,844 billion), according to IBGE. Its share of the total Brazilian GDP is about 3.8%.[18] The Federal District has the largest GDP per capita income of Brazil US$ 40.996,00. Brasília's per capita income is believed to be much higher( Dell XPS M1730 battery). Accommodation The city's planned design included specific areas for almost everything, including accommodation, Hotels Sectors North and South. New hotel facilities are being developed elsewhere, such as the hotels and tourism Sector North, located on the shores of Lake Paranoá. Brasília has a range of tourist accommodation from inns, pensions and hostels to larger international chain hotels( Dell XPS M2010 battery). Brasília receives visitors from all of Brazil and the world, and offers a range of restaurants serving a variety of Brazilian regional and international food. Culture See also: Culture of Brazil Independence Day parade along the Ministries Esplanade. As a venue for political events, music performances and movie festivals, Brasília is a cosmopolitan city, with around 119 embassies, a wide range of restaurants and complete infrastructure ready to host any kind of event( Dell Latitude E5400 battery). Not surprisingly, the city stands out as an important business tourism destination, which is an important part of the local economy, with dozens of hotels spread around the national capital. Traditional parties take place throughout the year. In June, there are large festivals celebrating Catholic saints, such as Saint Anthony, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter, that are called "festas juninas," or June festival( Dell Latitude E5500 battery). On September 7, the traditional Independence Day parade is held on the Ministries Esplanade. Throughout the year there are local, national and international events spread through the city. Christmas is widely celebrated, and New Years Eve usually hosts major events. The city also hosts a varied assortment of art works from artists like Bruno Giorgi, Alfredo Ceschiatti, Athos Bulcão( Dell Latitude E6400 battery), Marianne Peretti, Alfredo Volpi, Di Cavalcanti, Dyllan Taxman, Victor Brecheret and Burle Marx, whose works have been integrated into the city's architecture, making it a unique landscape. The cuisine in the city is very diverse. Many of the best restaurants in the city can be found in the Asa Sul district( Dell Latitude E6500 battery). Ministries Esplanade on the Eixo Monumental. Historic sites and museums Eixo Monumental At the end of the Eixo Monumental lies the Esplanada dos Ministérios ("Ministries Esplanade"), an open area in downtown Brasília. The rectangular lawn is surrounded by two eight-lane avenues where many government buildings, monuments and memorials are located( Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery). National Congress The National Congress Building. The Palácio da Alvorada. Brazil's bicameral National Congress consists of the Senate (the upper house) and the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil (the lower house). Since the 1960s, the National Congress has its seat in Brasília. As with most of the official buildings in the city, it was designed by Oscar Niemeyer in the style of modern Brazilian architecture. The hemisphere to the left is the seat of the Senate and the hemisphere to the right is the seat of the Chamber of Deputies( Dell XPS M140 battery). Between them there are two towers of offices. The Congress also occupies other surrounding buildings, some connected by tunnels. The building is located in the middle of the Eixo Monumental, the main avenue of the capital. In front of it there is a large lawn and a reflecting pool. The building faces the Praça dos Três Poderes, where the Palácio do Planalto and the Supremo Tribunal Federal are located( Dell XPS 13 battery). Palácio da Alvorada The Palácio da Alvorada is the official residence of the President of Brazil. The palace was designed, along with the rest of the city of Brasília, by Oscar Niemeyer and inaugurated in 1958. One of the first structures built in the republic's new capital city, the "Alvorada" lies on a peninsula at the margins of Lake Paranoá( Dell XPS 16 battery). The principles of simplicity and modernity, that in the past characterized the great works of architecture, motivated Niemeyer. The viewer has an impression of looking at a glass box, softly landed on the ground with the support of thin external columns. The building has an area of 7,000 m2 and three floors: basement, landing and second floor. The auditorium, kitchen, laundry, medical center, and the administration are at basement level. The rooms used by the presidency for official receptions are on the landing( Dell XPS 1640 battery). There are four suites, two apartments and other private rooms on the second floor which is the residential part of the palace. The building also has a library, a heated Olympic-sized swimming pool, a music room, two dining rooms and various meeting rooms. A chapel and heliport are in adjacent buildings. Palácio do Planalto The Palácio do Planalto. The Palácio do Planalto is the official workplace of the President of Brazil. It is located at the Praça dos Três Poderes in Brasília. As the seat of government, the term "O Planalto" is often used as a metonym for the executive branch of government( Dell XPS 1645 battery). The main working office of the President of the Republic is in the Palácio do Planalto. The President and his family do not live in it, rather in the official residence, the Palácio da Alvorada. Besides the President, senior advisors also have offices in the "Planalto," including the Vice-President of Brazil and the Chief of Staff. The other Ministries are along the Esplanada dos Ministérios( Dell XPS 1647 battery). The architect of the Palácio do Planalto was Oscar Niemeyer, creator of most of the important buildings in Brasília. The idea was to project an image of simplicity and modernity using fine lines and waves to compose the columns and exterior structures. The Palace is four stories high, and has an area of 36,000 m2. Four other adjacent buildings are also part of the complex( Dell Latitude 131L battery). Complexo Cultural da República The Complexo Cultural da República (Portuguese for Cultural Complex of the Republic) is formed by the National Library of Brasília and the National Museum of the Republic. It is situated in the Eixo Monumental, next to the Cathedral of Brasília. The National Library of Brasília (Biblioteca Nacional de Brasília in Portuguese) occupies an area of 14,000 m2, consisting of reading and study rooms, auditorium and a collection of over 300,000 items( Dell Latitude C400 battery). The National Museum of the Republic (Museu Nacional da República in Portuguese) consists of a 14,500 m2 exhibit area, two 780-seat auditoriums, and a laboratory. The space is mainly used to display temporary art exhibits. Paranoá Lake Paranoá Lake is a large artificial lake built to increase the amount of water available to the region. It has the second largest marina in Brazil, and hosts wakeboarders and windsurfers( Dell Latitude C500 battery). Juscelino Kubitschek bridge The Juscelino Kubitschek Bridge. The Juscelino Kubitschek bridge, also known as the 'President JK Bridge' or the 'JK Bridge', crosses Lake Paranoá in Brasília. It is named after Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, former president of Brazil. It was designed by architect Alexandre Chan and structural engineer Mário Vila Verde. Chan won the Gustav Lindenthal Medal for this project at the 2003 International Bridge Conference in Pittsburgh due to "( Dell Latitude C510 battery)...outstanding achievement demonstrating harmony with the environment, aesthetic merit and successful community participation". It consists of three 60 m (200 ft) tall asymmetrical steel arches that crisscross diagonally. With a length of 1,200 m (0.75 miles), it was completed in 2002 at a cost of US$ 56.8 million. The bridge has a pedestrian walkway and is accessible to bicyclists and skaters( Dell Latitude C540 battery). Praça dos Três Poderes Supremo Tribunal Federal. Praça dos Três Poderes (Portuguese for Square of the Three Powers) is a plaza in Brasília. The name is derived from the encounter of the three federal branches around the plaza: the Executive, represented by the Palácio do Planalto (presidential office); the Legislative, represented by the Congresso Nacional (National Congress); and the Judicial branch, represented by the Supremo Tribunal Federal (Supreme Federal Court) ( Dell Latitude C600 battery). It is a tourist attraction in Brasília, designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer as a place where the three branches would meet harmoniously. [edit]Cathedral of Brasília The Cathedral of Brasília in the capital of the Federative Republic of Brazil, is an expression of the architect Oscar Niemeyer. This concrete-framed hyperboloid structure, seems with its glass roof reaching up, open, to the heavens. On 31 May 1970, the Cathedral’s structure was finished( Dell Latitude C610 battery), and only the 70 m (229.66 ft) diameter of the circular area were visible. Niemeyer's project of Cathedral of Brasília is based in the hyperboloid of revolution which sections are asymmetric. The hyperboloid structure itself is a result of 16 identical assembled concrete columns. These columns, having hyperbolic section and weighing 90 t, represent two hands moving upwards to heaven. The Cathedral was dedicated on 31 May 1970( Dell Latitude C640 battery). Popular culture Don Bosco Sanctuary in Brasília. Brasília has also been the focus of modern day literature. Published in 2008, The World In Grey: Dom Bosco's Prophecy, by author Ryan J. Lucero, tells an apocalyptic story based on the famous prophecy from the late 19th century by the Italian saint Don Bosco. According to Don Bosco's prophecy: Between parallels 15 and 20, around a lake which shall be formed; A great civilization will thrive, and that will be the Promised Land( Dell Latitude C800 battery). Brasília lies between the parallels 15° S and 20° S, where an artificial lake (Paranoá Lake) was formed. Don Bosco is Brasília's patron saint. American Flagg!, the First Comics comic book series created by Howard Chaykin, portrays Brasilia as a cosmopolitan world capital of culture and exotic romance. In the series, it is a top vacation and party destination( Dell Latitude C810 battery). Brasília International Airport (BSB). Brasília International Airport – President Juscelino Kubitschek serves the metropolitan area with major domestic and international flights. It is the third busiest Brazilian airport based on passengers and aircraft movements.[23] Because of its strategic location it is a civil aviation hub for the rest of the country. This makes for a large number of takeoffs and landings and it is not unusual for flights to be delayed in the holding pattern before landing( Dell Latitude C840 battery). Following the airport's master plan, Infraero built a second runway, which was finished in 2006. In 2007, the airport handled 11,119,872 passengers.[23] The main building's third floor, with 12 thousand square meters, has a panoramic deck, a food court, shops, four movie theaters with total capacity of 500 people, and space for exhibitions. There are 136 shop spaces at Brasília Airport( Dell Latitude D410 battery). The airport is located about 11 km (6.8 mi) from the central area of Brasília, outside the metro system. There are many taxis outside the main gate, and some bus lines which connect the airport to the central area of Brasília. The parking lot accommodates 1,200 cars.[24] In addition to domestic and regional services (TAM, GOL, Azul, WebJET, Trip and Avianca) ( Dell Latitude D420 battery). Brasilia is improving its international connections; non-stop flights to Miami, United States with AA started in Nov 2010 and with TAM in Dec 2010. There are already direct flights to Atlanta, United States with Delta; Lima, Peru with LAN and TACA ; and to Lisbon, Portugal with TAP. On March 28, 2011 PLUNA begun direct service to Montevideo, Uruguay, which was then withdrawn following PLUNA's bankruptcy. ( Dell Latitude D430 battery)On June 18 Copa Airlines begun direct service to Panama City, Panama increasing and improving connections to the rest of the American continent through the company's Hub of the Americas at Tocumen International Airport. Main article: Brasília Metro Galeria Metro Station. Metrô de Brasília is Brasília's underground metro system. The subway system has 24 stations on two lines, the Orange and Green lines, distributed along a total network of 42 km (26 mi), covering most of the metropolitan area( Dell Latitude D500 battery). Both lines begin at the Central Station and run parallel until the Águas Claras Station. The Brasília metro is not comprehensive, so buses may provide better access to the city center. The metro leaves the Rodoviária (bus station) and goes south, avoiding most of the political and tourist areas. The main purpose of the metro is to serve the largest satellite cities( Dell Latitude D505 battery), such as Samambaia, Taguatinga and Ceilândia, as well as Guará and Águas Claras. The satellite cities are more populated than the Plano Piloto itself (the census of 2000 indicated that Ceilândia had 344,039 inhabitants, Taguatinga had 243,575, whereas the Plano Piloto had approximately 400,000 inhabitants), and most residents of the satellite cities depend on public transportation. ( Dell Latitude D510 battery) [edit]High speed rail A high speed railway was planned between Brasília and Goiânia, although it will be probably turn into a regional service linking these capital cities and cities in between, like Anápolis and Alexânia.[27] Brasília's new tram to be built on W3 Avenue. BR-060 is the main road which links Goiânia and Brasília. The two cities are 209 km (130 mi) apart( Dell Latitude D520 battery). The main bus hub in Brasília is the Central Bus Station, located in the crossing of the Eixo Monumental and the Eixão, about 2 km (1.2 mi) from the Three Powers Plaza. The original plan was to have a bus station as near as possible to every corner of Brasília. Today, the bus station is the hub of urban buses only, some running within Brasília and others connecting Brasília to the satellite cities. In the original city plan( Dell Latitude D600 battery), the interstate buses should also stop at the Central Station. Because of the growth of Brasília (and corresponding growth in the bus fleet), today the interstate buses leave from the older interstate station (called Rodoferroviária), located at the western end of the Eixo Monumental. The Central Bus Station also contains a main metro station( Dell Latitude D610 battery). A new bus station was opened in July 2010. It is on Saída Sul (South Exit) near Parkshopping Mall and with its metro station, and it's also an inter-state bus station, used only to leave the Federal District. Nearby attractions include: Chapada dos Veadeiros – A National Park with plenty of cerrado wildlife and surrounded by several waterfalls( Dell Latitude D620 battery). Itiquira Falls – this 168 m-high waterfall is just over 100 km from Brasília, in the municipality of Formosa, Goiás Caldas Novas – The largest natural hot springs resort in the world. Located about 360 km (220 mi) southeast of the city in the state of Goiás. Pirenópolis – The city, located 150 km from Brasília, is well known for its waterfalls and Portuguese colonial architecture, and a popular festival involving mounted horses called Festa do Divino Espírito Santo which takes place 45 days after Easter( Dell Latitude D630 battery). Its nightlife is very popular, and a Jazz Festival takes place in May. Goiás Velho – Former capital of the State of Goiás, filled with Portuguese colonial architecture, also known by its popular parties and ceremonies, like the Fogaréu, in which masked men honor Christ's death and resurrection on Easter Sunday. See also: 2014 FIFA World Cup Brasília is home to two major football teams: Brasiliense Futebol Clube from Taguatinga (Commonly called "Jacaré") Sociedade Esportiva do Gama (Commonly called "Verdão") Neither of them have been successful in the First Division of the Brazilian Championship. Brasiliense at the moment plays Second Division, while Gama was relegated to the Third Division for 2009( Dell Latitude D800 battery). The main stadiums are the Estádio Mané Garrincha and the Serejão. Brasília is one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, for which Brazil is the host nation. The rebuilding of Garrincha Stadium is ongoing. The brand-new stadium which is being constructed in its place will be called National Stadium of Brasilia( Dell Latitude D810 battery). Brasília will also host football tournaments during the 2016 Summer Olympics to be held in Rio de Janeiro. Hang gliding Brasília is known as a departing point for the practice of unpowered air sports, sports that may be practiced with hang gliding or paragliding wings. Practitioners of such sports reveal that, because of the city's dry weather, the city offers strong thermal winds and great "cloud-streets"( Dell Latitude D820 battery), which is also the name for a manoeuvre quite appreciated by practitioners. The national capital hosted the 14th Hang Gliding World Championship, one of the categories of free flying, in 2003. And in 2005, from August 21 to 27, it has host the 2nd stage of the Brazilian Hang Gliding Championship( Dell Latitude D830 battery). Motor sport Brasília is the site of the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet which hosted a non-championship round of the 1974 Formula One Grand Prix season. Basketball The city is home to Uniceub BRB, one of Brazil's best basketball clubs. Currently NBB champion (2010,2011 and 2012). The club host some of its games at the 16,000 all-seat Nilson Nelson Gymnasium( Dell Latitude 2100 battery). Notable people in Brasília Kaká, soccer player born in the satellite city of Gama and playing for Real Madrid, having previously played for AC Milan and São Paulo. Legião Urbana (Portuguese for Urban Legion) were a Brazilian rock band formed in 1982 in Brasília, Distrito Federal. The band primarily consisted of Renato Russo (vocals), Dado Villa-Lobos (guitar) and Marcelo Bonfá (drums) ( Dell Latitude 2110 battery). The Ciudad de Asunción is an autonomous capital district not part of any department. The metropolitan area, called Gran Asunción, includes the cities of San Lorenzo, Fernando de la Mora, Lambaré, Luque, Mariano Roque Alonso, Ñemby, San Antonio, Limpio, Capiatá and Villa Elisa, which are part of the Central Department( Dell Latitude E4300 battery). The Asunción metropolitan area has more than 2 million inhabitants. Asunción is located at 25°16′S 57°40′W (-25.2667, -57.6667). The Municipality of Asunción is listed on the Asunción Stock Exchange, as BVPASA: MUA, a unique feature of any city. It is the home of the national government, principal port, and the chief industrial and cultural centre of the country( Dell Vostro 1310 battery). Asunción is one of the oldest cities in South America and the longest continually inhabited area in the Rio de la Plata Basin; for this reason that it is known as "Mother of Cities". It was from here that the colonial expeditions departed to found other cities, including the second foundation of Buenos Aires and of other important cities such as Villarrica, Corrientes, Santa Fe and Santa Cruz de la Sierra( Dell Vostro 1320 battery). The site of the city may have been first visited by Spanish conqueror Juan de Ayolas, on his way north, up the Paraguay River, looking for a passage to the mines of Alto Perú (present-day Bolivia). Later, Juan de Salazar y Espinosa and Gonzalo de Mendoza, relative of Pedro de Mendoza, were sent in search of Ayolas, but were unable to find him. On his way up and then down the river( Dell Vostro 1510 battery), de Salazar stopped briefly at a bay in the left bank to resupply his ships. He found the natives friendly, and decided to found a fort there, in August, 1537. He named it Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción. In 1541, natives destroyed Buenos Aires, and the Spaniards fled to Asunción. Thus, the city became the center of a large Spanish colonial province comprising part of Brazil, present-day Paraguay and northeastern Argentina: the Giant Province of the Indies( Dell Vostro 1520 battery). In 1603 Asunción was the seat of the First Synod of Asunción, which set guidelines for the evangelization of the natives in their lingua franca, Guaraní. Asunción at night In 1731, an uprising under José de Antequera y Castro was one of the first rebellions pene against Spanish colonial rule. The uprising failed, but it was the first sign of the independent spirit that was growing among the criollos, mestizos and natives of Paraguay( Dell Vostro 2510 battery). The event influenced the independence of Paraguay, which then materialised in 1811. The secret reunions between the independence leaders to plan an ambush against the Spanish Governor in Paraguay Bernardo de Velasco were held at the home of Juana María de Lara, in downtown Asunción. On the night of May 14 and May 15 the rebels succeeded and were able to force governor Velasco to surrender( Dell Vostro 1014 battery). Today, Lara's home is known as Casa de la Independencia (House of the Independence) and serves as a museum and historical building. After Paraguay became independent, there was significant change in Asunción. Under the presidency of Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia roads were built throughout the city and the streets were named. However, it was during the presidency of Carlos Antonio López that Asunción (and Paraguay) progressed, as the new president implemented new economic policies( Dell Inspiron 1410 battery). More than 400 schools, metallurgic factories and the first railroad service in South America were built during the López presidency. After López died, his son Francisco Solano López became the new president and led the country through the disastrous Paraguayan War that lasted for five years. After the end of the armed conflict, Asunción was occupied by Brazilian troops until 1876( Dell Vostro 1015 battery). Many historians have claimed that this war provoked a steady downfall of the city and country, since it massacred two thirds of the country's population. Progress slowed down greatly afterwards, and the economy remained stagnated. After the Paraguayan War, Asunción began a slow recovery attempt. Towards the end of the 19th Century and during the early years of the 20th Century( Dell Inspiron 1088 battery), a flow of immigrants from Europe and the Ottoman Empire came to the city. This led to a change in the appearance of the city as many new buildings were built and Asunción went through an era more prosperous than any since the war. The population is approximately 540,000 people in the city proper.[1] Roughly 30% of Paraguay's 6 million people live within Greater Asunción. Sixty-five percent of the total population in the city are under the age of 30. ( Dell Vostro A840 battery) The population has increased greatly during the last few decades as a consequence of internal migration from other Departments of Paraguay, at first because of the economic boom in the 1970s, and later because of economic recession in the countryside. The adjacent cities in the Gran Asunción area, such as Luque, Lambaré, San Lorenzo( SONY PCG-5G2L battery), Fernando de la Mora and Mariano Roque Alonso, have absorbed most of this influx due to the low cost of the land and easy access to Asunción. The city has ranked as the least expensive city to live in for five years running by Mercer Human Resource Consulting. Most of the population of Asunción professes the Catholic religion. But in Paraguay's capital there are also places of worship of other Christian denominations including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as well as other religions including Islam, Buddhism and Judaism( SONY PCG-5G3L battery). The main language spoken is Spanish (56,9%), Guaraní language is spoken by (11,1%), the (27,4%) of the population speaks Jopará, which is a positive dialect of mixing (pidgin) from Spanish to Guaraní. Other languages show a presence of 4.5% in the population. 6 districts of the city of Asunción Asunción is organized geographically into districts and these in turn bring together the different neighborhoods( SONY PCG-5J1L battery). Geography The Mariscal Lopez Avenue, one of the largest in the city Asunción is located between the parallels 25° 15' and 25° 20' of south latitude and between the meridians 57° 40' and 57° 30' of west longitude. The city sits on the left bank of the Paraguay River, almost at the confluence of this river with the River Pilcomayo. The Paraguay River and the Bay of Asunción in the northwest separate the city from the Occidental Region of Paraguay and Argentina in the south part of the city( SONY PCG-5J2L battery). The rest of the city is surrounded by the Central Department. With its location along the Paraguay River, the city offers many landscapes; it spreads out over gentle hills in a pattern of rectangular blocks. Places such as Cerro Lambaré, a hill located in Lambaré, offer a spectacular show in the springtime because of the blossoming lapacho trees in the area. Parks such as Parque Independencia and Parque Carlos Antonio López offer large areas of typical Paraguayan vegetation and are frequented by tourists( SONY PCG-5K2L battery). There are several small hills and slightly elevated areas throughout the city, including Cabará, Clavel, Tarumá, Cachinga, and Tacumbú, among others. Asunción has a borderline humid subtropical and tropical climate, characterized by hot, humid summers and mild winters. Relative humidity is high in the summer, so the heat index is higher than the true air temperature.[citation needed] The average annual temperature is 23 °C (74°F). The average annual precipitation is 1,400 mm (55 in), distributed in 83 days yearly( SONY PCG-5L1L battery). Asunción generally has a very short dry season that only covers the month of July and a wet season that covers the remainder of the year. The climate of Asunción can be described as hot and humid for most of the year. During the wet season, Asunción is generally hot and humid though towards the end of this season( SONY PCG-6S2L battery), it becomes noticeably cooler. In contrast, Asunción's dry season is pleasantly mild. Asuncion's annual precipatation values observe a summer maximum, due to severe subtropical summer thunderstorms which travel southward from northern Paraguay, originating in the Gran Chaco region of the northwestern part of the country. The wettest and driest months of the year are April and July respectively( SONY PCG-6S3L battery). receiving 166 mm (6.54 in) and 39 mm (1.54 in) of average total monthly precipitation respectively. Schools See also: List of high schools in Asunción The city has a large number of both public and private schools. The best-known public schools are the Colegio Nacional de la Capital (which is one of the oldest schools in the city, founded in 1877), Colegio Nacional Presidente Franco and Colegio Nacional Asunción Escalada. The best-known private schools are Colegio Inmaculado Corazón de María, Salesianito( SONY PCG-6V1L battery), Colegio Cristo Rey, Colegio Internacional, Colegio San José, Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola, Colegio Santa Teresa de Jesús, American School of Asunción, Colegio Dante Alighieri, Colegio Santa Clara, Colegio Campoalto, Colegio Goethe and Colegio de la Asunción. Universidad Americana The main universities in the city are the Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (private Catholic university) and the Universidad Nacional de Asunción (state-run) ( SONY PCG-6W1L battery). The Católica has a small campus in the downtown area next to the Cathedral and a larger campus in the Santa Ana neighborhood, outwards toward the adjoining city of Lambaré, while the Universidad Nacional has its main campus in the city of San Lorenzo, some 5 km (3 mi) eastward from Asunción. There are also a number of smaller privately run universities such as Uninorte( SONY PCG-7111L battery), Universidad Americana and Universidad Autónoma de Asunción, among others. In terms of commerce, this sector has grown considerably in recent years stretching towards the suburbs where shopping malls and supermarkets have been built. Paraguay's only stock exchange, the BVPASA, is located here. The city itself is listed on it, as BVPASA: MUA. In Asuncion, the most important companies, businesses and investment groups are headquartered( SONY PCG-71511M battery). This city is the economic center of Paraguay, followed by Ciudad del Este and Encarnación. The distribution of the economically active population varies across economic sectors and indicates that this population is principally involved in the tertiary sector (trade and services), taking up to 8 out of 10 individuals. The secondary sector (industry and construction) accounts for 16% of the economically active, while the share in the primary sector (agriculture) is negligible( SONY PCG-6W3L battery), since Assumption is a strictly urban area.[citation needed] On trade, this area has developed considerably in recent years, moving from the historic center to the suburbs, where they extend shopping, shopping and business trips.[citation needed] Major international banks have their headquarters in the capital, among them we find Citibank, Itau Bank, HSBC, BBVA, etc. While among the Paraguayan capital banks are the National Development Bank, Family Bank( SONY PCG-7133L battery), Bank Amambay, Regional Bank, the Bank Vision, etc.26 At the same time, the Central Bank of Paraguay has its headquarters in this city. Municipal expenditures budgeted and executed in Asunción totaled $ 544 441 in 2008. Of this amount $ 408 364 were executed, the balance of $ 136 077 was transferred the next year presupuestario.28 surveys have been conducted in 144 cities on the planet to find out the cheapest for foreign staff( SONY PCG-7Z1L battery). The survey revealed that Asuncion is the cheapest and support rigorously the title for the fifth consecutive year. Transportation Because the Paraguay River runs right next to Asunción the city is served by a river terminal in the downtown area. This port is strategically located inside a bay and it is where most freight enters and leaves the country. There is a lesser terminal in the Sajonia neighbourhood, and a shuttle port in Ita Enramada, almost opposite the Argentine city of Clorinda( SONY PCG-7Z2L battery) . Main access roads Public transportation is used heavily and is served through buses that reach all the regions of the city and surrounding dormitory communities. The main long-distance bus terminal is on the Avenida República Argentina and its bus services connect all of the Departments of Paraguay, as well as international routes to nearby countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia and Uruguay( SONY PCG-8Y1L battery). Silvio Pettirossi International Airport Silvio Pettirossi International Airport (IATA: ASU, ICAO: SGAS) is Paraguay's main national and international gateway, located at Luque, suburb of the capital Asunción. Tourist attractions Traditional buildings in Calle Palma The Lopez Presidential Palace The city is home to the Godoi Museum, the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (which contains old paintings from the 19th century), the Church of La Encarnación, the Metropolitan Cathedral and the National Pantheon of the Heroes( SONY PCG-8Y2L battery), a smaller version of Les Invalides in Paris, where many of the nation's heroes are entombed. Other landmarks include the Palacio de los López, the old Senate building (a modern building opened to house Congress in 2003) and the Casa de la Independencia (one of the few examples of colonial architecture remaining in the city) ( SONY PCG-8Z2L battery). Calle Palma is the main street downtown where several historical buildings, plazas, shops, restaurants and cafes are located. The "Manzana de la Rivera", located in front of the Presidential Palace, is a series of old traditional homes that have been restored and serve as a museum showcasing the architectural evolution of the city. The old railway station maintains the old trains that now are used in tourist trips to the cities of Luque and Areguá( SONY PCG-8Z1L battery). For more details on this topic, see rail transport in Paraguay. Asunción also has luxurious malls that contain shops selling well-known brands. The biggest shopping malls are Shopping del Sol; Mariscal López Shopping, Shopping Villa Morra in the central part of the city, and the Mall Excelsior downtown. Football is the main sport in Paraguay, and Asunción is home to some of the most important and traditional soccer teams like Olimpia, Cerro Porteño and Club Libertad( SONY PCG-7112L battery), Club Nacional, Club Guaraní, Club Sol de América, which have their own stadiums and sport facilities for affiliated members. The Defensores del Chaco stadium is the main football stadium of the country and is located in the neighbourhood of Sajonia, just a few minutes away from the centre of Asunción. Since it is a national stadium sometimes it is used for other activities such as rock concerts. Asunción is also the heart of Paraguayan rugby union( SONY PCG-6W2L battery). The nightlife revolves around two areas: one in the downtown part of the city and the other in the neighbourhoods of Manora and Las Carmelitas, a night full of nightclubs and bars. Metropolitan Cathedral Asunción also hosts several symphony orchestras, and ballet, opera and theater companies. The most well known orchestras are the City of Asunción's Symphony Orchestra (OSCA), the National Symphony Orchestra and the Northern University Symphony Orchestra( SONY PCG-5K1L battery). Among professional ballet companies, most renowned are the Asunción Classic and Modern Municipal Ballet, the National Ballet and the Northern University Ballet. The main opera company is the Northern University Opera Company. A long-standing theater company is Arlequín Theater Foundation's. Traditional venues include the Municipal Theater, the Paraguayan-Japanese Center, the Central Bank's Great Lyric Theater( SONY VGP-BPS9 battery), the Juan de Salazar Cultural Center, the Americas Theater, the Tom Jobim Theater, the Arlequín Theater and the Manzana de la Rivera. The 7 treasures of cultural heritage material of Asunción The choice of the seven treasures of cultural heritage material has been developed Asunción during the months of April and May 2009. Promoted by the "Organización Capital Americana de la Cultura", with the collaboration of the Paraguayan authorities participating in the election was carried out with the intention to disclose the material cultural heritage of Assumption( SONY VGP-BPS9/S battery). A total of 45 candidates have chosen to become one of the treasures of cultural heritage material Assumption. The result of the vote, which involved 12,417 people, is as follows: Newspapers The most read newspapers are: Diario ABC Color, Diario Popular, Diario La Nación, Diario Última Hora and Diario Crónica. But the most successful are: Diario Popular and Diario ABC Color( SONY VGP-BPS9A battery). National TV Channels The National TV Channels are: SNT Cerro Corá, Red Guaraní, Telefuturo, Paravisión, Canal 13, La Tele(Paraguay) and TV Pública (Paraguay).
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